METHODS & APPROACHES

KEY APPROACHES:

1. Monastery and marketplace tradition

Grammar-based and academic – monastery

Languages learnt for the purpose of trade – marketplace

2. Grammar Translation

19th century
Based on the teaching of classical languages (Latin, Greek)
Rules before examples: deductive approach

3. The Direct Method

1880s

Basic principles:

 The teaching is all in the target language

 There is an emphasis on speaking

Speaking was reified, with lots of repetition (similar to individual drills), Q&A sessions
and retelling stories. The first stages should focus exclusively on pronunciation (the
phonetic alphabet)

4. SLA Debates

1950s-1960s

 Behaviourist Theory (BF Skinner): Language is acquired behaviour

Language is acquired through hearing utterances, then repeating and
imitating them ourselves; positive and negative reinforcement needed to
progress

 Innatist Theory (Noam Chomsky): Language is innate

Language develops in the same way as other biological functions, such as
walking; we must, therefore, possess an inbuilt ability to acquire language,
and acquire it correctly, whatever the quality of the input we receive; progress
through hypothesising, trial and error and creativity

 Cognitive-Developmentalist Theory (Piaget and Vygotsky): Language is

innate, but not separate from other mental developments
 Language emerges when our own physical and emotional development
reaches a stage where language is required; as we develop, we are aware of
more complex concepts, and so need the language to express these
Language acquisition grows from language use; embedded in the
experiences of its users

5. Audiolingualism

1950s

Also known as the Army Method, or the G.I. Method

Developed out of the Direct Method

Principles:

 Language should be treated inductively

 Language should be tightly controlled so that there is no room for errors

 Language should be presented in natural situations

 Language is a question of habit formation

 Practice makes perfect

 Use of contrastive language analysis and carefully designed materials to

address the differences

 Heavy influence of structural, i.e., rule-based, linguistics

6. The Natural Approach and the Listening Approach

1980s
Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen

A shift towards more humanistic approaches, which aim to involve the ‘whole’
person in the learning process

The Natural Approach: Focus on context, and on the complexity of the learning
process
Imitates the language acquisition process by children
‘The Right to Silence’ / Silent Period: speaking should arise as and when the learner
wishes to communicate

The Listening Approach: exposure of the learner to ‘comprehensible input’ (based on

Krashenite ideas)
 The five hypotheses promoting effective learning:

 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:

Acquisition is rough-tuned and unconscious, and used to communicate
messages it is not consciously attended to – ✘
Learning, however, is very fine-tuned and refers to a learner’s knowledge of
rules and their ability to talk about them – ✓

 The Natural Order Hypothesis:

This states that there is an order in which structures are acquired by learners,
irrespective of L1, aptitude or age
Ex: -ing as progressive form -> plurals -> to be -> etc.

 The Monitor Hypothesis:

Sometimes, when we communicate spontaneously in L2, we want to get our
message across and accuracy is sacrificed. At other times, we may wish to
be much more accurate (e.g., when writing a formal letter). In the latter case,
we employ our Monitor, a kind of accuracy-focus device, to scrutinise our
output and make it as accurate as possible.

 The Input Hypothesis:

This does not necessarily mean everything is comprehended, but the learner
should be constantly exposed to reading and listening and this is most
beneficial if it is a notch or two above the learner’s level

 The Affective Filter Hypothesis:

The student will learn better is s/he feels well-disposed to the language and to
the learning process. In such cases their Affective Filter is low, and so more
input can wash over them. If the filter is high, there is a negative attitude to
the language, stress, linguistic difficulties, etc., the filter will be high and so
little if any input will be attended to.

7. The Communicative Approach / CLT

Aka the Notional-Functional Approach, or simply the Functional Approach

1980s

Language exponents should be taught in meaningful contexts and divided according

to the notions (topics) they express (e.g., weather, time, location) and the function
they perform in communication (e.g., apologising, greeting, expressing gratitude)

Types:
 - Strong / deep-end / pure
The language needs no overt focus and that linguistic competence develops
naturally out of focussing on communication through skill work

- Weak / shallow end

Overt focus on form is vital but it should lead to focus on meaning through some
kind of communicative, meaningful activity

The elements of CLT:

 Based on the Cognitive-Mentalist model

We acquire language through hypothesis, trial and error, through making
mistakes, etc.

 Notional-functional-structural approach to language description

Notions are similar to topics, e.g., health
Functions are the jobs that language does, e.g., describing complaints,
sympathising, advising
Structures are the language used to communicate about these functions and
topics, e.g., If I were you…, Why don’t you…?, Have you tried…?

 Educational philosophy
learner-centredness, creativity, focus on fluency rather than accuracy,
pair/group work, fun

OTHER APPROACHES

1. Humanistic Approaches

- Suggestopaedia (aka Desuggestopaedia)

By Lozanov in 1970s
Aims to dissuade the student from thinking that language learning is difficult
Used atmosphere of relaxation, low lights, sonorous, almost singsongs readings
of texts by the teacher perhaps to a background of music, games, role-plays,
etc.; the actual learning process will be ‘peripheral’ to everything else that is
happening in the classroom

- Total Physical Response (TPR)

By James Asher
Based primarily on the doing of enjoyable actions in the classroom in response to
 teacher directions, and later directions from the students themselves; it’s kinetic,
fun and lends itself best to YLs and lower levels

- The Silent Way

By Caleb Gattegno
Based on the assumption that ‘teaching should be subordinated to learning
The teacher is busy throughout but not talkative; they draw language out of the
SS with the help of coloured pronunciation charts (Fidel Charts) and Cuisenaire
rods (rods of different length and colour that represent various areas of
language); SS correct one another under the aegis of the teacher

- Community Language Learning (CLL)

SS sit around a voice recorder and are themselves in charge of the recording
procedure – they build up a tape recording together. L1 can be used but the
teacher will translate or make suggestions before the utterance is recorded.
Gradually, an improvised conversation is built up. When it is long enough, SS
listen to it. It is then written on the board with special features underlined,
problems translated, etc.

- Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP)

Has a more comprehensive view of the role of psychology, in its broadest sense,
in relation to language learning and whose emphasis is on learning, not teaching.
NLP means a methodology that is based on the world of the imagination, the
emotional, the kinaesthetic, the associative, the personal, the holistic and the
natural.

2. Task Based Learning or Task Based Approaches

Means language activities in which the focus is on the satisfactory completion of the
task, with whatever language the learners have to hand, rather than with any specific
language target. Perhaps, on completion of the task, a review as to what language
the SS had used could be done and the teacher may suggest some language that
might usefully have been used. Perhaps the learners could then do the task again
using the suggested language. In ‘weaker’ models of TBL language focus may be a
part of the lesson. The task can also be demonstrated to the learners (either
recorded or live).

3. The Lexical Approach

By Michael Lewis
Focuses on a different approach to language and its categorisation
4. Grammar as a Process / Grammaring

1990s-2000s; by Batstone, Diane Larson-Freeman, and Scott Thornbury

Grammar is not a product but a dynamic process. It is a ‘fifth skill’, that is the ability
to use grammatical structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately. Grammar
lessons are NOT about knowing language systems (declarative knowledge) which
regard grammar as an inert body of hard facts and rules – instead, it’s about
knowing how to use language (procedural knowledge) and what you do with the
language in real communicative situations. Text reconstruction / dictogloss is often
used. Both fluency and accuracy are equally important.

5. Dogme / Teaching Unplugged

By Scott Thornbury and Luke Meddings

Focus on emergent language arising from a conversation; naturalistic learning

conditions which move from fluency to accuracy

6. Flipped Classroom / Flip Teaching

Is a form of blended learning that is seen as a core part of the ‘EdTech agenda’.
Instructions are delivered to SS at home through self-study materials, and
‘homework’ element is moved to the classroom. The idea is that the knowledge
transmission aspect of a traditional lesson or lecture can be done more effectively
through self-study using various technological means, but typically involves videoing
lectures or lessons and making them available online. In this way, SS are able to
work at their own pace until they have grasped the essentials: what used to be
homework (assigned problems) is now done in the class with the teacher offering
more personalised guidance and interaction with SS.

Advantages:

 SS get more one-to-one time with their teacher and this in turn builds teacher-
student relationship

 Posting materials online allows teachers to easily share information with other
faculties, substitute teachers, SS, parents and the community

 It allows SS to catch up on missed lessons, as well as work at their own pace

 It creates a collaborative learning environment in the classroom since more

time is spent engaging with the concepts being learned rather than sitting
listening to the teacher
  SS get instant feedback on practice activities and if they encounter difficulties
with their ‘homework’ they have a teacher, as well as the other SS, on hand to
assist

 SS can build a list of questions as they watch the online material and bring
them in to class for the teacher to go through with them

7. Demand High Teaching

By Jim Scrivener and Adrian Underhill in 2012

Learners are capable of much more than they are often asked and the tasks and
techniques used in class become rituals and ends in themselves. Teachers should
do less ‘covering’ of material and instead focus on the potential for ‘deep learning’.
This is achieved through teachers making ‘small tweaks and adjustments’ to their
existing classroom practice, changes which result in getting greater depth of tangible
engagement and learning which shifts an activity into the ‘challenge zone’.

8. Principled Eclecticism

Aka the Magpie Approach

Teachers choose an eclectic variety of techniques and activities from different

methodologies and approaches. But the key factor is that the choices are made for
principled reasons, i.e., the teacher understands how these choices are of benefit to
the learners and the learning process.