INDUSTRIAL
INSTRUMENTATION I
Dr.Koena Mukherjee
Asst. Professor
E&I Department
Temperature measurement
Temperature measurement
◻ Temperature is the measure of average molecular kinetic
energy within a substance.
◻ In practical aspects, the temperature is gauged by its effect on
quantities such as volume, pressure, electrical resistance and
radiant energy.
◻ There are a wide variety of temperature measurement probes
in use today depending on what you are trying to measure,
how accurately you need to measure it, if you need to use it
for control or just man monitoring
Temperature
The relationship between average kinetic energy (Ek) and
temperature (T) for a monatomic (single-atom molecule)
gas:
Ek = 3kT/2
Where,
Ek = Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules (joules)
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 × 10-23 joules/Kelvin)
T = Absolute temperature of gas (Kelvin)
Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is the quantity of total kinetic energy
for this random molecular motion.
Ethermal = 3NkT/2
total number of molecules (N)
in the gas sample
Heat is defined as the exchange of thermal energy from one sample to
another, by way of
conduction (direct contact), convection (transfer via a moving fluid), or
radiation (emitted energy)
Types of Temperature Sensor
◻ The temperature sensing devices working on these
techniques are classified in the following categories
1. Changes in physical dimension and gas/vapour
pressures: Thermometers
2. Changes in electrical properties:
I. Resistance temperature detectors (RTD),
II. Thermistors,
III. Thermocouples,
IV. Semiconductor sensors
3. Changes in thermal radiation: Pyrometers
Types of Temperature Sensor
◻ Among all the devices, the electrical temperature sensors
are mostly used particularly when automatic/remote
recording is desired.
◻ Radiant sensors are used for noncontact temperature
sensing, either in high temperature applications (combustors)
or for infrared sensing at low temperatures. These are optical
devices and can be adapted to whole-field temperature
measurements known as thermal imaging.
◻ The most familiar type of temperature sensing device is the
thermometer that appears in laboratories and households
because of its ease in use and low cost.
Mechanical thermometers
(filled systems, metallic expansion
Therm
ometer
Classification of thermometers
◻ Class I
◻ Class II
◻ Class III
◻ Class IV
◻ Class V
Class I and Class V systems use a liquid fill fluid (class V is mercury)
Class II, which uses a volatile liquid/vapor combination to generate a temperature-dependent fluid
expansion
Class III (gas-filled)
First Thermometer & its drawback
◻ Thermometers are the oldest of the group. The
need to measure and quantify the temperature
of something started around 150 A.D.
◻ A bulb containing air with long vertical tube was
inverted and dipped into a basin of water or
coloured liquid. With the change in temperature
of the bulb, the gas inside expanded or
contracted, thus changing the level of the liquid
column inside the vertical tube.
◻ A major drawback of the instrument was that it
was sensitive not only to variation of
temperature, but also to atmospheric pressure
variation.
Scales
◻ An instrument maker, Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit learned to calibrate
thermometers from Ole Romer, a Danish
astronomer.
◻ Fahrenheit greatly improved the
thermometer by changing the reservoir
to a cylinder and replaced the spirits
used in the early devices with mercury.
This was done because mercury had a
nearly linear rate of thermal expansion.
◻ Since the properties of fluids, and in
particular, mercury are well known, the
only limitation to accuracy and
resolution come in the form of how
well you can manufacture a glass tube
Thermometer Ranges and accuracy
◻ Clinical thermometer: For older children and adults, oral
readings are usually accurate — as long as the mouth is closed while
the thermometer is in place.
◻ Thermometer Accuracy: Wait for about three minutes before
inserting the sensor on the thermometer into the ice-filled water.
Wait for about thirty seconds and check that the thermometer
reads 32°F. If it does, then it is accurate, but if not, it requires
calibration.
Bi-metal temperature sensors
Solids tend to expand when heated.
The amount that a solid sample will expand with
increased temperature depends on the
1.size of the sample,
2.the material it is made of,
3. the amount of temperature rise.
Temperature coefficient
Here are some typical values of α for common metals:
• Aluminum = 25 × 10-6 per degree C
• Copper = 16.6 × 10-6 per degree C
• Iron = 12 × 10-6 per degree C
• Tin = 20 × 10-6 per degree C
• Titanium = 8.5 × 10-6 per degree C
Why not only thermometer
◻ The purpose of early thermometers was to measure
the variation of atmospheric or body temperatures.
◻ With the advancement of science and technology,
now we require temperature measurement over a
wide range and different atmospheric conditions,
and that too with high accuracy and precision.
◻ temperature sensors based on different principles
have been developed.
Electrical type devices
Thermocouple
Thermocouples(T/C)
Seebeck Effect
18
Thermocouples
Seebeck Voltage
19
Cu
DVM
Cu Hot-junction, at Th ºC
Cold-junction at Tc ºC
Thermocouples
The Seebeck Coefficient
20
• The open-loop voltage eAB developed by the
T/C depends on the temperature difference
between the hot-junction(Th) and the cold
junction(Tc), and the Seebeck Coefficient for the
pair of metal A & B.
• eAB = α ΔT where ΔT = Th -Tc
Thermocouples
The Peltier Effect
21
• It is the reverse of Seebeck effect.
•an effect whereby heat is given out or absorbed
when an electric current passes across a junction
between two materials.
•Peltier effect is used in thermo-electric fridges/
heaters (Peltier cooling/heating).
Thermocouples
The Thomson Effect
22
• It occurs due to a temperature gradient
occuring in a single homogenous wire.
T1 T2 T1
T1 < T2 conductor
P1 Thermal gradients P2 Heat is rejected when
Heat is absorbed when the external current is
the external current is against the heat
against the heat T1-ΔT T2 T1 +ΔT
gradient
gradient
P1 P2
Direction of external
current Thermocouples
Thermocouple Standards
24
Standards
• American ANSI MC96.1
• British BS 1843
• German DIN 43713/4
• IEC 584-3: 1989
Thermocouples
Types of Thermocouples
25
• Base Metal thermocouples
• Noble Metal thermocouples
• Refractory thermocouples
Thermocouples
Base Metal thermocouples
ANSI
26
Chromel (Ni 90%, Cr 10%)
Type E Constantan (Ni 94%;Mn3%;Al 2%;Si 1%)
ANSI Iron
Type J Constantan(Cu 57%;Ni 43%)
ANSI Chromel (Ni 90%, Cr 10%)
Type K Alumel (Ni 94%;Mn3%;Al 2%;Si 1%)
ANSI Copper
Type T Constantan (Cu 57%;Ni 43%)
Type N Nicrosil (Cr 14.4%, Si 1.4%, Mg 0.1%, bal Ni)
Nisil (Si 4.2%, Mg 0.1 % , bal Ni)
Thermocouples
Noble Metal /Special thermocouples
27
ANSI Platinum-13% Rhodium
Type R Pure Platinum
ANSI Platinum-13% Rhodium Platinum-
Type B 6% Rhodium
ANSI Platinum-10% Rhodium Pure
Type S Platinum
Type C Tungsten - 5% Rhenium
Tungsten -26% Rhenium
Type G Tungsten
Tungsten -26% Rhenium
Type D Tungsten - 3% Rhenium
Tungsten -25%Thermocouples
Rhenium
28
Seebeck Coefficients at 20 ºC
•The seebeck-coefficients for practical thermocouples is
given below:
Thermocouples
Seebeck Coefficient as a function
29 of temperature
Thermocouples
Thermocouple Ranges
30 (Base Metal)
ANSI Type T -200 to +350 ºC
ANSI Type J 0 to +750 ºC
ANSI Type E -200 to +900 ºC
ANSI Type K -200 to +1250 ºC
Thermocouples
Thermocouple Ranges
31 (Noble Metal)
ANSI Type S 0 to +1450 ºC
ANSI Type R 0 to +1450 ºC
ANSI Type B 0 to + 1700 ºC
Thermocouples
Thermocouple Ranges
32 (Refractory T/Cs)
Type C 0 to
+2320 ºC
Type G 0 to
+2320 ºC
Type D 0 to +
2320 ºC
Refractory Metal Thermocouples are manufactured with wire that is made from the exotic
metals tungsten and Rhenium.
These metals are expensive, difficult to manufacture and wires made with these metals are
very brittle.
These thermocouples are intended to be used in vacuum furnaces at extremely high
temperatures and must never be used in the presence of oxygen at temperatures above
Thermocouples
300°C.
