CHAPTER -2-
1- Understanding the
characteristics of filters.
2- Understanding the
advantages of active
filters.
3. Implementing second-
order filters with integrator
circuit.
Filters
Filters: which exist everywhere in communication systems, are designed
to pass a specified band of frequencies while attenuating all signals outside
this band.
Filters are usually
classified according
to:
Frequency Response Circuit
Filtering Range
in Pass Band Component
Low-Pass
High-Pass
Filtering Range
Band-Pass
Band-Reject
Butterworth
Filters
Frequency Response
in Pass Pand
Chebyshev
Filters
Passive filters:
Passive Filters are the circuits that contain only passive
components (resistors, inductors and
capacitors) connected in such a way that
Circuit
they will pass certain frequencies while
Component rejecting others.
Active filters:
which are the only type covered in this
Active Filters
chapter, employ active components
(transistors or operational amplifiers) plus
resistors, inductors and capacitors.
advantages of Active filters :
Active filters are widely used in modern communication systems,
because they have the following advantages:
1) Because the transfer function with inductive characteristic can be achieved by
particular circuit design, resistors can be used instead of inductors.
2) The high input impedance and low output impedance of the operational amplifier
means that the filter circuit is excellent in isolation characteristic and suitable for
cascade.
3) Because active components provide amplification, therefore active filters have gain.
In the following sections, we will focus on the characteristics of the second-
order low-pass and high-pass active filters.
Second-Order Low-Pass Filter
A low-pass filter: is an electronic circuit that has a constant output voltage
from dc up to a cutoff frequency. As the frequency increase above the cutoff
frequency, the output voltage is attenuated.
The cutoff frequency: is the frequency where the output voltage is reduced to
0.707 times its pass band value, also called the 0.707 frequency, the 3dB
frequency, or the corner frequency.
Miller Integrator
A typical active low-pass filter circuit, shown in Fig. 2-1, is commonly called inverting
integrator or Miller integrator.
Its transfer function can be expressed by:
From Eq. (2-1) [not required], we can find that the Miller integrator circuit is
a first-order low-pass filter. Therefore, a second-order low-pass filter can be
easily
constructed by cascading two Miller integrators with an inverting amplifier.
The block diagram of second-order low-pass filter, shown in Fig. 2-2, is
consisted of two Miller integrators, a unity-gain inverting amplifier and adder.
Therefore, the transfer function for second-order low-pass filter in a general form
is:
A practical second-order low-pass filter is indicated in Fig. 2-3.
In that circuit in Fig(2-3):
❑ The operational amplifier U1:A performs the functional combination of the
adder and the first Miller integrator in Fig. 2-2.
❑ The components R1, R2, R3, C1 and U1:AP form the Miller integrator with the
function of weighted adder,
❑ The adder is used to add the input signal to the feedback signal from the U1:C
output.
❑ The combination of R4, C2 and U1:B is the second miller integrator,
❑ And the combination of R5, R6 and U1:C is a unity-gain inverting amplifier.
Since this circuit design satisfies the Butterworth criteria, the response
curve in its pass band is flat and no ripple.
Second-Order High-Pass Filter
The frequency response of a second-order high-pass filter is opposite to that of a
second-order low-pass filter. A high-pass filter attenuates the output voltage for all
frequencies below the cutoff frequency.
Above the cutoff frequency, the magnitude of the output voltage is constant.
The block diagram of Fig. 2-4 is a second-order high-pass filter constructed by two
Miller integrators, an invertin amplifier and two adders.
The transfer function in a general form of second-order high-pass filters
can be given by:
Following this block diagram, a practical second-order high-pass filter is
indicated in Fig. 2-5.
In the circuit of Fig. 2-5:
❑ The components R1, R2, R7, C1 and U1:A are connected as the first
Miller integrator with the function of weighted adder.
❑ The adder is used to add the input signal to the U 1:C output signal.
❑ The second adder, constructed by R 2, R4, R5, and U1:B , is used to add
the input signal to the U1:A output signal.
❑ The components R6, C2 and U1:C form the second Miller integrator
circuit.
Since this circuit design satisfies the Butterworth criteria, the response
curve in its pass band is flat and no ripple.
All of filter circuits discussed above are second-order filters.
If desired, higher order filters can be constructed by connecting these
filters in cascade and modifying component values to meet Butterworth
or Chebyshev criteria.
The operational amplifier, used in our experiment circuits, is the LM348
that includes four OP AMPs and has the unity-gain bandwidth of 1 MHz.
To improve the response in the band of high frequencies, the OP AMP
LM318 can be used instead of LM348 in second-order high-pass filter
circuit. The LM318 has the unity-gain bandwidth of 15MHz.
