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Sunday, July 17, 2011, 07:34 AM

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Course: IB Physics (IBPHYS)
Glossary: Declarative knowledge glossary (DKG)
1

1.1.2
State the ranges of magnitude of distances, masses and times that occur in the universe, from smallest
to greatest.

Distances: from 10–15 m to 10+25 m (sub-nuclear

particles to extent of the visible universe).

Masses: from 10–30 kg to 10+50 kg (electron to mass of

the universe).

Times: from 10–23 s to 10+18 s (passage of light across a

nucleus to the age of the universe).

1.2.1
State the fundamental units in the SI system.

Students need to know the following: kilogram, metre, second, ampere, mole and kelvin.

1.2.8
Explain how the effects of random errors may be reduced.

Take many measurements within a trial and average the results. The random errors that are "high" will
tend to balance the random errors that are "low".

1.3.1
Distinguish between vector and scalar quantities, and give examples of each.

Vectors have magnitude and direction, whereas scalars have only magnitude.

Examples:

1. Force can be strong or weak (magnitude) or can act upward, downward, to the left, etc. (direction)
therefore force is a vector.
2. Temperature can be high or low (magnitude) but is not associated with any direction in space,

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therefore temperature is a scalar.

2.1.1
Define displacement, velocity, speed
and acceleration.

Displacement is the distance and direction of an object relative to a point of origin (starting point).

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.

Speed is the rate of change of distance.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

2.1.2
Explain the difference between
instantaneous and average values of
speed, velocity and acceleration.

Instantaneous values occur at a single instant of time (e.g. at one point on a graph), whereas average
values are calculated over a relatively long period of time (e.g. between two somewhat distant points on a
graph).

2.1.6
Describe the effects of air resistance
on falling objects.

Air resistance produces a increasing force on falling objects that is opposite in direction to their velocity.
When the force of air resistance balances the force of gravity, the object reaches terminal velocity.

2.2.10
Define linear momentum and impulse.

Linear momentum is the product of an object's mass and its velocity.

Impulse is a change in linear momentum.

2.2.12
State the law of conservation of linear

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momentum.

For an isolated system (i.e. a system upon which no external forces act), total momentum of the system
remains constant.

2.2.14
State Newton’s third law of motion.

For every force applied by object A to object B, there is a equal (magnitude) but opposite (direction) force
applied by object B to object A.

2.2.4
State Newton’s first law of motion.

When all forces acting on an object are balanced, the object either remains at rest or moves at constant
speed along a straight line.

2.2.6
State the condition for translational
equilibrium.

An object is in translational equilibrium when all forces acting on the object are balanced.

2.2.8
State Newton’s second law of motion.

The resultant (net) force acting on an object equals the product of the object's mass and its acceleration.
F=ma

2.3.1
Outline what is meant by work.

Work is an amount of energy that is transferred to an object via the action of a force. Work can be zero if
the force is applied at a right angle to the displacement of the object, or work can be negative if the force
acts in a direction opposite to the displacement of the object.

2.3.10
Define and apply the concept of

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efficiency.

Efficiency is the ratio of useful work done to energy input.

Example:

2.3.4
Outline what is meant by kinetic
energy.

Kinetic energy is an object's "energy of motion", equal to .

2.3.5
Outline what is meant by change in
gravitational potential energy.

Gravitational potential energy is an object's "energy of position" relative to a point on another massive
object (typically a planet's surface). Changes in gravitational potential energy occur when the distance
between the objects changes (typically "height above the ground").

2.3.6
State the principle of conservation of
energy.

During every interaction between matter or energy in the universe, energy is neither created nor
destroyed.

2.3.7
List different forms of energy
and describe examples of the
transformation of energy from one
form to another.

Gravitational potential energy

Kinetic energy

Thermal energy

Chemical potential energy

Electrical potential energy

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Electromagnetic (light) energy

Mechanical wave energy

Nuclear (rest-mass) energy

Example transformations:

Chemical potential energy in an exploding firework transforms partly into

1. kinetic energy of the exploding particles

2. internal energy (random molecular motion/vibration) of the exploding particles and surrounding air
3. light energy
4. sound (wave) energy
5. gravitational potential energy of particles that rise farther than they would had the firework not
exploded

2.3.8
Distinguish between elastic and
inelastic collisions.

Total kinetic energy is conserved (does not change) during an elastic collision (i.e. a 'perfectly' elastic
collision). Some kinetic energy is lost (e.g. transformed into internal energy) during an inelastic collision.

2.3.9
Define power.

Power is the rate at which work is done (more broadly: the rate at which energy is transferred).

3.1.1
State that temperature determines
the direction of thermal energy
transfer between two objects.

When thermal energy is transferred from one object to another it flows from the higher temperature object
to the lower temperature object. Once the objects reach the same temperature (thermal equilibrium),
there is no longer any net heat flow between them.

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3.1.2
State the relation between the Kelvin
and Celsius scales of temperature.

T/K = t/°C + 273

3.1.3
State that the internal energy of a
substance is the total potential energy
and random kinetic energy of the
molecules of the substance.

(see above...)

(Students should know that the kinetic energy of the

molecules arises from their random/translational/
rotational motion and that the potential energy of
the molecules arises from the forces between the
molecules.)

3.1.4
Explain and distinguish between
the macroscopic concepts of
temperature, internal energy and
thermal energy (heat).

Temperature is a measurement of the average kinetic energy of a group of atoms or molecules (typically
a substance or object).

Internal energy is the kinetic and potential energy of those atoms or molecules arising from their random
(vibratory) motion and the attractive and repulsive forces between them.

Thermal energy is transferred energy that becomes internal energy (non-mechanical energy).

3.1.5
Define the mole and molar mass.

A mole is 6.02×1023 objects (typically used to quantify groups of atoms or molecules).

Molar mass is the mass of one mole of atoms or molecules of a substance.

3.1.6
Define the Avogadro constant.

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The Avogadro constant is 6.02×1023 mol-1.

3.2.1
Define specific heat capacity and
thermal capacity.

Specific heat capacity of a substance is the energy per unit mass required per unit temperature increase.

Thermal capacity of a substance is the energy required per unit temperature increase.

3.2.10
State the assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas.

An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are perfectly eleastic
and in which there are no intermolecular attractive forces.

(One can visualize it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres which collide but which otherwise do not
interact with each other.)

3.2.11
State that temperature is a measure of
the average random kinetic energy of
the molecules of an ideal gas.

(see above)

3.2.12
Explain the macroscopic behaviour of
an ideal gas in terms of a molecular
model.

Only qualitative explanations are required. Students

should, for example, be able to explain how
a change in volume results in a change in the
frequency of particle collisions with the container
and how this relates to a change in pressure and/or
temperature.

Example 1: If the volume occupied by a gas is decreased, pressure increases because the molecules of
the gas will reach the walls of the container in less time (therefore more frequently), applying a larger
force to the walls (more collisions per second).

Example 2: If a gas is heated at constant volume, pressure increases because temperature of the gas
increases, which means that the average kinetic energy of the molecules increases, which means that

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the speeds of the molecules increase, which means that they will hit the walls more frequently and apply
more force to the walls when they hit.

3.2.3
Explain the physical differences
between the solid, liquid and gaseous
phases in terms of molecular structure
and particle motion.

Molecules (or atoms) in the solid phase are tightly packed and strongly attracted to each other; they are
unable to flow and they vibrate randomly.

Molecules in the liquid phase are farther apart and loosely attracted to each other; they can flow and they
vibrate randomly.

Molecules in the gas phase are relatively distant from neighboring molecules and move freely with little to
no interaction.

3.2.4
Describe and explain the process of
phase changes in terms of molecular
behaviour.

During melting or boiling, energy added to a substance increases the distance between molcules, thus
raising their potential energy. The average kinetic energy (temperature) of the molecules remains
constant during phase change.

During freezing or condensation, energy lost by the substance decreases the distance between
molecules, thereby decreasing potential energy.

During evaporation, the fastest molecules near the surface of a liquid are able to escape, decreasing the
average kinetic energy (temperature) of the remaining molecules.

3.2.5
Explain in terms of molecular
behaviour why temperature does not
change during a phase change.

During phase change, because molecules are already moving a fast as they can without separating,
energy supplied to a substance causes molecules to separate, increasing their potential energy, leaving
their average average kinetic energy essentially unchanged.

3.2.6
Distinguish between evaporation and

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boiling.

Boiling occurs when heat is transferred to a substance whose average kinetic energy cannot increase
any further without separation of molecules occurring (i.e. at boiling point temperature).

Evaporation can occur below the boiling point via the escape of highest-speed molecules from the
surface of the substance.

3.2.7
Define specific latent heat.

Specific latent heat is the energy per unit mass required to cause phase change.

3.2.9
Define pressure.

Pressure is force per unit area (of the surface to which the force is applied).

4.1.2
Define the terms displacement,
amplitude, frequency, period and phase
difference.

Displacement: distance and direction relative to the equilibrium (central) position of the oscilation.

Amplitude: the distance between the line of equilibrium and the point of maximum displacement.

Frequency: the number of cycles (oscillations) per second

Period: the time for one cycle; and

Phase difference: the difference between the position (angle) of one oscillator and the position (angle) of
another oscillator relative to zero phase.

4.1.3
Define simple harmonic motion (SHM)
and state the defining equation as a=-ω2x.

An object is in simple harmonic motion when its acceleration is proportional and opposite to its

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displacement.

In particular:

4.2.1
Describe the interchange between
kinetic energy and potential energy
during SHM.

There is a continuous transformation of energy from kinetic into potential, back into kinetic, etc. At the
equilibrium position, kinetic energy is maximum and potential energy is zero. At maximum displacement,
kinetic energy is zero and potential energy is maximum.

4.3.1
State what is meant by damping.

It is sufficient for students to know that damping

involves a force that is always in the opposite
direction to the direction of motion of the
oscillating particle and that the force is a dissipative
force (removes kinetic energy from the particle).

4.3.2
Describe examples of damped
oscillations.

Underdamping: small resistance forces cause gradual amplitude decrease, and slight frequency
decrease.

Overdamping: very high resistance force prevents oscillation; long time taken to return to equilibrium.

Critical damping: system returns to equilibrium quickly, but slows at just the right rate so that it does not
oscillate.

4.3.3

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State what is meant by natural

frequency of vibration and forced
oscillations.

All objects, without any application of external force, can vibrate at "natural" frequencies determined
chiefly by object length.

Using a sufficiently powerful machine, a time-varying force can be applied to an object that will make it
vibrate at the frequency of the applied force.

4.3.4
Describe graphically the variation
with forced frequency of the
amplitude of vibration of an object
close to its natural frequency of
vibration.

We can see that the the natural frequency of vibration ω0 of this object is close to 5 (units) because a
forced vibration freqency ω = 5 produces a large amplitude oscillation.

4.3.5
State what is meant by resonance.

Resonance is a condition in which the frequency of the external force on a system equals the natural
frequency of the system.

4.3.6
Describe examples of resonance

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where the effect is useful and where it

should be avoided.

Useful: musical instruments (strings, air columns, drum heads); quartz crystals; microwave oven; a child
pushing a swing

To be avoided: bridges forced into resonance may collapse; airplane wings may rip off; buildings
resonating due to an earthquake may collapse

4.4.1
Describe a wave pulse and a
continuous progressive (travelling)
wave.

A wave pulse is a single disturbance ("ripple") in a medium whose energy propagates (moves) through
the particles of the medium.

A continuous progressive (travelling) wave is a repeating series of disturbances caused by the

continuous transfer of energy to the medium.

In both cases, the particles of the medium oscillate as the wave moves through their positions, often in
SHM.

4.4.2
State that progressive (travelling)
waves transfer energy.

A wave is energy that moves through a medium, while the particles of the medium do not have any net
displacement.

It may look like these particles (black dots) are moving from the red wall on the left, all the way across to
the right! Yet they are not. Watch one dot carefully...

4.4.3
Describe and give examples of
transverse and of longitudinal waves.

In transverse waves, the direction of oscillation of the particles of the medium is perpendicular to the

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direction of motion of the wave energy.

Examples of transverse waves: wave on a string or rope, light waves are transverse. Transverse waves
(other than light waves) do not propagate through fluids.

For longitudinal waves (shown below), the particles oscillate in a direction that is parallel to the
direction of motion of the energy:

Example of longitudinal waves: sound waves

4.4.4
Describe waves in two dimensions,
including the concepts of wavefronts
and of rays.

Wavefronts ripple outward in all directions from the source of the disturbance:

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Rays perpendicular to the wavefronts can be used to represent the direction of motion of the wave
energy:

4.4.5
Describe the terms crest, trough,
compression and rarefaction.

Crest: a point of maximum (highest) displacement above the line of equilibrium.

Trough: a point of minimum (lowest) displacement below the line of equilibrium.

Compression: a point in a fluid medium at which the density of particles is at maximium value

Rarefaction: a point in a fluid medium at which the density of particles is at minimum value

4.4.6

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Define the terms displacement,

amplitude, frequency, period,
wavelength, wave speed and intensity.

For a wave:

Displacement is the distance and direction of a particle in the medium relative to the line of equilibrium.

Amplitude is the magnitude of maximum displacement of a particle in the medium.

Frequency is the number of wave cycles produced per unit time.

Period is the time for one wave cycle to be produced.

Wavelength is the distance the wave (energy) travels during one period.

Wave speed is the speed of the wave energy relative to the medium.

Intensity is the energy per unit time, per unit area delivered by the wave to some point in space. Intensity
is proportional to amplitude squared.

4.4.8
Derive and apply the relationship
between wave speed, wavelength
and frequency.

Wavelength, λ, is the distance travelled by the wave during one period, T:

4.4.9
State that all electromagnetic
waves travel with the same speed
in free space, and recall the orders
of magnitude of the wavelengths
of the principal radiations in the
electromagnetic spectrum.

(see above for what to state)

Radio wavelength: ~103 m

Microwaves: ~10-2 m

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Infrared: ~10-5 m

Visible: ~10-6 m

Ultraviolet: ~10-8 m

X-ray: ~10-10 m

Gamma: ~10-12 m

4.5.1
Describe the reflection and
transmission of waves at a boundary
between two media.

http://paws.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/reflect/reflect.html

Hard boundary:

Soft boundary:

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Low density medium to high density medium:

High density medium to low density medium:

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4.5.2
State and apply Snell’s law.

(on equation sheet)

The indicies of refraction, n, wavespeeds v, and angles of incidence and refraction are related by:

4.5.3
Explain and discuss qualitatively the
diffraction of waves at apertures and
obstacles.

When wavelength is small relative to the size of an aperture or obstacle, little diffraction occurs (i.e. the
wavefronts show little change)

When wavelength is large relative to size of an aperture or obstacle, much diffraction occurs (e.g. parallel
(line) wavefronts become circular arcs)

4.5.4

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Describe examples of diffraction.

Sound from a car horn being heard around the corner of a building, though the car cannot be seen.

Light moving through a small aperture and making a diffraction and interference pattern on a screen.

4.5.5
State the principle of superposition
and explain what is meant by
constructive interference and by
destructive interference.

Principle of superposition: The net displacement of the medium at any point is the sum of the individual
wave displacements.

Constructive interference (big blue wave) occurs when the crests of two waves are superimposed (lined
up).

Destructive interference (zero blue wave) occurs when the the crest of one wave meets the trough of
another.

5.1.1
Define electric potential difference.

Electric potential difference (between two points) is the work done per unit charge to move a positive test
charge from one point to another in an electric field.

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5.1.10
Derive and apply expressions for electrical power dissipation in resistors.

Given: (1) and (2)

(2) becomes and can be substituted into (1) to make:

(3)

OR

becomes which can be substituted into (1), yielding:

(4)

5.1.3
Define the electronvolt.

The electronvolt is defined as the work done on an electron that freely moves across a potential
difference of one volt.

5.1.5
Define electric current.

Electric current is the rate at which charge flows along a path or through a surface

The unit for electric current (ampere) is defined in terms of the force between parallel current-carrying
wires.

5.1.6
Define resistance.

Resistance is defined as the ratio of electric potential difference to electric current.

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5.1.8
State Ohm’s law.

Current is directly proportional to voltage (electrical potential difference) for conductors that follow Ohm's
Law.

5.1.9
Compare ohmic and non-ohmic behaviour.

A device is ohmic if current is directly proportional to voltage:

Filament lamps (light bulbs) exhibit non-ohmic behavior (i.e. current is NOT directly proportional to
voltage) because resistance increases as current increases (due to higher temperature):

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5.2.1
Define electromotive force (emf ).

Electromotive force is the work done per unit charge by a battery or other current-driving system.

5.2.2
Describe the concept of internal resistance.

Internal resistance is the electrical resistance inside of a battery that reduces the terminal voltage when
current flows through the battery (i.e. as current flows, the battery "eats some of its own voltage", making
less available to connected devices.

5.2.5
Describe the use of ideal ammeters and ideal voltmeters.

Ammeters are connected in series (in line) with devices. They measure current.

Voltmeters are connected in parallel (along side) with devices. They measure voltage.

5.2.6
Describe a potential divider.

A potential divider is a circuit made of two resistors in series as shown:

WIthout Z2, all of the input voltage, Vin, would be delivered to Z1. Because of the addition of Z2, the input
voltage is divided between Z1 and Z2 making the output voltage a fraction of the input voltage.

5.2.7
Explain the use of sensors in potential divider circuits.

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A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has very high resistance when no light shines on it. As light intensity
increases, the resistance decreases. An LDR in a potential divider (as Z2) makes output voltage
approximately zero at zero light intensity; voltage increases as light intensity increases. Practical
application: light sensor.

A negative temperature coefficient thermistor (NTC) is a device whose resistance decreases as

temperature increases. An NTC in a potential divider at low temperature makes the output voltage low.
As temperature increases, the output voltage increases. Practical application: digital
thermometer/sensor.

A strain gauge is a device whose resistance increases when it is stretched. Output voltage decreases,
making voltage an indicator of strain/tension.

6.1.1
State Newton’s universal law of gravitation.

Every two objects attract each other with a force of gravity proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.

6.1.2
Define gravitational field strength.

Gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass acting at a point in space.

6.1.4
Derive an expression for gravitational field strength at the surface of a planet, assuming that all its mass
is concentrated at its centre.

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6.2.1
State that there are two types of electric charge.

Charge occurs in two types: positive and negative.

6.2.2
State and apply the law of conservation of charge.

In any interaction, the total electric charge remains constant (i.e. charge is never lost or gained by the
universe)

6.2.3
Describe and explain the difference in the electrical properties of conductors and insulators.

Conductors have low electrical resistance because their atoms' outer electrons are free to move from one
atom to another.

Insulators have high electrical resistance because their electrons are tightly bound and not free to move.

6.2.4
State Coulomb’s law.

Every two charged objects apply an electrostatic force to each other that is proportional to the product of
their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.

Formally:

6.2.5
Define electric field strength.

Electric field strength is the force per unit charge acting on a positive test charge.

6.2.7
Draw the electric field patterns for different charge configurations.

Negative point charge, positive point charge:

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Two positive charges:

Two negative charges and one positive, one negative:

Parallel plates:

Charged sphere:

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6.3.1
State that moving charges give rise to magnetic fields.

Magnetic fields are produced by moving charges (e.g. current in a wire).

6.3.2
Draw magnetic field patterns due to currents.

Long, straight wire:

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Single loop:

Solenoid:

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6.3.5
Define the magnitude and direction of a magnetic field.

Manetic field magnitude is force exerted on a test wire per unit current, per unit length.

Direction of magnetic field at a point in space is perpendicular to the direction of the current causing the
field, and perpendicular to a line drawn from the current to the point at which the field exists.

OR

defines the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field, , in relationship to force,
charge and the velocity of the charge.

7.1.1
Describe a model of the atom that features a small nucleus surrounded by electrons.

Negatively-charged electrons are kept in "orbit" around the positive nucleus as a result of the electrostatic
attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.

7.1.2
Outline the evidence that supports a nuclear model of the atom.

In the Geiger-Marsden experiment, thin gold foil was bombarded by alpha particles.

most alpha particles went straight through

a small fraction were "scattered" at wide angles

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Since alpha particles are positively charged, something massive and positively charged had to repel
them, yet be very small so that most alpha particles were not affected, ergo positive nucleus.

7.1.3
Outline one limitation of the simple model of the nuclear atom.

In a simple nuclear atom, electrons may orbit at any distance. Since electrons emit light, they would be
able to emit all colors of light, yet atomic spectra of real atoms do not contain all colors of light.

OR

As electrons orbit, they accelerate (centripetally). Accellerating charges emit electromagnetic energy. In
the simple nuclear model, electrons would constantly emit energy, and thus fall into the nucleus rather
than remaining in orbit.

7.1.4
Outline evidence for the existence of atomic energy levels.

Absorption and emission spectra reveal that light is absorbed and emitted in packets of energy (photons).

7.1.5
Explain the terms nuclide, isotope and nucleon.

Nuclide: a type or category of atoms having the same number of protons (e.g. "Carbon", all atoms of
which have 6 protons)

Isotope: a category of atoms having the same number of protons and the same number of neutrons (e.g.
The Carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, whereas the different isotope, Carbon-14, has 6
protons and 8 neutrons)

Nucleon: a proton or a neutron that is in the nucleus of an atom.

7.1.6
Define nucleon number A, proton number Z and neutron number N.

Nucleon number, A, is the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

Proton number, Z, is the number of protons in a nucleus.

Neutron number, N, is the number of neutrons in a nucleus.

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7.1.7
Describe the interactions in a nucleus.

Coulomb (electrostatic) forces repel protons, yet short range, strong nuclear forces attract protons and
neutrons to each other, holding them together.

7.2.1
Describe the phenomenon of natural radioactive decay.

Some isotopes of nuclides are unstable and spontaneously emit particles or energy from the nucleus.
Except in the case of gamma decay, there is a resulting change in the numbers of protons or neutrons in
nucleus.

7.2.2
Describe the properties of alpha (α)and beta (β) particles and gamma(γ) radiation.

Alpha particles are emitted ralatively slowly (~6% of the speed of light) contain two neutrons and two
protons, and are identical to Helium nuclei (+2e charge). They are emitted with discrete (not continuous
range) or energies.

Beta particles are essentially fast electrons (~98% of the speed of light, -e charge) that are emitted with a
continuous range of energies.

Gamma rays are photons (speed of light) with very short wavelength (<10-12).

7.2.3
Describe the ionizing properties of alpha (α) and beta (β) particles and gamma (γ) radiation.

Each of these types of radiation ionizes the air through which it moves, knocking electrons out of the
atoms in the air. The ratios of ionizations in air per unit length for alpha, beta, and gamma are
10000:100:1.

7.2.4
Outline the biological effects of ionizing radiation.

Ionizing radiation can break chemical bonds between atoms in cell components, including DNA.

Short-term effects of a high daily dose: burns and radiation sickness

Long-term effects of a low daily dosage: cancer and genetic mutation.

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7.2.5
Explain why some nuclei are stable while others are unstable.

Stable nuclei tend to have roughly equal numbers of protons and neutrons. Neutrons interspersed among
the protons may prevent protons from getting too close to each other (close enough to experience a high
enough Coulomb force to possibly escape).

Too few neutrons can allow protons to be too close together, causing Coulomb forces to be greater than
nuclear forces.

Too many neutrons (e.g. in large nuclei) can mean that one "side" of the nucleus is too far away from the
other "side" to be attracted well by short range nuclear forces between the sides. Again, Coulomb forces
may cause escape.

7.2.6
State that radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process and that the rate of decay decreases
exponentially with time.

Radioactive decay is random and spontaneous (can't be stopped). Rate of decay decreases
exponentially with time. From any starting amount, the time for half of the starting amount to decay
(half-life) is constant.

7.2.7
Define the term radioactive half-life.

Radioactive half-life is the time required for half of a starting amount of a radiactive substance to decay.

7.3.1
Describe and give an example of an artificial (induced) transmutation.

In artificial transmutation, a particle fired at the nucleus of an atom is absorbed, causing the number of
protons or neutrons in the nucleus to change.

Example:

7.3.10
State that nuclear fusion is the main source of the Sun’s energy.

Nuclear fusion of Hydrogen at the core of the Sun converts mass into energy that is ultimately emitted
from the surface of the sun.

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7.3.3
Define the term unified atomic mass unit.

The atomic mass unit, u, is defined to be the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

1 u = 931.5 MeV c-2

7.3.5
Define the concepts of mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon.

Mass defect is the difference between:

1. the actual mass of a nucleus

AND

2. the expected mass of the nucleus, calculated by summing multiples single proton and single neutron
masses.

Binding energy is the energy required to separate all protons and neutrons from a nucleus.

Binding energy per nucleon is the binding energy of a nucleus divided by the number of nucleons present
in the nucleus.

7.3.6
Draw and annotate a graph showing the variation with nucleon number of the binding energy per
nucleon.

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7.3.8
Describe the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

In nuclear fission, a relatively large nucleus absorbs a neutron, becomes unstable, and splits to produce
two smaller nuclei and one or more neutrons. Some of the mass of the original nucleus is converted into
energy, released in the form of gamma photons and kinetic energy.

Nuclear fusion requires extremely high pressure and temperature so that two small nuclei become close
enough to each other for short-range nuclear forces to exceed Coulomb repulsion and "fuse" the two
nuclei into one. Some of the mass of the original nuclei is converted into energy, which is released in the
form of gamma photons.

8.1.1
State that thermal energy may be completely converted to work in a single process, but that continuous
conversion of this energy into work requires a cyclical process and the transfer of some energy from (out
of) the system.

(see above)

8.1.2
Explain what is meant by degraded energy.

Students should understand that, in any process that involves energy transformations, the energy that is
transferred to the surroundings (thermal energy) is "degraded", meaning it is no longer available to
perform useful work.

8.1.4
Outline the principal mechanisms involved in the production of electrical power.

Electrical energy may be produced by rotating coils in a magnetic field.

8.2.1
Identify different world energy sources.

Fossil fuels: coal, oil, natural gas (all produce CO2)

Nuclear fuel: Uranium-235, Plutonium-239 (no CO2)

Renewable sources: wind, solar, hydro-power

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8.2.2
Outline and distinguish between renewable and non-renewable energy sources.

Renewble energy sources are those that cannot be used at a rate higher than the rate at which they are
produced by nature (e.g. solar and wind energy).

Non-renewable sources are those which can be used at a rate far higher than the rate at which they are
produced by nature (e.g. coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel).

8.2.3
Define the energy density of a fuel.

Energy density of a fuel is the useful energy per unit mass of fuel.

(measured in J kg-1)

8.2.4
Discuss how choice of fuel is influenced by its energy density.

Example:

A particular sample of coal has an energy density of 32 MJ kg-1.

Wood has an energy density of 18 MJ kg-1.

Q: Wood is arguably easier to obtain than coal, which has to be mined. Yet why did coal replace wood as
the fuel of choice for steam train engines?

A: Apart from the fact that a kilogram of coal takes less space (to carry) than a kilogram of wood, each
kilogram of coal provides roughly twice the amount of energy, meaning that the train will have to refuel
half as many times per month as a wooden train with the same schedule to keep.

8.2.5
State the relative proportions of world use of the different energy sources that are available.

37% Oil

25% Coal

23% Natural gas

6% Nuclear

4% Biomass

3% Hydro

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~1% Solar, wind, geothermal, biofuel

8.2.6
Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of various energy sources.

Fossil fuel energy production

Advantages: Abundant, reliable, geographically unlimited, high energy density

Disadvantages: CO2 production, other pollution of air & oceans present long-term risks to human
environment

Nuclear fuel

Advantages: Abundant and reliable, almost geographically unlimited, extremely high energy
density, no CO2 production
Disadvantages: Extremely dangerous waste products, unless controlled, can present short-term
and significant long-term risks to human environment

Solar, Wind, Hydro

Advantages: no CO2 production, pollution or direct waste products

Disadvantages: Variable reliability, geographically limited, very low energy density

8.3.1
Outline the historical and geographical reasons for the widespread use of fossil fuels.

High energy densities allowed for industrialization (the use of machines to replace human or animal
labor). To maximize profit (minimize fuel transport cost) industries were built close to large deposits of
fossil fuel, or close to fuel delivery points such as ports.

8.3.2
Discuss the energy density of fossil fuels with respect to the demands of power stations.

Assuming a power plant electrical energy production rate of of 1000 MW, and an efficiency of 50%, the
plant must extract 2000 megajoules of energy per second from coal.

Since coal has an energy density of only (let's say) 32 megajoules per kilogram, we need a flow of
2000/32, or 62.5 kilograms of coal per second into the power plant's furnace.

8.3.3
Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages associated with the transportation and storage of
fossil fuels.

Advantages

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inexpensive
constant, high energy density
easily transported to any location
used directly by many machines/devices

Disadvantages

can leak/spill, polluting human environment

will run out
produces greenhouse gases

8.3.4
State the overall efficiency of power stations fuelled by different fossil fuels.

Nuclear and Hydroelectric: 90% efficiency

Natural gas: 50-60% efficiency

Coal 40-50% efficiency

Wind: 35% efficiency

Solar: 30% efficiency

8.3.5
Describe the environmental problems associated with the recovery of fossil fuels and their use in power
stations.

1. Coal mines can contaminate local water supplies with Sulfur and heavy metals.
2. Oil spills damage ecosystems and human food supplies
3. Coal and oil burning release CO2, a greenhouse gas
4. Coal burning releases heavy metals into the atmosphere, which move into the sea, then fish, and
then humans who eat the fish

8.4.1
Describe how neutrons produced in a fission reaction may be used to initiate further fission reactions
(chain reaction).

Fission typically produces two or three neutrons, each of which is capable of splitting another atom, each
of which then produce two to three more neutrons. At or beyond critical mass, there are enough
fissionable atoms present to absorb the neutrons produced, causing a or trend in the rate of
fission.

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8.4.10
Outline the problems associated with producing nuclear power using nuclear fusion.

Fusion power requires that a large quantity of plasma be maintained at high temperature and high
pressure; the plasma is difficult to confine.

8.4.12
Distinguish between a photovoltaic cell and a solar heating panel.

Photovoltaic cells produce voltage by absorbing sunlight (photoelectric effect); light energy is transformed
into electrical potential energy, which can be used by electrical devices.

Solar heating panels can transform light energy into the internal energy of water, providing hot water for a
household, or, on a larger scale, producing steam for electrical power generation.

8.4.13
Outline reasons for seasonal and regional variations in the solar power incident per unit area of the
Earth’s surface.

1. Since the Earth's axis is tilted, sunlight reaches northern and southern hemispheres with different
angles of incidence througout the year, causing a variation in solar power.
2. Regions at high latitude can have very short hours of daytime
3. Some regions are often overcast with clouds, which reduce solar power

8.4.15
Distinguish between different hydroelectric schemes.

1. water storage in lakes

2. tidal water storage
3. pump storage

8.4.16
Describe the main energy transformations that take place in hydroelectric schemes.

Gravitational potential energy of water→kinetic energy of water→kinetic energy of turbine→electrical

energy

8.4.18
Outline the basic features of a wind generator.

A tower or large pole supports a generator that is turned by the force of wind against multiple, large

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wing-like blades.

8.4.19
Determine the power that may be delivered by a wind generator, assuming that the wind kinetic energy is
completely converted into mechanical kinetic energy, and explain why this is impossible.

Use . If all kinetic energy in the wind were converted into electrical energy, the
air would "come to a stop" and acculmulate at the wind turbine; pressure from the surrounding air
prevents this from being a possibility.

8.4.2
Distinguish between controlled nuclear fission (power production) and uncontrolled nuclear fission
(nuclear weapons).

Controlled nuclear fission involves the absorption of neutons by control rods, causing a constant rate of
fission. Hence energy is produced at a relatively low, constant rate

In uncontrolled nuclear fission all neutrons produced are free to cause further fission. Rapid, exponential
growth in the rate of fission releases immense energy in a very short period of time.

8.4.21
Describe the principle of operation of an oscillating water column (OWC) ocean-wave energy converter.

These devices generate electricity from the wave-driven rise and fall of water in a cylindrical shaft. The
rising and falling water column drives air into and out of the top of the shaft, powering an air-driven
turbine.

(NOAA)

8.4.3
Describe what is meant by fuel enrichment.

In nature, samples of Uranium contain mostly U-238, mixed together with just a small bit of U-235. Fuel
enrichment is the process of using technology to produce samples of Uranium containing a relatively high
ratio of U-235 to U-238.

8.4.4
Describe the main energy transformations that take place in a nuclear power station.

Nuclear energy→kinetic energy of fission products→internal energy of water→kinetic energy of rotation (and

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heat loss)→electrical energy

8.4.5
Discuss the role of the moderator and the control rods in the production of controlled fission in a thermal
fission reactor.

Neutrons produced by fission are at first too fast to be absorbed by remaining U-235 nuclei. A
"moderator" material (such as graphite or water) is used to slow the neutrons so that they can be
captured by U-235 nuclei.

Control rods absorb neutrons to prevent uncontrolled nuclear fission.

8.4.6
Discuss the role of the heat exchanger in a fission reactor.

Water that is directly heated by fission contains highly radioactive fission products. A heat exchanger
transfers heat from the "dirty" water to a separate, "clean" water system that drives the generator turbine.

8.4.7
Describe how neutron capture by a nucleus of uranium-238 (238U) results in the production of a nucleus
of plutonium-239 (239Pu).

Uranium 238 that captures a neutron becomes Uranium 239, which undergoes two beta decays to
become Plutonium 239:

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8.4.8
Describe the importance of plutonium-239 (239Pu) as a nuclear fuel.

Plutonium-239 is used as a fuel in other types of nuclear reactors.

8.4.9
Discuss safety issues and risks associated with the production of nuclear power.

1. the possibility of thermal meltdown

2. problems associated with nuclear waste
3. problems associated with the mining of uranium
4. the possibility that a nuclear power program may be used as a means to produce nuclear
weapons

8.5.1
Calculate the intensity of the Sun’s radiation incident on a planet.

for surfaces directly facing the sun.

8.5.10
State the Stefan–Boltzmann law and apply it to compare emission ratesfrom different surfaces.

Power emitted by a blackbody is proportional to the product of emissivity, surface area and temperature
to the fourth power.

power=eσAT4

8.5.12

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Define surface heat capacity Cs.

Surface heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of a 1m2 by 1K.

8.5.2
Define albedo.

Albedo is the ratio of total scattered power (from the sun) to total incident power.

8.5.3
State factors that determine a planet’s albedo.

The Earth’s albedo varies daily and is dependent on season (cloud formations) and latitude. Oceans
have a low value but snow a high value. The global annual mean albedo is 0.3 (30%) on Earth.

8.5.4
Describe the greenhouse effect.

1. Visible light passes through the earth's atmosphere and is absorbed

2. The earth re-radiates mostly infrared light back toward space
3. The infrared light is partially scattered back to earth by greenhouse gases such as CO2
4. Net effect is that more of sun's energy stays at earth's surface because of the greenhouse
"blanket" effect

8.5.5
Identify the main greenhouse gases and their sources.

1. Water vapor; earth's oceans

2. Carbon dioxide; forest fires, active volcanos, fossil fuel burning
3. Methane; wetlands, oceans, farms, processing of fossil fuels, burning biomass
4. Nitrous oxide; forests, oceans, soil, grasslands, burning fossil fuels, manufacture of
cement&fertilizers

8.5.6
Explain the molecular mechanisms by which greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation.

1. Molecules can rotate and vibrate.

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2. Molecules absorb (light) energy in discrete quantities (by rotating/vibrating faster).

3. Differences in energy between vibrational/rotational energy levels match infrared photon energies.

8.5.8
Outline the nature of black-body radiation.

1. Power (light) output proportional to (temperature)4

2. (Light) energy emitted over a full range of wavelengths
3. Most energy emitted at a specific (peak) wavelength determined by the temperature of the object
4. As temperature increases, peak output wavelength decreases (toward the "blue/violet" end of the
spectrum)

8.5.9
Draw and annotate a graph of the emission spectra of black bodies at different temperatures.

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8.6.1
Describe some possible models of global warming.

changes in the composition of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

increased solar flare activity
cyclical changes in the Earth’s orbit
volcanic activity

8.6.11
Identify some possible solutions to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect.

greater efficiency of power production

replacing the use of coal and oil with natural gas
use of combined heating and power systems (CHP)
increased use of renewable energy sources and nuclear power
carbon dioxide capture and storage
use of hybrid vehicles

8.6.12
Discuss international efforts to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Kyoto Protocol
Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Developmentand Climate (APPCDC)

8.6.2
State what is meant by the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Enhancement of the greenhouse effect is caused by human activities.

8.6.3
Identify the increased combustion of fossil fuels as the likely major cause of the enhanced greenhouse
effect.

Students should be aware that, although debatable,the generally accepted view of most scientists isthat
human activities, mainly related to burning offossil fuels, have released extra carbon dioxide intothe
atmosphere.

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8.6.4
Describe the evidence that links global warming to increased levels of greenhouse gases.

International ice core research produces evidence of atmospheric composition and mean global
temperatures over thousands of years (ice cores up to 420,000 years have been drilled in the Russian
Antarctic base, Vostok).

8.6.5
Outline some of the mechanisms that may increase the rate of global warming.

global warming reduces ice/snow cover, which in turn changes the albedo, to increase rate of heat
absorption
temperature increase reduces the solubility of CO2 in the sea and increases atmospheric
concentrations
deforestation reduces carbon fixation

8.6.6
Define coefficient of volume expansion.

The coefficient of volume expansion is the fractional change in volume per unit change in temperature.

8.6.7
State that one possible effect of the enhanced greenhouse effect is a rise in mean sea-level.

(see above)

8.6.8
Outline possible reasons for a predicted rise in mean sea-level.

1. Water expands when heated above 4°C.

2. Ice on land that melts would produce more water in the sea.

Students should be aware that precise predictions are difficult to make due to factors such as:

anomalous expansion of water (i.e. water expands as it cools from 4°C to 0°C)
different effects of ice melting on sea water compared to ice melting on land

8.6.9
Identify climate change as an outcome of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

(see above)

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(Example climate change logic)

(Enhanced greenhouse effect→higher average surface temperature→higher ocean evaporation

rate→more cloud cover, more precipitation)

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