10

Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This section contains selected materials related to the study retrieve and

presented to explain further the variable and indicators presented, to provide the

researchers sufficient background and framework analysis.

Related Studies

According to Findik (2013), New developments in material science and its

technologies find their best implementation areas in aircraft and space vehicles.

Since the beginning of the powered flight, weight of airframes and systems are

needed to be reduced. They are developed and built by light, durable and

affordable materials through highly disciplined design, development, test and

certification as well as manufacturing processes.

Besides airframes, engineers are challenged to develop more efficient

engines; both by reducing their weights and improving their aero-

thermodynamic properties, sustaining higher operational and safety reliabilities

along with complying stringent emission and noise restrictions. These conditions

are increasing the demand for the development and the utilization of advanced

lighter, stronger and durable materials and alloys, ceramic coatings and relevant

manufacturing processes. In this study, current trends and future expectations

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 11

from material technologies in general; for accomplishing higher expectations for

future lighter airframes, aircraft systems and engines, are reviewed.

According to Vance & Boyne (2000), Aircraft made of wood and fabric

were difficult to maintain and subject to rapid deterioration when left out in the

elements. This, plus the need for greater strength, led to the use of metal in an

aircraft. The first general use was in World War I; it is when the Fokker aircraft

company used welded steel tube fuselages, and the Junkers company made all-

metal aircraft of dual tubing and aluminum covering. During the period from

1919 through 1934, there was a gradual trend to all-metal construction, with

some aircraft having all-metal (almost always of aluminum or aluminum alloy)

structures with fabric-covered surfaces, and others using an all-metal monocoque

construction. Metal is stronger and more durable than fabric and wood, and, as

the necessary manufacturing skills were developed, its use enabled airplanes to

be both lighter and easier to build. On the negative side, metal structures were

subject to corrosion and metal fatigue, and new procedures were developed to

protect against these hazards. A wide variety of aluminum alloys were

developed, and exotic metals like molybdenum and titanium were brought into

use, especially in vehicles where extreme strength or extraordinary thermal

resistance was a requirement.

According to Wasmi (2010), A materials engineer or mechanical engineer

would be involved with the complexity of the design and selection of metals and

alloys used in a high-temperature, aggressive environment. Airplanes industry

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 12

has witnessed great developments to endure huge loads, reduce the costs and

increase the security factors. This research has focused on the nature of raw

materials that used in the airplane components. These materials either would be

alloys or composites materials. The airplane is divided into ten parts. The

significant parts of an aircraft structure for the present study are the wings,

fuselage or hull, nose, tail, landing gear, pylon box, fuel tank, the engine and

screens. Generally, the external surfaces of the civil airplanes are made of

Aluminum alloys, while of the military airplanes are made of titanium alloys.

The internal parts of the plane have been made of iron alloys, while the engine

parts have been made of anti- temperature materials such as nickel alloys or

special alloys like in combustion chamber, nozzle and turbine, because these

parts have faced a high degree of temperature. The modern airplanes toward to

use composite materials in the body structure and airfoil such as graphite-epoxy

in Boeing 777, Kevlar-epoxy in Airbus A 320 and Nomex honeycomb in F-15

Military.

Related Literature

According to Mouritz (2012), material science and technology in aerospace

engineering is important, the materials used in the airframe structures and in the

get engine components are essential to an aircraft’s successful design,

construction, certification, operation, and maintenance. These materials have an

impact on the entire lifetime of an aircraft, from the initial design phase through

to manufacture and certification of the aircraft, to flight operations and

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 13

maintenance and, finally, to disposal at the end-of-life. Structural materials are

used in safety-critical airframe components such as the wings, fuselage,

empennage and landing gear of aircraft; the fuselage, tail boom and rotor blades

of helicopters; and the airframe, skins and thermal insulation tiles of spacecraft

such as the space shuttle.

The development of new materials and better utilization of existing materials

has been central to the advancement of aerospace engineering. Advances in

the structural performance, safety, fuel economy, speed, range and operating life

of aircraft has been reliant on improvements to the airframe and engine

materials. Aircraft materials have changed greatly in terms of mechanical

performance, durability, functionality and quality since the first powered flight

by the Wright Brothers in 1903. Furthermore, the criteria which are used to select

materials for aircraft have also changed over the past 100 years. The main

criteria for materials selection for the earliest aircraft (c. 1903–1920) was

minimum weight and maximum strength. The earliest aircraft were designed to

be light and strong; other design criteria such as cost, toughness and durability

were given less importance in the quest for high strength-to-weight. Many of the

criteria which are now critical in the choice of materials were not recognized as

important by the first generation of aircraft designers, and their goal was simply

to use materials that provided high strength for little weight. At the time the best

material to achieve the strength-to-weight requirement was wood.

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 14

Wood is considered a useful aircraft material due to its lightness, strength,

and toughness which is controlled by its structure and composition. It was the

material of choice for most earlier aircrafts because of its good strength-to-weight

ratio. Wood can also be crafted and shaped into spars and beams easier, which is

used for the fuselage, wings, and other structures of the aircraft. It is the most

used structural material used for aircrafts until the introduction of high-strength

aluminum and steel in the 1920s.

Wood is often used nowadays for small aircrafts rather than the

commercial and modern aircrafts of our generation. It is used in the spars, ribs,

longerons and stringers of the mainframe of several types of small aircrafts.

Sudden fracture of structural materials was one of the most common

causes of accidents in early aircraft. Materials for early aircraft were selected for

maximum strength and minimum weight, and their fracture resistance was not

an overriding consideration. Furthermore, the capability of materials to resist

cracking and sudden failure was not well understood in the design and

construction of these early aircraft. Many of the materials used in the earliest

aircraft, particularly wood, were prone to sudden fracture which gave the pilot

no opportunity to avoid crashing. The serious injuries and fatalities during the

first decades of powered flight forced engineers to consider fracture as a critical

factor in the safe design of aircraft structures and, later, jet engine components.

Damage tolerance and fracture resistance became key considerations in the

selection of aircraft materials following the de Havilland Comet jet airliner

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 15

accidents in the early 1950s. From this period, fracture toughness became a

critical property in the selection of materials for modern aircraft, and it is

considered just as important as other material properties such as stiffness and

strength. Aerospace engineers do not select a material based solely on its

strength qualities, but also consider the ability of a material to withstand damage

below a critical size (e.g. corrosion and fatigue cracks in metals or delamination

cracks in composites) without catastrophic failure.

According to Chawla (2012), Since the early 1960s, there has been an

increasing demand for materials that are stiffer and stronger yet lighter in fields

as diverse as aerospace, energy, and civil construction. The demands made on

materials for better overall performance are so great and diverse that no one

material can satisfy them. This naturally led to a resurgence of the ancient

concept of combining different materials in an integral-composite material to

satisfy the user requirements.

Such composite material systems result in a performance unattainable by

the individual constituents, and they offer the great advantage of a flexible

design; that is, one can, in principle, tailor-make the material as per specifications

of an optimum design. This is a much more powerful statement than it might

appear at first sight. It implies that, given the most efficient design of, say, an

aerospace structure, an automobile, a boat, or an electric motor, we can make a

composite material that meets the need.

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 16

A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
be involved with the
complexity of the
design and selection of
metals and alloys used in a
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 17

increase the security factors.

This research has focused on
the nature of raw materials
that used in
the airplane components.
These materials either
would be alloys or
composites materials. The
airplane is divided into ten
parts. The significant parts of
an aircraft structure for the
present study
are the wings, fuselage or
hull, nose, tail, landing gear,

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 18

pylon box, fuel tank, the

engine and screens.
Generally, the external
surfaces of the civil
airplanes are made of
Aluminum alloys, while of
the
military airplanes are made of
Titanium alloys. The internal
parts of the plane has been
made of iron
alloys , while the engine parts
has been made of anti-
temperature materials such as
Nickel alloys or
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 19

special alloys like in

combustion chamber ,
Nozzle and turbine, because
these parts have faced a
high degrees of temperature.
The modern airplanes toward
to use composite materials in
the body
structure and airfoil such
as graphite-epoxy in
Boeing 777, Kevlar-epoxy
in Airbus A 320 and
Nomex honey comb in F-15
Military. The calculation of

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 20

airplane weight of Boeing

777 and Boeing
787 is done in this study.
Results deal with the
weight calculation indicated
that the amount of
reduction in mass of Boeing
787 by using the composites
development in place of
alloys is 3.8 Tons
which is closest to that
declared by Boeing
Company.
A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 21

be involved with the

complexity of the
design and selection of
metals and alloys used in a
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
increase the security factors.
This research has focused on
the nature of raw materials
that used in
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 22

the airplane components.

These materials either
would be alloys or
composites materials. The
airplane is divided into ten
parts. The significant parts of
an aircraft structure for the
present study
are the wings, fuselage or
hull, nose, tail, landing gear,
pylon box, fuel tank, the
engine and screens.
Generally, the external
surfaces of the civil
airplanes are made of
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 23

Aluminum alloys, while of

the
military airplanes are made of
Titanium alloys. The internal
parts of the plane has been
made of iron
alloys , while the engine parts
has been made of anti-
temperature materials such as
Nickel alloys or
special alloys like in
combustion chamber ,
Nozzle and turbine, because
these parts have faced a

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 24

high degrees of temperature.

The modern airplanes toward
to use composite materials in
the body
structure and airfoil such
as graphite-epoxy in
Boeing 777, Kevlar-epoxy
in Airbus A 320 and
Nomex honey comb in F-15
Military. The calculation of
airplane weight of Boeing
777 and Boeing
787 is done in this study.
Results deal with the

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 25

weight calculation indicated

that the amount of
reduction in mass of Boeing
787 by using the composites
development in place of
alloys is 3.8 Tons
which is closest to that
declared by Boeing
Company.
A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
be involved with the
complexity of the
design and selection of
metals and alloys used in a
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 26

high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
increase the security factors.
This research has focused on
the nature of raw materials
that used in
the airplane components.
These materials either
would be alloys or
composites materials. The
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 27

airplane is divided into ten

parts. The significant parts of
an aircraft structure for the
present study
are the wings, fuselage or
hull, nose, tail, landing gear,
pylon box, fuel tank, the
engine and screens.
Generally, the external
surfaces of the civil
airplanes are made of
Aluminum alloys, while of
the
military airplanes are made of
Titanium alloys. The internal
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 28

parts of the plane has been

made of iron
alloys , while the engine parts
has been made of anti-
temperature materials such as
Nickel alloys or
special alloys like in
combustion chamber ,
Nozzle and turbine, because
these parts have faced a
high degrees of temperature.
The modern airplanes toward
to use composite materials in
the body

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 29

structure and airfoil such

as graphite-epoxy in
Boeing 777, Kevlar-epoxy
in Airbus A 320 and
Nomex honey comb in F-15
Military. The calculation of
airplane weight of Boeing
777 and Boeing
787 is done in this study.
Results deal with the
weight calculation indicated
that the amount of
reduction in mass of Boeing
787 by using the composites

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 30

development in place of
alloys is 3.8 Tons
which is closest to that
declared by Boeing
Company.
A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
be involved with the
complexity of the
design and selection of
metals and alloys used in a
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 31

developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
increase the security factors.
This research has focused on
the nature of raw materials
that used in
the airplane components.
These materials either
would be alloys or
composites materials. The
airplane is divided into ten
parts. The significant parts of
an aircraft structure for the
present study
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 32

are the wings, fuselage or

hull, nose, tail, landing gear,
pylon box, fuel tank, the
engine and screens.
Generally, the external
surfaces of the civil
airplanes are made of
Aluminum alloys, while of
the
military airplanes are made of
Titanium alloys. The internal
parts of the plane has been
made of iron
alloys , while the engine parts
has been made of anti-
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 33

temperature materials such as

Nickel alloys or
special alloys like in
combustion chamber ,
Nozzle and turbine, because
these parts have faced a
high degrees of temperature.
The modern airplanes toward
to use composite materials in
the body
structure and airfoil such
as graphite-epoxy in
Boeing 777, Kevlar-epoxy
in Airbus A 320 and

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 34

Nomex honey comb in F-15

Military. The calculation of
airplane weight of Boeing
777 and Boeing
787 is done in this study.
Results deal with the
weight calculation indicated
that the amount of
reduction in mass of Boeing
787 by using the composites
development in place of
alloys is 3.8 Tons
which is closest to that
declared by Boeing
Company.
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 35

A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
be involved with the
complexity of the
design and selection of
metals and alloys used in a
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
increase the security factors.
This research has focused on
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 36

the nature of raw materials

that used in
the airplane components.
These materials either
would be alloys or
composites materials. The
airplane is divided into ten
parts. The significant parts of
an aircraft structure for the
present study
are the wings, fuselage or
hull, nose, tail, landing gear,
pylon box, fuel tank, the
engine and screens.

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 37

Generally, the external

surfaces of the civil
airplanes are made of
Aluminum alloys, while of
the
military airplanes are made of
Titanium alloys. The internal
parts of the plane has been
made of iron
alloys , while the engine parts
has been made of anti-
temperature materials such as
Nickel alloys or
special alloys like in
combustion chamber ,
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 38

Nozzle and turbine, because

these parts have faced a
high degrees of temperature.
The modern airplanes toward
to use composite materials in
the body
structure and airfoil such
as graphite-epoxy in
Boeing 777, Kevlar-epoxy
in Airbus A 320 and
Nomex honey comb in F-15
Military. The calculation of
airplane weight of Boeing
777 and Boeing

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 39

787 is done in this study.

Results deal with the
weight calculation indicated
that the amount of
reduction in mass of Boeing
787 by using the composites
development in place of
alloys is 3.8 Tons
which is closest to that
declared by Boeing
Company.
A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
be involved with the
complexity of the
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 40

design and selection of

metals and alloys used in a
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
increase the security factors.
This research has focused on
the nature of raw materials
that used in
the airplane components.
These materials either
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 41

would be alloys or
composites materials. The
airplane is divided into ten
parts. The significant parts of
an aircraft structure for the
present study
are the wings, fuselage or
hull, nose, tail, landing gear,
pylon box, fuel tank, the
engine and screens.
Generally, the external
surfaces of the civil
airplanes are made of
Aluminum alloys, while of
the
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
 42

military airplanes are made of

Titanium alloys. The internal
parts of the plane has been
made of iron
alloys , while the engine parts
has been made of anti-
temperature materials such as
Nickel alloys or
special alloys like in
combustion chamber ,
Nozzle and turbine, because
these parts have faced a
high degrees of temperature.
The modern airplanes toward

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 43

to use composite materials in

the body
structure and airfoil such
as graphite-epoxy in
Boeing 777, Kevlar-epoxy
in Airbus A 320 and
Nomex honey comb in F-15
Military. The calculation of
airplane weight of Boeing
777 and Boeing
787 is done in this study.
Results deal with the
weight calculation indicated
that the amount of

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

 44

reduction in mass of Boeing

787 by using the composites
development in place of
alloys is 3.8 Tons
which is closest to that
declared by Boeing Company

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL