Chapter 1

• Physics is about relationships between quantities. Quantity is not

something you can always measure. Quantity is a property of an object
of phenomenon that has a value. That value is expressed in a unit. A
quantity always belongs to a property. Those relationships are
expressed using math. By using math you put the relationship in a
formula. Math is the language that physics uses to communicate.
• Answers are ‘ranges’, not a single value. The amount of numbers that
my value contains is a measure of how accurate the answer is. The
diameter of an atom is about 10 m. The diameter of a nucleus is about
10 m. The smallest particles may be the quarks, probably less than 10
m in size, but there is a much smaller fundamental unit of length,
called the Planck length, which is around 10 m.
• Time = distance/speed
• Distance = speed x time
• Speed = distance/time
• Quarks hide themselves inside protons and neutrons so it is not easy to
measure them. The mass of the lightest quark, called the up quark, is
around 10 kg, and this is also the approximate rest mass of the
electron. If quarks are truly fundamental, then their mass would give us
a lower limit.
• You need to be able to state ratios of quantities as differences of orders
of magnitude. For example, the approximate ratio of the diameter of an
atom to its nucleus is: 10 m/ 10 m = 10
10 is known as a difference of five orders of magnitude.
• Most of the atoms of all matter consist of entirely empty space. Another
example is that the ratio of the rest mass of the proton to the rest mass
of the electron is of the order: 1.67 x 10 kg / 9.11 x 10 kg = 2 x 10
• Mechanics is the study of matter, motion, forces and energy. With
combinations of the first three base units (meter, kilogram and
second), we can develop all the other units of mechanics.
• Density = mass/volume (kg m )
• Systematic errors are due to the system or apparatus being used.
Systematic errors can often be detected by repeating the
measurement using a different method or different apparatus and
comparing the results.
• Random errors can be reduced by repeating the measurement many
times and taking the average, but this process will not affect
systematic errors. If readings of a measurement are above and below
the true value with equal probability, then the errors are random.
• Precise = if you have several measurements and they are very close to
each other.
Accurate = if you get the value of something that is supposed to be.
 • The order of magnitude => how many zero’s are there (amount of
digits).
• The rest mass => mass of an object, when the object is not moving.
• Scalars are measurements that have size, or magnitude (value).
• Vectors have magnitude and also have a direction (value + direction).
• The resultant is the single force, of the combination. The resultant is
the single force that has the same effect as the combination.
If they are not parallel, the easiest way to determine the resultant is by
the parallelogram law. This says that the resultant of two vectors acting
at a point is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram they form.

Chapter 3

• Temperature determines the direction of thermal energy transfer

between two objects.
• The relation between the Kelvin and Celsius scales of temperature -> K
= ºC + 273. This means that the ‘size’ of the units used on each scale
is identical, but they have different zero points.
• The internal energy of a substance is the total potential energy and
random kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance.
• The macroscopic point of view considers the system as a whole and
sees how it interacts with its surroundings.
• The microscopic point of view looks inside the system to see how its
component parts interact with each other.
• If the temperature of an object changes then it must have gained (or
lost) energy. The total energy that the molecules possess (kinetic +
potential) is called the internal energy of a substance.
• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules in a substance.
• When a force moves through a distance, we say that work is done.
Work is the energy that has been transmitted from one system to
another from the macroscopic point of view.
• When work is done on a microscopic level (that is on individual
molecules), we say that heating has taken place. Heat is energy that
has been transmitted. It can either increase the kinetic energy of the
molecules or their potential energy or, of course, both.
• Ideal gas is one that follows the gas laws for all values of P, V and T.
• Mole is the basic SI-unit for ‘amount of substance’. One mole of any
substance is equal to the amount of that substance that contains the
same number of atoms as 0.012kg of carbon-12. When writing the unit
it is (slightly) shortened to the mol.
• Avogadro constant is the number of atoms in 0.012kg of carbon-12. It
is 6.02 x 10.
• The mass of one mole of a substance is called the molar mass. A simple
rule applies. If an element has a certain mass number, A, then the
molar mass will be A grams.
• The thermal capacity (C) of a body is the amount of heat needed to
raise its temperature by 1 ºC. Unit = J/ ºC
• The specific heat capacity of a material is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of 1kg of the material by 1 ºC. Unit = J/kg/ ºC.
• Solid -> Fixed shape and volume. Molecules held in position by a force.
Vibrate but don’t move around.
Liquid -> No fixed shape but fixed volume. Force between molecules
not so strong so molecules can move around.
Gas -> No fixed shape or volume. No force between molecules (ideally).
• Whenever the state of a material changes, the temperature stays the
same.
Solid molecules have KE since they are vibrating, energy added ->
Liquid molecules are now free to move about but have the same KE as
before.
• When matter changes state, the energy is needed to enable the
molecules to move more freely. To understand this, consider the
example below.
Ball has KE as it is moving in the box, energy added -> Ball now has KE
+ PE, energy added -> Ball now has same KE as before but also PE and
is free to move around.
• Boiling takes place throughout the liquid and always at the same
temperature.
Evaporation takes place only at the surface of the liquid and can
happen at all temperatures.
• The specific latent heat of a material is the amount of heat required to
change the state of 1kg of the material without change of temperature.
Unit = J/kg.
• Macroscopically, at a constant volume the pressure of a gas is
proportional to its temperature in Kelvin. Microscopically this can be
analysed as follows:
- If the temperature of a gas goes up, the molecules have more
average kinetic energy – they are moving faster on average.
- Fast moving molecules will have a greater change of momentum
when they hit the walls of the container. Thus the microscopic force
from each molecule will be greater. The molecules are moving faster so
they hit the walls more often. For both these reasons, the total force on
the wall goes up. Thus the pressure goes up.