CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Renewable Energy

As a result of human activities, greenhouse gases are increasing in the earth’s atmosphere.
Many in the scientific community now believe that this increase in carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4) and other greenhouse gases is causing the earth’s temperature to rise, and
that this increase in greenhouse gases will lead to even greater global warming during this
century. Renewable energy resources are clean and environmental friendly. They can
provide many immediate environmental benefits by avoiding the emission of greenhouse
gases and can help conserve fossil resources as electricity supply for future generations.
Therefore, the UK government is encouraging the development of renewable energy in
the anticipation that it will provide 10% of electrical energy by 2010. The government
also aims for a 60% reduction in CO2 emission by 2050.

1.2 PV Generation As A Source Of Renewable Energy

The fast development of photovoltaic (PV) technology in recent two decades strongly
indicates that in medium to long term, PV generation will become one of most attractive
renewable energy sources in large-scale applications. Evidence of such indication is that
the growth of demand on solar energy has consistently been by over 20% per annum due
to the decreasing cost and price. The European Union is well on the track to fulfilling its
own target of 3GW PV generation by 2010; While capacity of PV generation in the UK is
forecasted to be 30GW by 2050 [1]. Grid connection is the operational practice of large-
scale PV generation for its best utilization.

The integration of a large number of embedded PV generators will have far reaching
consequences not only on the distribution networks but also on the national transmission
and generation system. If the PV generators are built on the roof and sides of buildings,
most of them will be located in urban areas and will be electrically close to loads. On the

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other hand, these PV generating units may be liable to common mode failures that might
cause the sudden or rapid disconnection of a large proportion of operating PV capacity.
The following modes of failures have been identified:

• Embedded generation (such as PV units) is normally equipped with protection

schemes designed to disconnect it from the network in the even of loss of mains. If the
system is affected by a large disturbance (e.g. tripping of the DC link with a large
conventional generator), such protection schemes could cause the sudden disconnection
of a large proportion of the PV generation. Since this disconnection would be
compounded with the original disturbance, its consequence could be severe.

• Similarly, a large disturbance could also temporarily perturb the voltage seen by the
PV generating units. The controller of the inverters interfacing these PV units to the grid
system may not be able to cope with this perturbation. Consequently they may fail or
trigger a shutdown of the inverter.

• It is likely that a large majority of the PV generating units will be located in dense
urban areas. A rapidly moving weather front can, in a matter of a few minutes, reduce the
irradiance over such an area from its maximum value to value below the minimum
required for operating the PV units. If such a meteorological event were to affect three of
Britian’s largest metropolitan areas almost simultaneously during a period of rapid load
pick up, the grid system would be subjected to a disturbance that it may have difficulties
to overcome.
Since all these phenomena involve an interaction between conventional and PV
generation through the transmission network, their analysis requires system studies using
power system models. Through these studies it will be possible to determine whether
credible disturbances could lead to voltage collapse over parts of the system or to steady
state instabilities.

2
 CHAPTER 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF PV GENERATION

French physicist, Edmund Becquerel, was the one to note the photoelectric effect back in
1839. He found that certain materials have property to produce small amounts of electric
current when exposed to sunlight. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light
and the photoelectric effect which has become the basic principle for photovoltaic
technology. The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954.

2.1 Photovoltaic Groupings

2.1.1 Photovoltaic cell

PV cell are basically semiconductor diode. This semiconductor diode has got a p-n
junction which is exposed to light. When illuminated by sunlight it generates electric
power [1], [2]. PV cell are made up of various semiconductor materials. But mono-
crystalline silicon and poly-crystalline silicon are mainly used for commercial use.

Figure.2.1: Basic PV cell structure

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2.1.2 Photovoltaic module

The power produced by a single PV cell is not enough for general use. So by connecting
many single PV cell in series (for high voltage requirement) and in parallel (for high
current requirement) can get us the desired power. Generally a series connection is chosen
this set of arrangement is known as a module. Generally commercial modules consist of 36 or
72 cells. The modules consist of transparent front side, encapsulated PV cell and back side.
The front side material is usually made up of low-iron and tempered glass. The efficiency of a
PV module is less than a PV cell. This is due to the fact that some radiation is reflected by the
glass cover and frame shadowing etc.

2.1.3 Photovoltaic Array

A photovoltaic array (PV system) is a interconnection of modules which in turn is made

up of many PV cells in series or parallel. The power produced by a single module is
seldom enough for commercial use, so modules are connected to form array to supply the
load. The connection of the modules in an array is same as that of cells in a module.
Modules can also be connected in series to get an increased voltage or in parallel to get an
increased current. In urban uses, generally the arrays are mounted on a rooftop. In
agricultural use, the output of an array can directly feed a DC motor.

2.2 Working of PV cell

Working of a PV cell is based on the basic principle of photoelectric effect. Photoelectric

effect can be defined as a phenomenon in which an electron gets ejected from the
conduction band as a consequence of the absorption of sunlight of a certain wavelength
by the matter (metallic or non-metallic solids, liquids or gases).So, in a photovoltaic cell,
when sunlight strikes its surface, some portion of the solar energy is absorbed in the
semiconductor material. If absorbed energy is greater than the band gap energy of the
semiconductor, the electron from valence band jumps to the conduction band. By this,
pairs of hole-electrons are created in the illuminated region of the semiconductor.

4
 Figure2.2: Photovoltaic Hierarchy

The electrons thus created in the conduction band are now free to move. These free
electrons are forced to move in a particular direction by the action of electric field present
in the PV cells. These flowing electrons constitutes current and can be drawn for external
use by connecting a metal plate on top and bottom of PV cell. This current and the
voltage (created because of its built-in electric fields) produces required power.

2.3 Solar Irradiance

Solar irradiance is the radiant power incident per unit area upon a surface. It is usually
expressed in W/m2. Radiant power is the rate of flow of electromagnetic energy. Sunlight
consists of electromagnetic waves composed of photons at different energies, which
travel at constant speed. Solar radiation has a wave like characteristic with the wavelength
(λ) inversely proportional to the photon energy (E).

λ = hc/E (2.1)

Where,
c = velocity of light

5
 h = Planck’s constant

The power density outside the earth's atmosphere is 1367 W/m 2 and this is known as the
solar constant. Air mass refers to the relative path length of the direct solar beam through
the atmosphere. The path of the light through the atmosphere is shortest when the sun is
at its zenith (perpendicular to the earth's surface), the path length is 1.0 (AM 1.0) and this
gives rise to the AM1 spectrum. Obviously, the sun is not always at the zenith. When the
angle of the sun from zenith increases, the air mass increases so that at an angle of 48.2°
the air mass is 1.5 and at an angle of 60° the air mass is 2.0 AM 1.5 has been adopted as
the standard sunlight spectrum for terrestrial arrays.

2.4 Characteristics of a PV cell

In a PV characteristic there are basically three important points viz. open circuit voltage (
V oc ), short circuit current ( I sc) and maximum power point (V mp , I mp ). The maximum
power that can be extracted from a PV cell are at the maximum power points. Usually
manufacturers provide these parameters in their datasheets for a particular PV cell or
module. By using these parameters we can build a simple model but for more information
is required for designing an accurate model.

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 Figure2.3: characteristics of a PV cell

The characteristic Equation for the PV cell is given by:

(V + R s I ) V + Rs I
[
I =I pv −I 0 exp
Vt a ]
−1 −
Rp
(2.2)

Where,

I pv = Photovoltaic current. It is generated directly by incident of sunlight on the

PV cell. This current varies linearly with sun irradiation and depends on temperature.

G
I pv =( I pv ,n + K i ∆ T ) (2.3)
Gn

Where,

I pv, n = Light-generated current at nominal condition

Ki = Current temperature co-efficient

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G = Actual sun irradiation

Gn = Nominal sun irradiation

∆T = It is the difference between actual temperature and nominal temperature(in

Kelvin) i.e. ( T −T n )

I0 = Reverse saturation current. It is a part of the reverse current in a diode caused by

diffusion of minority carriers from the neutral regions to the depletion region.

R s& R p = Due to the presence of internal resistances, the power loss takes place in the
cell. These parasitic resistances can be segregated into series resistance, R s and parallel
resistance, R p . for ideal case, R s would be „zero‟ and R p would be „infinity‟.

a = Diode ideality factor: It is the measure of how much a practical diode deviates from
ideal diode equation. The average value assumed during the determination of unknown
parameters in the photovoltaic system is usually,,1.3”.

V t = Junction thermal voltage: It is a characteristic voltage that relates current flow in the
p-n junction to the electrostatic potential across it.

N s KT
V t= ;
q

Where,

N s = No. of cells connected in series

K= Boltzmann constant = 1.3806503 ×10-23 J/K

q = Electron charge=1.607x10-19 C

T = Nominal Temperature = 298.15 K= 25℃

2.4.1 Effect of Irradiance and Cell Temperature

The effect of irradiance and cell temperature on Ipv-Vpv characteristic curve is shown in
Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.5 respectively. Figure 2.4 shows that the maximum power output

8
varies almost linearly with the irradiance. Figure 2.5 shows that the maximum output
power from the array decreases as the temperature increases.

Figure 2.4: Effect of irradiance on the I-V characteristic at constant cell temperature

9
 Figure 2.5: Effect of temperature on the I-V characteristic at constant irradiance

2.5 Grid Connected PV System:

A grid connected PV system converts sunlight directly into ac electricity. The main
purpose of the system is to reduce the electrical energy imported from the electric utility.
Figure 2.6 shows a functional diagram of the basic configuration of a grid-connected PV
system. The dc output current of the PV array Ipv is converted into ac and injected into
the grid through an inverter. The controller of this inverter implements all the main

10
control and protection functions:- Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT), protection
relay and detection of islanding operation.

Figure 2.6: Basic configuration of grid connected PV generation

2.6 Inverter

An essential part of a grid connected PV systems is the means of converting the dc output
of the PV array into ac power to supply to the utility network. Inverters are used to
perform this task. The two basic types of inverters are thyristor based line commutated
inverters (TLCI) and pulse width modulated (PWM) voltage source inverters. Many
existing PV systems make use of TLCI-type inverters because of its modest cost,
availability for even higher power levels and familiarity with the technology. If this
inverter connects directly to the PV array, the current drawn from the array can be
controlled by varying the firing angle. This type of inverter commonly use in grid
connected PV systems.
Development in IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) and MOSFET (Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) toward considerably higher power ratings,
11
together with fast real time digital control have resulted in the use of high quality
sinusoidal PWM voltage source inverter in PV systems. The greater flexibility of these
inverters and the use of microprocessors provide the opportunity to configure the inverter
for particular application easily and appropriately. In these inverters the magnitude of the
input dc voltage is essentially constant in magnitude and it is possible to control both the
output voltage and frequency of the inverters. This is achieved by Pulse Width
Modulation of the inverter switches and hence such inverters are called PWM inverters.

2.7 Controller

2.7.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller

As illustrated in Ipv-Vpv characteristic of a PV cell varies with the irradiance and

operating temperature of the cell. Consequently the maximum power point varies. A
directly connected fixed voltage, fixed current or fixed resistance load therefore cannot
extract maximum power from the PV system. To get maximum power output, the PV
array should be operated at the maximum power point at all time. A controller capable of
tracking the maximum power point must therefore be implemented. There are a number
of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) techniques. All of these methods require an
algorithm to specify the location of the operating point with respect to the maximum
power point. Some of them deliver only a sub-optimum power output. A good MPPT
technique should produce a high efficiency at low cost because PV systems will have to
be mass-produced.

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 CHAPTER 3

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF GRID CONNECTED

PV PLANT

3.1 Modeling of PV Array

Modeling of PV modules or arrays is required in order to design and monitor these

systems. Usually, a Grey Model process is used to model PV arrays. In such models,
physical parameters are determined using the measured data given in the datasheets (by
manufacturers).
In this chapter, I will explain the basic models of PV array and their advantages and
disadvantages over one another.

3.1.1 Representation of PV devices

The PV devices are basically represented in two different models viz.

 Single diode model

 Double diode model

3.1.1.1 Single diode model

In a single diode model, there is a current source parallel to a diode. The current source
represents light-generated current that varies linearly with solar irradiation. This is the
simplest and most widely used model as it offers a good compromise between simplicity
and accuracy.

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The characteristic equation for single diode model is given below:

( V + RsI ) V + RsI
[
I =I pv −I 0 exp
Vta ]
−1 −
Rp
(3.1)

3.1.1.2 Double diode model

In this model an extra diode attached in parallel to the circuit of single diode model. This
diode is included to provide an even more accurate I-V characteristic curve that considers
for the difference in flow of current at low current values due to charge recombination in
the semiconductor's depletion region
The accuracy of this model more than the single diode model but because of the difficulty
to solve the equation, single diode model is preferred.
The characteristic equation for double diode model is given below:

( V + RsI ) ( V + RsI ) V + RsI

I =I pv −I 01 exp [ Vta ] [
−1 − I 02 exp
Vta ]
−1 −
Rp
(3.2)

Where,
I 01- Saturation current due to diffusion

I 02- Saturation current due to recombination in the space charge layer

For simplicity, single diode model is studied in this project.

3.2 Improvisation of Model

The Diode saturation current, can be expressed by

I 0=I on ( TnT ) exp ⁡[ qEg ( 1 1

ak Tn T )
− ] (3.3)

Where,
Eg is band gap energy of semiconductor =1.12 eV

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 I 0 n is diode saturation current at nominal conditions

I sc ,n
I on=
V oc. n
exp
( )
aV t , n
−1

(3.4)
Where,
I sc , n = short-circuit current,
V oc .n = open circuit voltage
V t ,n = junction thermal voltage at nominal conditions
The single diode model of PV device can be improved by modifying the above equation

I sc , n+ K i ∆ T
I 0=
(V + K v ∆ T )
exp oc, n −1
aV t
(3.5)

3.3 Modeling of Synchronous Generator

Most of today’s electrical power systems are three phase synchronous generators. In this
chapter, I will explain the basic models of synchronous generators.

3.3.1 Stator Voltage in Stationary Reference Frame

2 1 1
V s q = V a− V b− V c
3 3 3

1
V s d= ( V c −V b )
√3
1
V 0= ( V a +V b +V c ) (3.6)
3

V q =V sq cos θr ( t )−V sd sin θr ( t )

V d =V sq sin θr ( t ) +V sd cos θ r ( t )

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3.3.2 Electromechanical Torque developed by machine

3P
T em= ( ω i −ωq id ) N.m (3.7)
2 2 d q

3.3.3 Stator Winding current in terms of qd component

i sq =iq cos θ r ( t ) +i d sin θr ( t )

i sd =−i q sinθ r ( t ) +i d cos θ r ( t )

i a=i q s+i 0 (3.8)

−1 s 1 s
i b= i − i +i
2 q √3 d 0

−1 s 1 s
ic= i + i +i
2 q √3 d 0

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 CHAPTER 4

SIMULATION AND RESULTS

4.1 Simulink Model And Results Of PV Array

Fig. 4.1 Simulink model of PV Array

4.1.1 Effect of temp. on PV characteristics at constant Irradiance

Case 1: At T=60℃ and G=800 w/m2

17
G 4.1 I/V & P/V characteristics

18
Case 2: At T=50℃ and G=800 w/m2

G 4.2 I/V & P/V characteristics

19
Case 3: At T=40℃ and G=800 w/m2

G 4.3 I/V & P/V characteristics

20
4.1.2 Effect of Irradiance on PV characteristics at constant temp.

Case1: At T=50℃ and G=900 w/m2

G 4.4 I/V & P/V characteristics

21
Case2: At T=50℃ and G=1000 w/m2

G 4.5 I/V & P/V characteristics

22
Case3: At T=50℃ and G=600 w/m2

G 4.6 I/V & P/V characteristics

23
4.1.3 Power output from DC/DC converter

G 4.7 DC/DC converter output

4.1.4 Power output from DC/AC converter

24
 G 4.8 DC/AC converter output

4.2 Simulink Model and Results Of Synchronous Generator

Fig. 4.2 Simulink Model of S.G

4.2.1 Stator Current i a ,i b ∧ic

25
 G 4.9 current v/s time

4.3 Simulink Model and Results of Power Generation Integerated With

PV Plant

In both condition power received by load at infinite busbar was fixed at 1.0 p.u. Graph
4.10 and 4.11 shows when power send by PV plant is 0.8 p.u and through conventional
plant is 0.2 p.u. A three phase short ckt fault occurs on the transmission line system goes

26
into unstable condition whereas PV power is 0.2 p.u. and conventional power is 0.8 p.u.
after some time system comes into stable condition.

G 4.10 Pt 0 =0.2 p . u∧P pv 0=0.8 p . u

G 4.11 Pt 0 =0.8 p . u∧P pv0=0.2 p . u

27
G 4.12 Pt 0 =0.1 p . u∧P pv 0=0.3 p . u

G 4.12 Pt 0 =1.0 p . u∧P pv 0=0.3 p . u

28
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The project investigates the impact of grid-connected PV generation on power system

small signal oscillation stability. Here first of all simulate the PV array model by using
simulink, analyse the affect of temp. and irradiance on V-I characteristics of PV. In that
project during integration of plant if PV gives more power then system goes into
instability zone, and if PV gives less power as compare to conventional power then
system becomes maintain stable position after certain duration of time in respect with

29
conventional power. If the total load is fixed, a higher PV penetration should be avoided
because this increases the chance of its damaging system oscillation stability.

CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES

Base Paper: W. Du, H. F. Wang, and R. Dunn, “ Power System Small Signal Oscillation
Stability as Affected by Large PV Penetration’’, IEEE Trans. 2009

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application and design”, John Wiley, 1995.

30
[2] J. H. R. Enslin, M. S. Wolf, D. B. Snyman, W. Swiegrs, “Integrated photovoltaic
maximum power point tracking converter”, IEEE Transaction on Industrial
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[3] O. Wasynczuk, "Modeling and dynamic performance of a line-commutated

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[4] L.Wang, Y.H. Lin, " Dynamic stability analysis of a photovoltaic array connected
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[5] C-M Ong “Dynamic Simulation of Electric Machinery”, Prentice Hall PTR, 1998.

[6] Y. T. Tan, D. S. Kirschen and N. Jenkins, “A model of PV generation suitable for

stability analysis”, IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, Vol.19, No.4, 2004, pp748-
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[7] Marcelo Gradella Villalva, Jonas Rafael Gazoli and Ernesto Ruppert Filho
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[8] S.R. Wenham, M.A. Green, M.E. Watt, and R. Corkish “Applied Photovoltaics
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[9] L. Wang and T. Lin, “Dynamic stability and transient responses of multiple grid-
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[10] H .F. Wang, “Phillips-Heffron model of power systems installed with STATCOM
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[11] Y. N. Yu, Electric Power System Dynamics, Academic Press Inc., 1983

[12] P.Kundur, “ Power System Stability and Control’’, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

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[13] M. T. Ho and H. S. H. Chung, “An integrated inverter with maximum power
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