1: Introduction

1 Introduction
Springs are groundwater discharge points that appear where a water bearing layer (aquifer) intersects with the
ground surface and water seeps out of rock pores, fissures, fractures, or depressions. Springs are the main source
of water for millions of people in the mid hills of the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) (Tambe et al., 2011; Negi and
Joshi, 2004; Chapagain, Ghimire, and Shrestha, 2017). Both rural and urban communities depend on springs to
meet their drinking, domestic, and agricultural water needs. In addition, springs play an important role in providing
water for ecosystem services, such as base flow in rivers, while supporting vegetation and wildlife (Ghimire et al.,
2014; Cantonati et al., 2006). Springs in the HKH also have religious and cultural significance. Over the years,
there has been increasing concern that springs are drying up, becoming seasonal, or their discharge reducing. A
study by Tiwari (2000) found that around 45% of springs in one catchment in the Central Indian Himalayas had
dried up or become seasonal, while a survey of villages in another catchment in the same region found a decline
in spring discharge by 25–75% over the previous 50 years (Valdiya and Bartarya, 1991). Chapagain, Ghimire,
and Shrestha (2017) found that spring discharge in a mid-hill region in Nepal had declined by over 30% in 30
years. Most of these results, and the concerns in general, are based on anecdotal data and the general perceptions
of local people due to the lack of long-term monitoring in the region. However, a recent study by Kumar and
Sen (2017) in Uttarakhand (Central Indian Himalayas) used instrumentation and long-term monitoring to derive
flow duration curves for spring discharge. These showed that discharge had declined in the dry season, thereby
confirming decades of anecdotal evidence. A number of studies based on people’s perceptions have attributed the
drying of springs to causes such as an increase in ambient temperature (Pandey et al., 2018); late onset and erratic
rainfall patterns (Macchi, Gurung, and Hoermann, 2014); changes in land use – mostly in the form of conversion
of forest to agricultural land (Joshi et al., 2014), and forest degradation (Pandey et al., 2018; Rautela, 2015),
including changes in forest type (Naudiyal and Schmerbeck, 2015; Ghimire et al., 2012). While it is well recognized
that water supply from springs is one of the many provisioning services provided by forests (Paudyal et al., 2015),
the role of springs in providing forest biodiversity (and hence habitat services) and regulating services in spring
habitats (for example, in maintaining water quality) is less well known, but of critical importance.

Springs are a part of the groundwater system, but the science of hydrogeology that governs the occurrence and
movement of water in mountain aquifers, and thus the occurrence of springs, is poorly understood. This often results
in misconceptions regarding springs, which in turn leads to misaligned policies that exacerbate the problem. Springs
are also subject to complex socio-technical and informal governance systems with pronounced gender and equity
dimensions. These systems are also not well understood, again leading to inappropriate policies and interventions.

Climate change and change in the biophysical landscape (e.g., land cover and land use change) are widely
implicated in the drying of springs, but there is very little systematic knowledge to effectively link climate change,
vegetation change, and spring discharge, especially because of the large data uncertainties. Rapid changes in
demographics and infrastructure (such as dams and roads) have also impacted springs, but again the exact nature
of the change is difficult to understand due to the lack of studies. Drying of springs – and the associated impact on
communities – is a regional phenomenon that cuts across the entire HKH from Afghanistan to Myanmar, hence the
topic is of immense importance.

Genesis of the Protocol for Reviving Springs Manual

The Rural Management and Development Department (RM&DD) of the Government of Sikkim – a mountainous
state in India – started a programme called Dhara Vikas (spring revival) in 2008 in response to people’s concern
that water sources were drying up. The programme started with a learning-by-doing approach, but it was soon
realized that a thorough understanding of the underlying geology was essential for delineating recharge areas
correctly. Limiting recharge activities to designated recharge areas was crucial both for increasing the efficiency
of investments and for avoiding the unintended consequences of digging recharge structures in fragile areas,
such as areas prone to landslides. The Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management
(ACWADAM) worked closely with RM&DD to train para-hydrogeologists. These para-hydrogeologists were then
deployed across South and West Sikkim to work closely with the rural communities to identify perennial springs that

1
Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

were drying up and develop implementation plans Figure 1: Dhara Vikas Handbook developed by
for reviving them. Since 2011, Dhara Vikas work RM&DD, Government of Sikkim (2014)
has been included as a permissible activity under the
Government of India’s (GoI) 100 days work scheme
– the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). Since then, spring
revival in the state has been undertaken through
MGNREGS funds. Many other mountainous states
in India have followed suit and replicated the Sikkim
Government’s Dhara Vikas programme. In order to
reach out to communities and build their capacity,
RM&DD brought out a booklet on Dhara Vikas that
uses pictures and simple illustrations to explain the
concept of springs and the need for spring recharge
(Figure 1). The booklet described an eight-step
method for spring revival (Figure 2) – the first ever
systematic step-wise spring revival protocol to be
successfully implemented in India (RM&DD, 2014).

Figure 2: Dhara Vikas eight-step process

Source: RM&DD, (2014)

Rationale forthe Protocol for Reviving

Springs Manual
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) is an independent inter-
governmental organization which works in the eight
countries of the HKH (Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan).
The Centre regularly conducts country consultations
with national and local governments and other partner
organizations in each of its regional member countries
(RMCs). In the consultations conducted in the mid-
2010s, drying up of spring water sources, especially
in the mid hill regions, started emerging as a common
theme across the region. Drying of springs has not
only impacted people’s everyday lives, it has also
encouraged unsustainable practices such as drilling
of deep bore wells in fragile mountain aquifers. Such
practices stem from lack of understanding of the
uniqueness and fragility of mountain aquifers and is
often a short-sighted response to acute water stress.

Source: RM&DD, (2014)

2
 1: Introduction

Given the widespread concern about drying of springs and the deterioration in spring water quality, the desirable
policy response is to revive the springs using both local and scientific hydrogeological knowledge. We define ‘spring
revival’ to mean any of the following, individually or in combination:

• total discharge of spring has increased especially in lean season;

• spring water is available during more months than before;
• there has been an appreciable improvement in spring water quality, thereby reducing health risks;
• spring water is better managed so that there is more equitable access to water; and
• recharge areas are better protected and managed.

This handbook builds on the earlier work by RM&DD which was India specific and has been suitably modified to
meet the generic requirements of all ICIMOD RMCs. ICIMOD and ACWADAM followed a consultative process with
major partners such as The Mountain Institute (TMI) to come up with the detailed steps in a spring revival protocol,
which were then verified at a workshop held in Gangtok, Sikkim, India in November 2015. The protocol is both
useful and practical because:

• It incorporates hydrogeology, socio-economic and governance issues to come up with a comprehensive

understanding of springs and springsheds.
• It combines aspects of research and knowledge generation (Steps 1 to 4) and implementation (Steps 5 and 6).
Those who are interested only in knowledge generation can follow the first four steps; all six steps are needed for
implementation.
• It is relatively easy to carry out. The step-by-step approach can be used by a diverse range of stakeholders – field
implementers, grass roots workers, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and researchers.

The main target audience of this manual are the field level officials of government agencies and NGOs. The
manual provides a step-by-step approach, which together with a two-week long practical classroom and field-based
training will equip field level officials to implement spring revival programmes in their own areas. The manual will
also be useful for researchers and higher-level government officials to gain conceptual clarity around the issues of
spring management and revival. The manual may be less useful for local communities where a simpler and more
graphical version along the lines of the Dhara Vikas handbook (Figure 1) is likely to be more appropriate.

3
Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

2 Basic Concepts
This chapter presents some of the basic concepts of hydrogeology and social science that are needed as
background when implementing a stepwise spring revival protocol.

The Hydrogeological Cycle

The hydrogeological cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean. As moist air is lifted,
it cools and the water vapour condenses to form clouds. The moisture is then transported in the atmosphere until it
returns to the surface as precipitation. Once the water Figure 3: The hydrogeological cycle
reaches the ground, one or more of three processes
take place: 1) some of the water evaporates back into Glaciers (70%)

the atmosphere; 2) some water flows away as surface

runoff; and 3) some of the water percolates into
the ground to become groundwater. Groundwater Rainfall

can seep into lakes, streams, rivers, and the ocean, Evaporation
River
or be released back into the atmosphere through (0.3%)

transpiration from vegetation. The surface runoff Sea

Groundwater (30%)
empties into lakes, rivers, and streams and is carried
Spring
Rocks
back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again (Groundwater)

(Figure 3). Similar processes take place with snow Rocks

and other frozen precipitation but with a delay (http://

ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/smry.rxml).

Groundwater Figure 4: The occurrence of groundwater in soil,

rocks and fissures
The water that fills the fractures, cracks, and pore
spaces in soil, sand, rocks, and rock formations is
commonly known as ‘groundwater’. Groundwater Rainfall Water saturating rock

comprises less than 1% of the Earth’s water but

around 98% of the available freshwater. The oceans
contain about 97% of the Earth’s water, but this is not
suitable for drinking, while about 2% is frozen at the Hard rock Unsaturated pore
space (air and water)
poles or in glaciers. Of the remaining 1%, 95–97% is Rock grains

stored as groundwater and the rest as surface water. Saturated pore

space (water)
Groundwater is also a major contributor to streams
and lakes in the form of base flows (Figure 4). Groundwater in
the pore space
Porous and permeable rock

Aquifers
Groundwater is stored and transmitted through aquifers. Any saturated geological formation or rock formation
which stores and transmits groundwater is called an aquifer. In order to qualify as an aquifer, a rock unit must have
certain properties which allow storage and transmission of groundwater.

An aquifer should be considered as the basic unit for any study of groundwater or in any watershed development
or recharge augmentation programme. Different rock types have substantially different porosities and permeability.
Most aquifers are in porous regolith and fractured rock. Open pores gradually close with depth, so the base of the
aquifer varies from place to place (Figure 5). In mountain regions such as the Himalayas, high relief and complex
geological structures play a vital role in aquifer formation.

4
 2: Basic Concepts

The Rock Cycle and Rock Types Figure 5: Formation of aquifer

The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that Unsaturated zone

describes the long-term transitions through geologic Water table Ground surface

time among the three main rock types – igneous, Saturated zone

sedimentary, and metamorphic – as a result of Fractured rock

formation, breakdown, and reformation. Each

rock type is altered or morphed physically and/
Unconfined aquifer
or chemically when forced out of its equilibrium
conditions (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_cycle). Porous and permeable
rock layer

Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of the

molten matter known as magma which exists at great
Impermeable
depths inside the earth and is brought to the surface rock layer Confined aquifer

in the form of lava and other associated material

through volcanoes and fissures in the earth’s crust.
Granite, basalt, and rhyolite are typical examples. Figure 6: Main features of the rock cycle
These rocks can be broken down by weathering or
Igneous rocks
erosion to form sediment that is carried away and (layers of cooled
magma)
Weahering and erosion
(breakdown and transport
of rock material)
deposited elsewhere by agents such as water, air, and
glaciers. The deposited sediment eventually compacts
to form sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale,
and limestone. When subjected to higher pressure
and temperature at greater depths, both sedimentary
and igneous rocks can be further transformed (or
metamorphosed) into metamorphic rocks such as
schist, gneiss, quartzite, and marble. These can
be subducted deep below the surface due to plate Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks (deposition and consolidation
movements (plate tectonics) where they again melt (partial melting and
recrystallisation of rocks)
of weatherd rock material)

to form magma, which in turn can be expelled and

cooled to form igneous rocks, thus completing the
cycle which is repeated over geologic time. Other routes through the rock cycle are also possible, igneous rock can
change into metamorphic rock, and metamorphic rock into igneous or sedimentary rock. The main features of the
rock cycle are shown diagrammatically in Figure 6.
Figure 7: Different types of rock showing the
geometry of the openings in them which
define their relationship with groundwater
Rock Structure
Rocks are made up of different minerals each with Basalt (I) Limestone (S) Shale (S) Quartzite (M)

a definite chemical composition and properties

which govern the properties of the rocks and their
weathering products. The chemical properties of rocks
also play a big role in determining the chemistry of
surface and groundwater.

Groundwater in rocks
Groundwater is contained within the openings in
rocks, i.e., the pores and cracks. The size and shape
(geometry) of the openings (the rock structure)
determine the direction of flow and ease with which
the groundwater can move (Figure 7).

Groundwater moves slowly through the pore spaces Sandstone (S) Weathered Phyllite (M) Fractured

with the movement controlled largely by the porosity Granite (I) Granite (I)

* I – Igneous; S – Sedimentary; M – Metamorphic

5
Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

and permeability of the rocks through which it flows. Porosity is a measure of the void spaces and is the fraction of
the total volume of voids over total volume of rock expressed as a number between 0 and 1 or as a percentage.
Permeability describes the ability of the porous rock material to allow water to pass through it from one point to
another under a hydraulic gradient. The porosity and permeability characteristics of different rock types determine
the total volume of groundwater that they can hold.

Planar structures and orientation

There are two types of rock structure: primary and secondary.

• Primary structures develop during rock formation Figure 8: Schematic diagram showing strike, dip
(e.g., columnar joints in basalts, cross bedding in amount, and dip direction
sandstone).
• Secondary structures develop after rock formation
in response to tectonic stresses (e.g., fractures, Strike

faults, folds). Di
p
dir
ec
tio
n

A variety of two-dimensional, or planar, structural 40°

features can be observed in the field including Dip amount

bedding planes, joints, fractures, faults, cleavage,

and foliation (repetitive layering) or schistosity. The
Rock unit 1 Rock unit 2 Rock unit 3
attitude or trend of bedding planes and other planar
features is expressed in terms of strike, dip direction, and
dip amount (angle) (Figure 8).

• Strike is the direction of the intersection of an inclined geological plane with an imaginary horizontal plane.
Measurement of the bearing of this line gives the strike direction.
• Dip direction is the direction towards which rock beds are dipping and is measured with a geological compass
along a plane perpendicular to the strike line.
• Dip amount is the angle of inclination of the dip plane from the horizontal.
Figure 9: Common types of fault structure
Two of the most common structural features observed
are faults and folds. Rock layers

A fault is a planar feature in which there has been

movement (displacement) of rock along a plane of
weakness (joint or fracture). Different patterns of stress
give rise to different types of fault (Figure 9). A normal Different patterns of stress gives rise to different structures in rocks

fault is a rupture along which the hanging wall has

moved downwards relative to the footwall; a thrust
fault is a type of low angle reverse fault along which
the older rocks have moved upwards over the younger Normal Fault Thrust Fault Strike-slip Fault

rocks; and a strike slip fault is a fracture along which

the blocks have moved past each other horizontally.
Figure 10: Development of simple fold structures
A fold is a bend or wavelike feature in a rock layer
An anticline
formed by compressive tectonic stresses. A syncline Dip amount (folded rocks)

is a fold in which the rocks in the limbs dip towards

p

Dip
Di

Anticline
each other with the youngest rocks in the core of the dir
ect
ion
Dip
fold, whereas an anticline is a fold in which the rocks
in the limbs dip away from each other with the oldest
rocks in the core of the fold (Figure 10).

The study of geological elements such as rock

type, rock texture and structure, and strike and dip Inclined/dipping rock layhers Syncline Horizontal rock layers

6
 2: Basic Concepts

helps in understanding the aquifer systems that Figure 11: Accessing groundwater in the
discharge groundwater through springs and thus plains and mountains
in understanding the characteristics of the springs Springs in mountains

themselves.

Mountain Springs as Groundwater Wells in plains

In plain areas, groundwater usually has to be

accessed by digging wells into the water-bearing Water table
aquifers. In hills and mountains, groundwater
naturally discharges in the form of springs, which
occur where a water bearing layer (aquifer) Aquifer
Mountains
intersects with a hill slope and groundwater seeps
out (Figure 11). The spring water is part of the
groundwater system, and only becomes ‘surface
water’ after flowing into a surface water body such
as a stream or lake. Springs provide water to the
mountain population for a wide range of uses
(Figure 12). Every spring is unique in terms of its type,
Plains
catchment, recharge, and discharge. The occurrence
of springs and their behaviour depend on the aquifer
and its properties, thus identifying and understanding
aquifers is very important.
Figure 12: Common uses of springs water
Types of Spring
Springs can be classified in various ways based,
for example, on geology (location of discharge,
bedrock, geological structure, topography);
geography (location and source of discharge;
magnitude of discharge; location, size, and
flow path of aquifer; source of recharge water; Drinking Cultural Domestic

permanence of flow); parameters of water

chemistry; ecology that springs support; and
conservation priorities and human use
(Glazier, 2014). For the purposes of this manual
and the focus on reviving springs that have
deteriorated, we have chosen a definition based
on the underlying geology. Using this, springs are Agriculture Base flow Forests

classified into five types: depression, contact, fracture,

karst, and fault (Figures 13–17).

Depression springs emerge at topographic lows Figure 13: Depression spring

where the water table intersects the ground surface
(Figure 13). Springs can also emerge at the base
of large trees – generally as a result of the roots Loose unconsolidated
deposits (saturated)

penetrating the aquifer and change of slope. These

could be categorized as a special type of depression
spring. Depression
spring

Contact springs emerge at places where relatively

permeable rocks overlie rocks of low permeability
(Figure 14). Fractured gneiss

7
Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

Figure 14: Contact spring Figure 15: Fracture spring

Sandstone (saturated)
Water saturated fractures

Fractured quartzite
Contact between Fracture spring
two lithologies
Massive
quartizite

Contact Massive slate

spring

Fracture springs occur as a result of permeable Figure 16: Fault spring

fracture zones appearing in low permeability rocks.

t
ul
Fa
Movement of groundwater is mainly through the Shale

fractures which tap both shallow and deep aquifers

(Figure 15). Fault spring

Fault springs are found where groundwater at depth Compact rock

is forced up a fault to the fault opening by hydrostatic

pressure (Figure 16).

Karst springs occur where water flows through the Compact rock Siltstone (saturated)

cavities and openings in limestone that form as a

result of dissolution of rock material and then emerges Figure 17: Karst spring
at the base of the limestone layer (Figure 17). Hard rock

Sinkholes
Springs can also be classified on the basis of size, i.e.,
the amount of water they discharge. Meinzer (1927) Karstic limestone

and later Alfaro and Wallace (1994) classified springs

based on the volume of flow per unit time (Table 1).

Table 1: Classification of springs based on the

Hard rock
volume of flow per unit time (magnitude of
discharge)

Spring magnitude Flow

First >10 m3/s Caves and cavities
Karst spring
Second 1-10 m /s 3

Third 0.1-1 m3/s

Fourth 10-100 l/s falling on it to a common point. As such, a watershed
Fifth 1-10 l/s separates two drainage units. Watersheds are also called
Sixth 0.1-1 l/s
catchments as they are the ‘catchment area’ for the point
Seventh 10-100 ml/s
at which the drainage converges (Figure 18).
Eighth <10 ml/s
Source: Meinzer (1927) and Alfaro and Wallace (1994)

Figure 18: The limits or boundary of a watershed

Watersheds (catchment)
Watersheds are best described as the units of the land Drainage

surface that drain water to a common point through Watershed boundary

a system of interconnected stream channels. The

system of interconnected stream channels is called 25
00

the ‘drainage network’. The common point is usually 20

00
the watershed outlet, the point where the highest
15
order stream (that is, the major river or stream in the 00

network) leaves the watershed. Watersheds, in other 27

.6
1

05
words, represent a hydrological unit of land defined 27
.6
.6
27
by a particular topography that drains all the water .5
95
27 9
.5
27

8
 2: Basic Concepts

Springsheds
Majority of water conservation programs in the HKH have revolved around the concept of watershed in the past.
Watersheds are easy to demarcate and hold great appeal to most policy makers and implementers alike. However,
watershed concept only accounts for surface water movement over slopes.

Springsheds differ from watersheds because the source of spring water is determined by aquifer characteristics
and not surface topography. Also, movement of spring water which is groundwater, is determined by underlying
geology, that is, nature of rocks, their inclination and structure. The point where the spring emerges is based on
the relationship of the aquifer to the watershed surface. As defined above, a typical watershed drains water from a
ridgeline into the valleys (drainage lines) that converge to a common point – possibly at the confluence of a river,
whereas a springshed is a set of watersheds and aquifers that integrate into a system that supplies water to a group
of springs (Figure 19). The concept of watershed, therefore, cannot account for water which travels outside of the
watershed boundaries, for example through rock beds that inclines towards an adjoining watershed.

Figure 19: Springsheds and watersheds

Watershed-1 Watershed-2 Watershed-3 Watershed-4

a Spring Spring

Springshed-1 Springshed-2
a) Two springsheds each with two watersheds

Watershed-1 Watershed-2 Watershed-3 Watershed-4

Spring
Spring

Springshed-1
b) One springshed with four watersheds

For spring revival, the appropriate unit is the springshed – the unit of land where rain falls (recharge area), and
then emerges at discharge points – the spring. Springsheds, given the folded and faulted nature of the Himalayan
geology, often cover more than one watershed; in other words, recharge area of a spring in one watershed, may as
well lie in another adjoining watershed and as such, spring revival programmes have to be cognisant of this concept
of springshed.

As such, there are three possibilities:

• A springshed with one watershed and one aquifer.
• A springshed with one watershed and more than one aquifer, where the aquifers are not part of an adjoining
watershed
• A springshed with more than one watershed and one or more aquifers

9
 Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

Therefore, identifying a springshed is important for managing springs because this is the system that integrates
surface and groundwater and is instrumental for identifying recharge areas.

Water Tower
The concept of a water tower is best understood by expanding the concept of a springshed to a larger system. A
water tower is a common area that hosts many watersheds (and springsheds) that drain out from a common ridge
line, small mountain range, or even a large range. The entire Hindu Kush Himalayan range is essentially a large
water tower as it is the source area for many watersheds and river basins. At a more local scale, a contiguous
ridgeline that provides common high ground to a number of watersheds and springsheds can be described as a
water tower (Figure 20).

Any springshed management programme is likely to involve numerous springs located in several watersheds with
a number of springsheds which are often integrated into one water tower. The water tower is the largest land and
water resource unit within springshed management programmes.

Figure 20: Google Earth image of a water tower

Springshed Management
Springshed management is a comprehensive term encompassing all aspects related to sourcing, distribution,
maintenance, and management of spring water systems. Management includes both hardware, e.g., building of
tanks and water pipelines, and ‘software’, e.g., laying down rules of water distribution, cleaning of source, and
maintaining recharge areas. Since a majority of springs in the HKH are located on community land and water is
used collectively, communities often come together to manage the springs.

The Oxford Dictionary defines a community as “a group of people living in the same place or having a particular
characteristic in common”. In the context of springs and springsheds, a community refers to the people who live in
the vicinity of springs and derive their water supply from these springs. It is important to understand the community
characteristics and their involvement in spring management when recommending ways to revive and manage
springs.

10