Materials Used in the Construction of Aircraft.

Wood – wood was used extensively in the early days of flight and is still used to
some extent in very light general aviation aircraft.

Steel - Steel is a collective term as there are many different materials and alloys.
Steels and alloys of steel are used in areas where strength is required and which are
subjected to high loading, wear, high temperatures. Some of the types of steel and
alloys used in aircraft construction are listed below :

Titanium alloys - these are extensively used in modern aircraft manufacture as they
are: resistant to high temperature up to 400oc, have excellent corrosion resistant
properties, have excellent strength to weight ratio .

Nickel Alloys – are only used where the temperature environment is high and creep
resistance is a major consideration. Their uses are normally restricted to the hotter
parts of the gas turbine engine and its associated installation .
Copper Alloy – this is of limited use, in the main for electrical equipment where good
conductivity is required. Bronze is used in some bushes and bearings.

Monel metal – is an alloy of copper, nickel, manganese and iron. This material has a low
coefficient of expansion, high resistance to corrosion and high strength, which makes it ideal for
exhaust systems

Light Alloys : Light alloy is the collective term given to alloys of aluminium and magnesium,
some of these materials have strengths equal to that of some steels but with density of about a
third.

Aluminium - pure aluminium while having corrosion resistant properties is very soft and has
low strength.

Aluminium Alloys –when aluminium is alloyed with different materials such as copper,
chrome, zinc, manganese, silicon and magnesium or a mixture of them then the resulting alloys
have varying properties.
Magnesium Alloy – has a very good strength to weight ratio [aluminium is 1.5 times
heavier] but it has very poor resistance to corrosion [avoid salt water] it also has very poor
elastic properties and both sheet metal and forging are prone to cracking when subjected to
vibration

Due to the fact that magnesium is a mono fuel - providing its own oxygen when burning,
components manufactured from magnesium need to be smothered should they catch fire
and care should be taken not to bring a source of ignition in contact with them.
Composite Materials
Composite materials are materials that are manufactured from reinforcing fibres embedded
in a bonding resin. As the materials can be moulded, they are described as being ‘plastic’

The main reinforcing materials are:

* Glass GFRP
* Carbon (graphite) CFRP
* Boron
* Aramid known as ‘Kevlar’ KFRP a synthetic material
* Lithium is being evaluated as a material
Advantages of Composite Materials : The advantages of using composite material over alloys
are:

• The ability to arrange the fibres to obtain directional properties consistent with the load
• The ability to make complex shapes since the material is not homogeneous
• Weight saving
• Resistance to corrosion
• High specific strength
• High specific stiffness

Disadvantages of Composite Materials : The disadvantages of composite materials are:

*They are quickly eroded by hail, sand etc so leading edges must be sheathed
* They are difficult to repair
*They can absorb moisture if the material is not correctly sealed
 Stresses and Strains

Stresses and Strains That Affect Aircraft Structures It has become fairly standard
practice to interchange the words stress and strain and believe that they are the
same. However ‘strain’ is the term used when an external force is applied to a
structure that acts to deform it, ‘stress’ is the internal force within the structure
that opposes the external force being applied.

The stress value of a material can be defined as the force per unit area and can be given as
N/m2 or N/mm2. The material from which it is made, its cross sectional area and the
structure's shape will determine the amount of stress that a structure can withstand.
Listed below are the major stresses or strains that affect structures these are:

Tension – in the diagram above the tensile load ‘strain’ applied is trying to pull the rod and
elongate it, the tensile stress in the rod is resisting this strain.

Compression – in the diagram above the compressive load ‘strain’ applied is trying to
squeeze the rod and shorten its length, the compression stress within the rod is resisting
this strain
Torsion – in the diagram above the torque load ‘strain’ applied is trying to twist the rod
along its length, the torsional stress within the rod is resisting this strain.

Shear – in the diagram above the fastening holding the two plates together is subjected
to cutting action as the two plates are subjected to a tensile load. The resistance to the
two opposite tensile loads is shear stress .
Hoop stress – also referred to as radial stress is the stress raised in a container when it is
filled, where the contents act to expand the container. e.g. a balloon when inflated has hoop
stress and like a balloon when an aircraft is pressurised the pressure hull expands.

Axial stress – also referred to as longitudinal stress occurs when the aircraft is pressurised
and the pressure hull lengthens
Combination stress (Bending) - if a structure is bent as per the diagram above then it is subjected to
several different loads. The external radius of the bend is placed under tension, the internal radius is placed
under compression. This results in a shear line being produced [shown by the dotted line] where the tension
and compression act against each other.
Strain Ratio
Where sufficient external force is applied to a structure that it overcomes the structure’s
ability to withstand it. e.g. external force greater than the structures stress limitation, then
the structure will deform due to ‘strain’. The amount by which the structure has deformed is
found by comparing the original length with the deformed length, this is given as a ratio,
which shows the magnitude of the strain.
 Fatigue in Materials
Fatigue is inevitable in materials that are subjected to alternating loads i.e. an old rubber
band will stretch then fail before the normal load is applied, this is fatigue failure. A
structure that is subjected to load reversals [tensile loads in the main] will suffer fatigue
failure more quickly than the same structure that has been subjected to a continuous load.
The affects of cyclical loads on structures are cumulative and will reach a point where the
structure will fail even under normal loads.
In Flight
Lift – the lift generated by the wings in flight acts to pull the wings up, this can be seen by the flexing upwards
of the wing tips. This creates compression on the upper surfaces and tension in the lower surfaces. Due to lifting
forces produced at the trailing edge, the wing also has a torsional force trying to rotate the leading edge nose
down.
Drag - the impedance of the airflow by components such as fixed undercarriage legs acts to try and bend the
component backwards out of the airflow.
Mass - the mass of the aircraft acts to pull the aircraft vertically downwards.
Weight – given by Mass × Acceleration due to Gravity ‘g’ assumed to be 9.81 m/s2.

When an aircraft is in straight and level un-accelerated flight, it is subjected to a ‘1g’ [acceleration of
9.81 m/s2] this will be the same as when the aircraft is on the ground, as this is constant it is termed “0
g”.
 Design Philosophy
The design and construction of modern aircraft is controlled by the regulation detailed in JAR
23 for aircraft of a mass of 5700 kilograms and less and JAR 25 for air transport aircraft and
aircraft of a mass greater than 5700 kilograms.

These regulations have come into being through reviewing accidents and incidents to ensure
public safety, analysis of structures and components in service and those that have failed.
Catastrophic Failure
The regulations specify that the design and fabrication methods employed in the manufacture of an aircraft must show that during
the operational life of the aircraft there will be no catastrophic failure due to:

* Fatigue
* Corrosion
* Accidental damage

To comply with this requirement designers have to evaluate the materials and structures that they intend to use and the loads that
they would be subjected to during their operational life.

This has resulted in the ‘safe life’ philosophy

Safe Life
The aircraft structure as a whole and components within the aircraft are given a safe life. This is based on one, several or all of the
following:

*Flying hours cumulative

* Landings
*Pressurisation cycles
* Calendar time
 Fail Safe Structure
To achieve a fail-safe structure no one item within a structure takes the entire
load, it is shared by several components thus there are multiple load paths.
This ‘redundancy’ of items allows the structure to continue operating normally
[up to the static ultimate] for a limited period. The design criteria being that
the damage such as cracks would be found before or during the next periodic
servicing and should not have propagated by much before being identified .
 Station Numbers or Fuselage stations
(Fus. Sta. or FS) are numbered in inches from a reference or zero point known as the
reference datum. The reference datum is an imaginary ver tical plane at or near the nose of
the aircraft from which all fore and aft dis tances are measured. The distance to a given
point is measured in inches parallel to a center line extending through the aircraft from the
nose through the center of the tail cone. Some manufacturers may call the fuselage station a
body station , abbreviated BS.
• Buttock line or butt line (BL) is a vertical reference plane down the center of the aircraft
from which measurements left or right can be made.
• Water line (WL) is the measurement of height in inches perpendicular from a horizontal
plane usually located at the ground, cabin floor, or some other easily referenced location.
• zone : Large aircraft are divided into zones and subzones for identifying the location of
various components .
 Parts
Parts that make up a structure and systems are also categorised dependent on the effect
that their failure would have on a unit or system that they are part of.

Minor parts

Critical Parts - must achieve and maintain a particularly high level of integrity if Hazardous
Effects are not to occur at a rate in excess of Extremely Remote.

Major part- a part whose failure might adversely affect the operational integrity of the
unit in which it is fitted.
These regulations classify the aircraft’s structure into three groups:

Primary structure
This is structure that is stressed, and in the event of it failing the structural integrity of the
aircraft would be compromised to such a point that the aircraft could suffer a catastrophic
failure.

Secondary structure
This is structure that is stressed but to a lesser degree and in the event of its failure the
aircraft would not suffer a catastrophic failure but can be limited in operation

Tertiary structure
This is structure that is unstressed or nominally stressed and in the event of its failure would
not cause a catastrophic failure.
 Aircraft consist of :
1- Fuselage Structures
2- Wing Structures
3- Empennage
4- Powerplant
5- Landing gear
 Fuselage Structures
The fuselage forms the main body of the aircraft to which the wings, tail plane, canards,
vertical fin and in the case of a single engine aircraft the engine is attached. In some aircraft
designs the landing gear is also directly attached to the fuselage structure.

Type of Fuselage Structures :

Frame Construction OR Truss Type :
In this type of construction a rigid box work frame is made up of a series of vertical,
horizontal, diagonal and longitudinal tubular steel pipes that are welded together.
Monocoque Type The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of the skin or covering to
carry the primary loads. The design may be di vided into two classes:
1. Monocoque 2. Semi monocoque
Monocoque Structures :
A monocoque structure is one where the skin takes all the loads placed on the structure; the egg is the best
example. For aircraft made of aluminium sheet metal while the skin would be attached to formers to give it its
basic shape, the skin would carry all the flight and ground loads. As the strength of the whole fuselage is in the
skin any damage that deforms, dents, perforates, or creases it will reduce the skin’s ability to carry these loads
and can lead to structural failure.

The true monocoque construction uses :

** formers,
** frame assemblies,
** bulkheads
to give shape to the fuselage.
Semimonocoque
Type To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoque construction, a modification called semi
monocoque construction was devel oped. It also consists of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used
in the monocoque design but, additionally, the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members called longerons.
Longerons usually extend across several frame members and help the skin support primary bending loads.
They are typically made of aluminum alloy either of a single piece or a built-up construction.
Stringers are also used in the semimonocoque fuselage. These longitudinal members are typically more
numerous and lighter in weight than the longerons.
** Skin
** Frames
** Formers
**Longerons
**Bulkheads
** Stringers
Pressurization
Many aircraft are pressurized. This means that air is pumped into the cabin after takeoff and
a difference in pressure between the air inside the cabin and the air outside the cabin is
established. This differential is regulated and maintained. In this manner, enough oxygen is
made available for passengers to breathe normally and move around the cabin without
special equipment at high altitudes.
Pressurization causes significant stress on the fuselage structure and adds to the complexity
of design. In addition to withstanding the difference in pressure between the air inside and
outside the cabin, cycling from unpressurized to pressurized and back again each flight
causes metal fatigue.
The cabin floor is manufactured from a series of panels attached to supporting beams
and cross members. For aircraft that have pressurised passenger cabins and hold they are
frequently manufactured using a honeycomb structure as shown in diagram 2.8 above. This
allows a lightweight structure to withstand compression loads and have rigidity without
incurring a weight penalty. Honeycomb structures can be used in the manufacture of other
panels and skins .
 Wing
Wings were previously referred to as main planes; they produce the lift that supports the
aircraft in flight. When air flows over the top surface of a wing from the leading edge [Le] to
the trailing edge [Te] the distance that it has to travel is increased by the camber [curve] of
the surface compared with the distance that it would have to travel when passing under the
wing, as shown in diagram 3.1 above. The air flowing over the cambered surface increases
its velocity, which results in a decrease in the static pressure above the wing. The amount of
lift produced is dependent on the speed of the air over the wing, the camber and the
surface area of the wing.
The internal construction and the shape of the wing will depend on the intended speed and
use of the aeroplane, such as supersonic, transonic or subsonic, general aviation, stunt,
commuter, air transport, cargo, heavy-lift and short take off and landing [STOL].
While the design and method of manufacturing wings has changed the basic requirements
and nomenclature remains the same. These are:
** Spars ** Ribs ** Stringers ** Skin ** End caps ** Wing tips ** Leading
edge ** Trailing edge ** Root ** Torsion box ** Centre section
The main structural component of a conventional wing is the spar; it takes all the flight loads
generated by the wing and transfers them to the fuselage structure. In very light aircraft
there may only be one spar, however in medium transport aircraft it is standard to fit two
spars. For large air transport aircraft three spars are normally used
Stringers : The stringers are smaller span wise members, they act to support the skin and increase the wing’s
rigidity when the surface they are attached to is in compression. For alloy-skinned aircraft, stringers are
attached by either rivets or bonding to both ribs and skin.
Ribs : The shape of the wing, its aerofoil cross section, is given by the ribs that run front to rear. They act to
brace the spar and support the skin and the stringers. They also act to spread the concentrated loads of wing-
mounted engines, undercarriages and control surfaces, to the other structures. Wings can be manufactured as
one complete assembly [normally for light aircraft] or in various sections that will be joined together
Spars : the location of spars in large aircraft wing structure, there are normally three spars in a large aircraft
these are:

** Front or forward spar

** Main spar
** Rear or auxiliary spar
High Wing
High winged aircraft have the advantage of giving good downward visibility and makes cargo
loading and unloading easier due to the lower cabin floor.
Structurally the wing can be manufactured in one section, the fuselage to wing joint must be
strengthened as the fuselage and load hang from the wing. To give the aircraft crash worthiness
the fuselage structure under the wing must be strengthened to prevent the wing from collapsing.
Low Wing
Low winged aircraft have a higher Centre of Gravity than high winged aircraft. They are more
crash worthy due to the spar box configuration within the central fuselage, or the main spar of a
single piece wing passing under the fuselage.
Where two wings are attached to major carry through castings mounted within the fuselage the
floor level has to be higher than that of a high winged aircraft.
Mid wing
Mid winged aircraft have the advantage of improved aerodynamics for high-speed flight but the
disadvantage of having spars passing through the middle of the fuselage, as can be seen from the
diagram 3.12 above of a post war Vickers Viking. This effectively limits their use as this design is
not acceptable under the JARs for a modern air transport aircraft.
Dihedral Angle
The dihedral angle is the angle between the wing and horizontal plane when the wing is
above the horizontal plane.

Anhedral Angle
The anhedral angle is the angle between the wing and horizontal plane when the wing is
mounted so that it is below the horizontal plane .
 Sweep Back Angle
This is the angle formed between the 25% chords line of the wing and a line that is at right
angles to the wing root cord. This perpendicular line is located at the root’s 25% chord
point. Refer to diagram. Note that the 25% chord line is not parallel to the leading edge of
the wing.
Wing Spars
Spars are the principal structural members of the wing. They correspond to the longerons of the fuse lage.
They run parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, from the fuselage toward the tip of the wing, and are usually
attached to the fuselage by wing fittings, plain beams, or a truss.
Wing Ribs
Ribs are the structural crosspieces that combine with spars and stringers to make up the framework of the
wing. They usually extend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or to the trailing edge of the wing. The
ribs give the wing its cambered shape and transmit the load from the skin and stringers to the spars. Similar
ribs are also used in ailerons, elevators, rudders, and stabilizers.
Wing Skin
Often, the skin on a wing is designed to carry part of the flight and ground loads in
combination with the spars and ribs.
 Wash out and Wash in :
Wash out is the term given to a downwards, [negative] twist of the wings and leading edge
towards the wing tip, see diagram. At the wing tip this washout is normally in the order of –
3 to – 4 degrees below the angle of incidence at which the wing is set to the fuselage. As this
will alter the angle of attack for the air passing over the outboard wing compared to the
inboard wing, it will assure that the inboard wing section will stall before the outer section.
This in turn assures that the ailerons will be in unstalled airflow .
 Wing Tips and Winglets
The wing tip of a conventional wing acts as an aerodynamically shaped cover to the wing’s
structure, in many light aircraft they are made of GFRP to save weight and complication, or
light alloy. However as detailed in the following paragraphs the design of the wing tip
radically affects the airflow across the wing, which in turn alters the lift produced by the
wing.

Wing Tip Vortex

Aerodynamically a plain rounded wing tip is not a good
design as airflow from the underside of the wing,
which is at a higher pressure, flows around the tip
to the low-pressure area over the top surface of the wing.
 Wing Mounted Engines
The location and mounting system of aero engines affects the structural design of the wings. In diagram of a
Comet the engines are located at the wing root. This required the spars to form a spectacle shape to allow for
the intakes and engine mounting. As these mountings over complicated the wing design it is standard for
turbine aircraft with wing mounted engines to have the engines mounted on pylons beneath the wings (the
exception being a design of Fokker, which mounted the engines on over wing pylons).
 Centre of Gravity and Centre of Pressure
The fin is the primary source of directional static stability and directional control. The
fuselage ahead of the CG acts in a small way to destabilise the aircraft, this is due to the
fuselage’s Centre of Pressure [CP] being located in front or on a point ¼ the distance back
from the nose for subsonic flight, which is ahead of the aircraft’s Centre of Gravity [CG].
Refer to Diagram .
Empennage
The empennage of an aircraft is also known as the tail section. Most empennage designs
consist of a tail cone, fixed aerodynamic surfaces or stabilizers, and movable aerodynamic
surfaces.
 Butterfly or V Tail Aircraft

Some light aircraft such as the original Beech Bonanza 35 replaced the conventional tail with two aerofoil surfaces mounted
in the form of a V. These act to provide directional stability and pitch stability. To allow pitch and roll control, control
surfaces termed ruddervators are hinged at the trailing edge of aerofoils. These are linked, via a mixing unit, to the control
column and the rudder pedals.

** For yaw control, operation of the rudder pedals deflects the ruddervators so that one is moving down and the other up;
as the aerofoils are inclined the movement is proportionate.

** For pitch control, operation of the control column deflects the ruddervators in the same direction.

When both pitch and yaw inputs are made simultaneously, the mixing unit adjusts the input to each surface accordingly
 Flight Controls
Primary and Secondary Flight Controls
Introduction Aircraft have the ability to manoeuvre three dimensionally in flight, these manoeuvres are termed pitching, rolling and
yawing. This chapter examines the control surfaces and systems by which the pilot of an aircraft can control its flight. To assist
students who read these notes before reading the aerodynamics notes, basic explanations of aerodynamic effect are added to explain
how structural components achieve their function .
MOVEABLE CONTROL SURFACES
Moveable control surfaces are normally divided into :
1- Primary
2- Secondary controls.

The primary control surfaces include the

A- elevators
B- rudder
C- Ailerons
D-roll spoilers

The secondary control surfaces consist of

A- trim controls (tabs)
B- high lift devices (flaps and slats),
C- speed brakes and lift dumpers (additional spoilers).
 The Reference Axes
All three axes pass through the Centre of Gravity, the point through which the
aircraft’s total mass is said to act vertically downwards.
Longitudinal
A line that passes through the nose of the aircraft and exits through the tail. Movement
about the longitudinal axis is termed rolling; therefore it can also be referred to as the roll
axis.

Lateral
A line that passes through the wing tip of one wing and exits through the other.
Movement about the lateral axis is termed pitching; therefore it can also be referred to as
the pitch axis.

Normal
A line that passes through the underside of the fuselage and exits through the top of the
aircraft. Movement about the normal axis is termed yawing; therefore it can also be
referred to as the yaw axis.
Primary Controls Surfaces
control surfaces of a conventional aircraft with wings, fin and tailplane, the control surfaces
are:

Ailerons act about the longitudinal axis to roll the aircraft in the rolling plane. They are
aerodynamic surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the outboard section of the wings.

Elevators act about the lateral axis to pitch the aircraft in the pitching plane. They are
aerodynamic surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the tailplane.

Rudders act about the normal axis to yaw the aircraft in the yawing plane. They are
aerodynamic surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the fin.

SPOILER : The spoiler can be used to reduce airspeed and/or increase the rate of descent.
Flight Deck Controls

The primary flight control surfaces are linked to the primary controls in the flight deck, these vary
depending on the age, size and complexity of the aircraft. For older light aircraft and fighters these
take the form of control column and rudder pedals.
Control Column
In this system the elevators are operated by fore and aft movement of the control column, which
is also referred to as the ‘stick’. Forward movement of the control column deflects the trailing
edge of the elevators downwards, altering the camber of the tailplane, creating more lift on the
top surface [low pressure], raising the tail of the aircraft and causing the nose to pitch down and
vice versa
 Aileron Action
Side to side movement of the control column operates the ailerons. When the pilot moves
the stick to the left the left aileron is deflected upward, reducing the lift created by the left
wing and the right aileron deflects downward increasing the lift created by the right wing,
causing the aircraft to roll to the left and vice versa.

With the ‘stick’ type control column when the control surfaces are in the neutral position the
column will be centralised, if the pilot moves the column diagonally or at any angle other
than straight fore-aft or side to side then he will alter both the ailerons and the elevators
simultaneously.
Rudder Control
The pilots control the yawing action of the aircraft by pushing rudder pedals with their feet. Relaxing the
pressure with the right foot and pushing forward with the left foot will deflect the trailing edge of the rudder
to the left, which alters the camber of the fin and the lift created over the right surface. The increase in
pressure over the left surface will act to move the tail to the right so the nose of the aircraft will yaw to the left.
When the rudder control surface is neutralised fore and aft with the fin, the rudder pedals will be centralised.
While technology has altered the method by which the pilot can make aileron and elevator inputs from the
control column [joystick] to fly by wire side stick, rudder controls remain basically the same for all conventional
aircraft as pedals.
Elevator Control

For many modern light aircraft the stick type control column has been replaced by the
through instrument panel push / pull yoke or control wheel. In this design, the yoke is
mounted on a tube that passes through the instrument panel. Pulling the yoke towards you
raises the elevator’s trailing edge and causes the aircraft to pitch nose up. Turning the yoke
to the right will raise the right aileron and lower the left aileron, causing the aircraft to roll to
the right and vice versa .
 Wing Mounted Speed Brakes / Lift Dumpers (SPOILER)
The spoiler can be used to reduce airspeed and/or increase the rate of descent. In this
situation the pilot can select the spoiler by moving the spoiler lever from the down (flush)
detent position to the flight detent position, the maximum extended in flight position. The
position of the lever between the two detents will indicate the extension of the spoiler.

In this condition the inner spoiler will not deflect as much as the mid wing spoiler. This is to
prevent tail plane buffet due to turbulent airflow, the outer wing spoilers will not deflect so
as not to over stress the wings and the total deflection is limited to prevent the aircraft
pitching nose up.
Elevons

For delta wing aircraft such as Concorde, which do not require a separate tailplane the
ailerons and elevator functions are combined into one hinged control an equal number of
combined surfaces being mounted on each wing. Movement of the control column in pitch
control will make all the surfaces move together to act as an elevator. Roll is achieved by the
elevon on one wing deflecting downward and the elevon on the opposite side being
deflected upward .
Ruddervators
ruddervators normally used on aircraft fitted with a 'V' or Butterfly tail. These surfaces
serve the purposes of both rudder and elevator.
The types of direct mechanical linkage are:
** Control cables
** Control rods

Cable Tension and Turnbuckles

In systems where control cables are used for primary or secondary control operation, to
ensure that the pilot’s control inputs are instantaneously transferred to the control surfaces
the cable system is given a pre-tension. This tension is adjusted by the use of turnbuckles
(turnbarrels ) which are locked to ensure that they do not self adjust with the cables
operation.
In systems where control cables are used for primary or secondary control operation, to
ensure that the pilot’s control inputs are instantaneously transferred to the control surfaces
the cable system is given a pre-tension. This tension is adjusted by the use of turnbuckles
(turnbarrels) which are locked to ensure that they do not self adjust with the cables
operation.
 TAB
*** Fixed Tabs
*** Balance Tab
*** Anti Balance Trim Tab
*** Servo Tabs
*** Trim Tabs
*** Spring Servo Tab
Unless an aircraft’s aerodynamic surfaces are exactly symmetrical an aircraft can fly with one wing low. To lift
the wing without the pilot having to hold the controls a fixed tab of metal is attached to the trailing edge of the
aileron. The angle at which this tab is bent up or down depending on which aileron it is fitted is determined
after a flight test and the tabs are only adjusted on the ground by qualified engineers.
 Balance Tab
Hinging a small section of the control surface’s trailing edge forms the balance tab. An adjustable rod to the
wing structure connects the tab. As both ends of the connecting rod are both on the same surface, when the
control is given an input the trailing edge of the balance tab is deflected in the opposite direction to the trailing
edge of the control surface.

Servo Tabs
In this design the primary control input is directly linked to a tab set in the trailing edge of the control surface
see diagram 5.40 above. When the pilot makes a control input the tab is deflected in the opposite direction to
the required control surface deflection, resulting in the control surface moving in the intended direction.
Spring Servo Tab

The spring servo is designed to overcome the control problems associated with low speed handling of the
servo tabs. In this design the control input linkage is attached to an input horn that is in line with the hinge
line but not attached to the hinge or control surface. A linkage from this input horn is taken diagonally to the
servo tab.
Anti Balance Tab
Anti balance tabs can be fitted to control surfaces of light aircraft where it is necessary to increase the stick
force, the most common control surface to have an anti balance tab fitted is the horizontal stabilator
 trim tab
The trim tab operates on the principle that when it is deflected it will create an aerodynamic force that moves
the control surface in the opposite direction. When the force created by the deflected control surface is equal
to the force created by the trim tab, the control surface will cease to move and will remain in that condition.

This allows the pilot, who is having to hold the stick out of the neutral position when the aircraft is flying
straight and level, to adjust the trim tab and remove the forces that the control surfaces are applying back
through the control stick [stick force]. Therefore the pilot can fly ‘hands off’.
Secondary Flight Controls
**Trailing edge flaps
**Leading edge flaps
** Slots
**Slat
 Trailing Edge Flaps
To improve the lifting capability of an aircraft’s wing at slow speed, trailing edge flaps that
alter camber and or increase the surface area were devised. While these create lift they also
create drag, both of which can be a help or a hindrance depending on the situation. In take
off the extra drag they create is a hindrance thus flap extension is limited to gain an increase
in lift with a lower drag penalty, whereas in the approach and landing the drag created
assists in slowing the aircraft down and the increased lift allows the aircraft to be flown at a
lower speed.
*** Plain flap
*** Split flap
*** Slotted flap
*** Blown flap
*** Fowler flap
*** Slotted Fowler flap
boundary layer
In the study of physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is that layer of fluid in the immediate
vicinity of a bounding surface. In relation to an aircraft, the boundary layer is the part of the airflow
closest to the surface of the aircraft. In designing high-performance aircraft, considerable attention is
paid to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize pressure drag and skin friction drag.
1.1.6 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the aerofoil surface (the boundary between ‘metal’ and
‘air’). If measured, the air velocity in the layer will vary from zero directly on the surface, to the relevant
velocity of the free stream at the outer extremity of the boundary layer.
Normally, at the leading edge of the wing the boundary layer will be laminar, (in smooth thin sheets close to
the surface), but as the air moves over the wing towards the trailing edge, the boundary layer becomes
thicker and turbulent. The region where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition
point .
1- Boundary Layer Control - Vortex Generators
2-Boundary Layer Control - Stall Wedges
3-Boundary Layer Control - Leading edge Devices
 SEPARATION
The overall effect of friction is to reduce the velocity and energy of the air-flow within the
boundary layer. This reduction is further exacerbated by introducing an APG, as with a curved or
cambered body. This effect can be shown at several successive points within the boundary-
layer. As shown on the following diagram, the boundary-layer is brought to rest and separates,
forming a turbulent wake.
Plain flap
The plain flaps as used on some light GA aircraft are mounted inboard of the ailerons and have the same cross-
section as the wing to which they are attached. The hinge line of these flaps passes through the flap structure
just aft of the flaps’ leading edge. This results in the flaps’ trailing edge aligning with the wings trailing edge
when the flaps are selected up .
As a flap is lowered the trailing edge of the flap inscribes an arc, which shortens the wing’s chord line while
increasing the camber, see diagram 6.2 above. Thus lowering the flap has the effect of increasing the wing’s
lift by up to 50%, which in turn moves the centre of pressure rearward resulting in a nose down pitching
moment. At the same time the lowered flap creates a greater wake, which increases drag. ing edge aligning
with the wings trailing edge when the flaps are selected up.
Fowler flaps increase a basic wing’s lift by 90% without altering the stalling angle. This is
achieved by increasing the camber and the wing’s surface area. This design of flap is an
aerofoil section, which when selected up forms the rear lower surface of the wing, see
diagram 6.7 above. As the flaps are extended they move progressively rearwards and
downwards using a complicated system of rollers and guides.
 Slots
A shaped slot taken from the bottom surface to the top surface of the wing just aft of the leading edge ducts
high - energy air over the top of the wing to re-energise the boundary layer, thus ensuring that a laminar flow
passes across the remaining chord of the wing.
A basic slotted wing will have 40% more lift than the same wing profile without the slot and increase the
stalling angle to 20 degrees. The action of the slot does not alter the normal pitching moment of the wing,
however slots can cause an increase in drag for high-speed flight.
 Leading Edge Flap
In the leading edge flap or ‘droop snout’ design the forward section of the wing
along its length is pivoted downwards. This has the effect of increasing the
wing’s camber without unduly shortening the chord line. Like the leading edge
slat the effect is to increase the lift curve for a given wing section .