TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
1.Expansion Thermometer
These thermometers work on the principle of dimensional changes. Increase
in length of metals corresponding to temperature Change in length is quite
small. So some scheme are used to magnify the change in length as under
i. Constant –Volume gas Thermometer
These thermometers employ helium below 32°F, hydrogen below 32 and
212°F, and nitrogen below 212°F. The gas is maintained at constant volume,
and, by the ideal-gas law, the pressure is directly proportional to
temperature
ii. Mercury-in –Glass Thermometer
Mercury in glass thermometer is an example of a filled thermometer that
works on the expansion principle.The volume coefficient of expansion of
mercury is about eight times that of glass. Due to the difference in
coefficient, the mercury rises up the capillary in the stem to indicate
temperature.
In the industrial mercury –in-glass thermometer a thermal well is provided
for the purposes of preventing breakage and providing a sealing means at
the point of installation. It is generally of brass or steel, although cast iron,
Monel, stainless steal, and aluminum are sometimes used. For use in ovens
and air ducts, perforated metal guards are employed for protection against
breakage.
2. Bimetallic thermometer
It measures temperature by means of the differential thermal expansion of
two metals. The bimetallic strip consists of a bonded composite of two
metals. One of the metals is usually a Copper alloy and the other Invar, a
Nickel steel with low thermal expansion coefficient. A temperature change
will cause the bimetallic strip to deflect and this deflection can be related
quantitatively to the temperature change. The deflection with temperature is
nearly linear, depending mainly on the coefficients of linear thermal
expansion.
Thermocouples
In a thermocouple two dissimilar thermo elements so joined as to
produce a thermal emf, when measuring and reference junctions are
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Measuring junction
Measuring Junction is that junction of Thermocouple which is subjected to the
temperature to be measured.
Reference junction
Reference Junction is that junction of Thermocouple which is at the known
temperature or which automatically compensated for its temperature.
The desirable properties of thermocouples for industrial use are:
Relative large thermal emf.
Precision of calibration.
Resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
Linear relation of emf to resistance.
The five most commonly used thermocouples are:
Copper-Constantan
Iron-Constantan
Chromel-Alumel
Platinum-platinum, 13% rhodium.
Platinum- platinum, 10% rhodium.
Thermal wells
For the protection of thermocouples, thermal wells are provided, which
generally are made in the form of a tube with a closed end installed. The
thermocouple is inserted inside the tube.
The mechanical properties, which must be considered in the selection of a
thermal well, are:
Resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
Resistance to mechanical shock
Resistance to thermal shock
Resistance to gas leakage
Mechanical strength
The materials used for thermal wells are, Platinum, firebrick, Mullite, silicon
carbide, calorized iron and Nichrome.
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Thermocouple comparison Table
Millivolts Less
ISA Type Positive Negative Recommended Scale Atm Environ Favourable
per Favourable
Designation Wire Wire Temp Deg. F Linearity Recommended Points
Deg.F Points
Numbers=Percentage Min Max
Same as for
Pt70- .0003- Inert or slow
B Pt94-Rh6 32 3380 type R __ __
RH30 .006 oxidizing
couple
Larger Drift
Highest than other
E Chromel Constantan .015-.042 -320 1830 Good Oxidizing
emf/Deg F base metal
couples
Good;
nearly Most
J Iron Constantan .014-.035 -320 1400 Reducing __
linear from Economical
300-800
Good; most More
K Chromel Alumel .009-.024 -310 2500 linear of all Oxidizing Most linear expensive
T/C than T & J
Good at
Small size, More
high temps.
R Pt87-Rh13 Platinum .003-.008 0 3100 Oxidizing fast expensive
Poor below
response than Type K
1000 Deg F
Good at
Small size, More
Pt90 - high temps.
S Platinum .003-.007 0 3200 Oxidizing fast expensive
Rh10 Poor below
response than Type K
1000 Deg F
Good resis.
Good but
.008 - Oxidizing or To corrosion Limited
T Copper Constantan -310 750 crowed at
.035 reducing from temp
low end
moisture
Not
.022 - About same
Y Iron Constantan -200 1800 Reducing - industrial
.033 as J type
standard
Resistance thermometers
The resistance thermometer operates from the change of electrical resistance
of a substance with temperature. Usually this substance is a metal, (whose
resistance increases with temperature) but nonmetallic materials called
semiconductors have also been used. The industrial resistance thermometers
nearly always employs platinum, copper, or nickel. A material suitable for use
as a resistance-thermometer element should have, first a continuous and
stable relationship between résistance and temperature, and, second, a
relatively high thermal coefficient of resistance.
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Resistance-temperature characteristics of metal can be expressed as
R = Ro(1+λT)
R = resistance, ohms
Ro = resistance, ohms at 0°C
T = temperature, °C
λ = constant
Common materials used for resistance thermometers are given below-
Material Range
Platinum -260 to 1000 0C
Copper -200 to 260 0C
Nickel & Balco -100 to 230 0C
(70% Ni / 30% Fe)
Tungsten -100 to 2500 0C
Thermistors
Thermistors are simply resistive elements. These are available with -ve or
+ve coefficients. -ve temperature coefficient thermistors are used for
temperature sensing. Thermistors are commercially available in the form of
beads, rods, and flakes.
The -ve resistance-temperature relationship can be expressed as
(1/T-1/To)
R= Ro e
R = resistance at the temperature T
T= absolute temperature
Ro= resistance at T0
= material constant
Radiation Temperature Measurement
Radiation –temperature –measuring devices are used primarily for
temperatures above 2000°F.
But radiation means of temperature measurement may be used at low
temperatures as long as a sufficiently sensitive element is employed to
detect the small amounts of radiation.
In radiation –temperature-measuring devices, three types of pyrometers are
used
1. Radiation Pyrometers
A radiation pyrometer is a no contact instrument that measures the el
radiation energy emitted from a body and infers its temperature from the
detected radiation.
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2. Optical Pyrometer
In optical pyrometer we measure the spectral radiant intensity of the
radiated energy from a heated body at a given wavelength to measure the
temperature of the heated body.
3. Photoelectric Pyrometer
Photoelectric methods possess great advantages in speed, since the response
of a photosensitive cell to radiation is immediate. In photoelectric
pyrometers, a photovoltaic cell directly produces an emf proportional to the
amount of radiation received.
APPROXIMATE RANGE AND ACCURACY OF VARIOUS
TEMP.MEASURING ELEMENTS
Type Range Deg F Accuracy Deg F
GLASS THERMOMETER
MERCURY FILLED -38 TO 760 0.5 to 2
MERCURY AND NITROGEN FILLED -38 TO 1000 0.5 to 10
ALCOHAL FILLED -95 TO 150 1 to 2
PRESURE - GAUGE THERMOMETERS
VAPOUR - PRESSURE TYPE 20 TO 400 2 to 10
LIQUID OR GAS FILLED -200 TO 1000 2 to 10
BIMETALLIC THERMOMETER -100 TO 2000 0.5 to 25
THERMOCOUPLES
BASE MATEL -300 TO 2000 0.5 to 20
PRECIOUS METAL -300 TO 2800 0.5 to 20
RESISTANCE THERMOMETER -400 TO 1800 0.005 to 5
THERMISTORS -150 TO 500 Depends upon aging
PYROMETERS
OPTICAL 1400 UP 20 to black body conditions
RADIATION 1000 UP 20 to 30 black body conditions
FUSION 1100 TO 3600 as low as 20 or 30 under optimum conditions
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