The Role of the Latin and Greek Languages Greek and Roman cultures are the
foundations of western culture - its literature, ideas, art, politics, and conceptions of
the individual. Greek myth is still a shared fund of images and narratives that express
human experience. Latin is the major source of English vocabulary, and Greek
provides scientific language in many fields. Greek and Roman cultures help us to
understand the relationship between western culture and other cultural systems and
place ourselves better in the world. The study of Latin and Greek culture provides
students with a better understanding of the roots of their own culture, which has been
so strongly 5 influenced by Roman and Greek art, Medicine, law, and religion. The
pursuit of Latin and Greek language skills not only provides the broadening
experience which comes from learning how to think and express oneself in another
language, but can also be great aid to building vocabulary and language skills in
English. Latin and Greek literature and mythology introduce you to classical authors
whose excellence is beyond question and whose works and genres have influenced
Western literature down to our own day.
• Greek is the language of Homer, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Diogenes, Plutarch
and the Bible. • Latin is the language of Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Vergil, Horace,
Ovid, St. Augustine and St.Francis of Assisi. • After the Roman conquest of Britain
under Emperor Claudius, the native Picts' Celtic language first became infused with
Latin, then merged with the new invaders' Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) dialects, and
finally became English. Thus, Greek and Latin can be great aids to building
vocabulary and language skills in English As the Romans conquered the then known
world, Latin became the universal language of Italy and the provinces.
Many centuries after the fall of Rome, Latin still ruled supreme. To this very day,
Latin is the language of the Catholic Church, and during the formative period of the
western European languages it was incorporated in every one of them. The Latin
language has been around for more than 2500 years, and throughout the years has
played a leading role in various fields. Not only was Latin the language of the
Romans in antiquity, but at a later stage it also became the language of administrators,
the Catholic Church, scholars and artists. Even now the Latin language is present in a
prominent way, especially in Medicine.
Science is of international nature. The development of technical languages in the
individual branches of science is connected with frequent borrowing of foreign
language lexical material which is mostly of Latin or Greek origin. Greek and 6 Latin
represent the traditional language material to be used in medical terminology. English
medical terminology developed from medieval Latin terminology, which had
absorbed a developed Greek terminology. Greek medicine migrated to Rome at an
early date, and many Latin terms crept into its terminology. Only a few medical terms
came from the oldest developmental period of the English language (from Anglo-
Saxon). Latin was the language of science up to the beginning of the 18th Century, so
all medical texts were written in Latin.
LESSON 1 _____________________________________________
PHONETICS: READING AND PRONUNCIATION
ROMAN ALPHABET The Roman alphabet contains 25 letters: six vowels and
nineteen consonants. The English language also uses the Roman alphabet with the
additional letter W. You should learn the Roman alphabet that follows:
II. PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS
The Latin vowels are similar to the corresponding English vowels.
a as in “under”: cáput (head)
e as in “met”: vértebra
i as in “sit”: vagína (vagina)
y as in “crystal”: týmpanum (drum)
o as in “spot”: córpus (body)
u as in “put”: púlmo (lung)
Diphthong is a combination of two vowel pronounced together in one
syllable.
au is pronounced as in “down” : áuris (ear)
eu is pronounced [eu] : pléura (pleura)
III. PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS AND DIGRAPHS
The Latin consonants are similar to the corresponding English consonants
(see under “Roman alphabet”), except c, g, j, l, s, x and z.
Before e, i, y, ae, oe is pronounced like /ts/. It is similar to the ts
of English plants: cérvix /tserviks/ - neck: cýstis /tsistis/ -
bladder; caécum /tsekum/ - cecum.
C - Before a, o, u, before consonants and at the end of a word it is
pronounced as /k/: cáput – head: cósta – rib; cutis – skin; crísta –
crest; lac – milk.
g Is always pronounced as /g/ in give, get, go.
j Is pronounced as /j/ in yes, you, young.
l Is always palatalized and soft as in look, live, life
.
S - Between two vowels or between a vowel and the voiced
consonant m or n is pronounced as /z/ in nose, rose, but before
vowels, consonants and at the end of a word it is pronounced as
/s/ in solve, slow, maps.
x Is pronounced as /ks/ in next, larynx, but sometimes between
vowels it is pronounced as /gz/ in examination, example.
Z - In Greek words is always pronounced as /z/ in zero, zone, but in
words of other origin such as Zíncum (zinc), influénza (grippe)
it is pronounced as /ts/.
One of the main differences between English and Latin consonants is that in Latin
p, t, k are not aspirated (i.e. there is no puff of breath after them) as in English.
Another difference is that “l” is always palatalized, or soft.
Digraph is a group of two letters representing one sound.
There are two vowel digraphs in Latin:
ae/oe Representing the sound similar to the English /e/ in pen:
vertebrae (vertebrae), oedema (swelling).
Attention !!! - Two dots placed over the letter e indicate that ae
or oe are not digraphs and their letters denote different sounds:
áër /a-er/ - air; díploё /diploe/ - spongy substance.
Besides, there are several consonant digraphs commonly used in Latin. They
are pronounced as follows:
ch as /kh/: núcha /nuha/ neck
ph as /f/: ráphe /rafe/ - suture
rh as /r/: rhéxis /reksis/ - rupture
th as /t/: thórax /toraks/ - chest
IV. PRONUNCIATION OF LETTER COMBINATIONS
These letter combinations are pronounced as follows:
ngu
• as /ngv/ before vowels: língua /lingva/ - tongue, language;
• as /ngu/ before consonants: ángulus /angulus/ - angle
qu • as /kw/ áqua /akwa/ - water
su
• as /sv/ before vowels a,e: suávis /svavis/ - pleasant;
• as /su/ in different syllables: súlcus /sulkus/ - furrow or groove
ti
• as /tsi/ before vowels: spátium /spatsium/ - space; articulátio
/artikuliatsio/ - joint;
• as /ti/ before consonants, after s,t,x: tíbia /tibia/ - shinebone;
óstium /ostium/ - opening\
V. EXERCISES
1. Read the following words paying special attention to the vowels:
ála (wing), mínor (small), artéria (artery), lámina (plate), abdómen (belly), fóvea
(pit), fíbula (fibula; long, thin outer bone from knee to ankle), fémur (thighbone),
línea áspera (rough line), pálma (palm), infundíbulum (funnel), régio
(region), inférior (lower), antérior (situated in front of), membrána (membrane),
manúbrium stérni (first or upper part of breast-bone), véna (vein), húmerus
(bone of upper arm), gingíva (gum), úlna (medial bone of forearm), úvula
(lingula), hépar (liver), hílus (hilus).
2. Read the following words paying special attention to the vowels i and j:
intestínum (intestine), iáter (physician, doctor), páries inférior (lower wall),
ínsula (island), junctúra (junction), júgum (iúgum) (eminence, mound), juguláris
(iuguláris) (jugular), canális palatínus májor (máior) (greater palatine canal),
fóssa infratemporális (infratemporal fossa), tubérculum május (máius) (greater
tubercle), jejúnum (ieiúnum) (jejunum), ilíacus (iliac).
3. Read the following words paying special attention to Latin vowel digraphs
and diphthongs:
áuris (ear), autopsía (necropsy), Áurum (gold), pléura (pleura), neurológia
(neurology), pneumonía (inflammation of the lungs), cóstae (ribs), oedéma
(swelling), anaemía (anemia), gangraéna (gangrene), amoéba (ameba), áër (air),
poëta (poet), Áloë (aloe), aërophobía (morbid fear of drafts or of fresh air),
vértebrae (vertebrae), caécus (cecal), oesóphagus (oesophagus), auriculáris
(auricular), córpus vesícae félleae (body of gallbladder), aponeurósis
(aponeurosis), pseudomembrána (false membrane), uropoёticus (urogegenus/
urinogenous), díploë (diploe), aurícula (auricle), haematopoёticus
(hemopoietic), dýspnoë (dispnea), régio glutaéa (gluteal region), peronaéus
(fibular), neurocránium (skull), caudális (caudal).
4.Read the following words paying special attention to the letter
combinations
ch, ph, qu, rh, th, ngu and ti:
núcha (nape), chóle (bile), chórda (cord), chárta (paper), phálanx (fingerbone),
diaphrágma (diaphragm), phárynx (pharynx), áqua (water), squamósus (scaly),
quádriceps (four-headed), rhizóma (rhizome), rhéxis (rupture), rheumatísmus
(rheumatism), thórax (chest), rhinorrhagía (bleeding from the nose), therapía
(treatment), thrómbus (blood clot), língua (tongue, language), únguis (nail),
sánguis (blood), unguéntum (ointment), ángulus (angle), linguláris (lingular),
trianguláris (triangular), tíbia (shinebone), téstis (testis), tinctúra (tincture),
óstium (opening), articulátio (joint), substántia (substance), spátium (space),
solútio (solution), curátio (treatment), vítium (defect)
VI. VOCABULARY
Part 1.
1. ala, ae f wing
2. costa, ae f rib
3. crista, ae f crest
4. fibŭla, ae f fibula, splint-bone
5. fossa, ae f shallow depression or cavity
6. glandŭla, ae f gland
7. lamĭna, ae f plate
8. liněa, ae f line
9. mandibŭla, ae f lower jaw
10.maxilla, ae f upper jaw
11.orbĭta, ae f eyesocket
12.porta, ae f entry
13.scapŭla, ae f shoulder blade
14.spina, ae f spine
15.tibĭa, ae f shinebone, larger of two bones of
leg
16.vena, ae f vein
17.vertěbra, ae f vertebra
Part 2.
18.apertūra, ae f aperture, opening
19.aorta, ae f main artery of body
20.arterĭa, ae f artery
21.capsŭla, ae f capsule, membrane or saclike
structure
22.chorda, ae f cord
23.cochlěa, ae f cochlea
24.columna, ae f column
25.concha, ae f concha
26.fascĭa, ae f fascia
27.fověa, ae f small pit or depression
28.incisūra, ae f notch
29.lingua, ae f tongue, language
30.nucha, ae f nape of neck
31.sella, ae f saddle
32.sutūra, ae f suture; line of junction
33.vagīna, ae f sheath
34.valvŭla, ae f small valva; valve
