Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Applications of the infrared thermography in the energy audit of buildings:

A review
Elena Lucchi
Politecnico di Milano, Via Bonardi 9, 20133 Milano, Italy

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: From a wide range of bibliography (148 publications composed by books, guidelines, scientific papers, and other documents),
Infrared thermography the study presents a critical review of the use of the infrared thermography (IRT) survey in the building energy audit. After
Building energy audit explaining its historical growth, the applicability of passive and active approaches has been described, considering well-
Energy loss, air leakage, thermal bridging, established and emerging techniques, general procedures, types of IR-camera used, technical issues, and limitations. The
moisture
passive approach is the most common to detect thermally significant defects. Thus, a specific procedure for the energy audit
has been reported, matching different stan-dards, guidelines, and professional advice. Similarly, recurring energy related
problems are toughly presented (i.e. thermal characterization of buildings; thermal bridging, insulation level, air leakage and
moisture detection; indoor temperature and U-value measurements; human comfort assessment). Finally, advantages and
potential sources of errors as well as future trends in the use of IRT for the energy audit have been described. The research
aims to serve as a reference for energy auditors and thermographers, to decide upon the best procedure for detecting speci fic
energy defects.

1. Introduction theory has been widely replicated, considering also sustainability [7] and
engineering approaches [8–11]. Moreover, a shared procedure, as well as the
The European Commission defines the energy audit as “[…] a sys-tematic competences of the energy auditors, have been stated at European level [12].
procedure to obtain adequate knowledge of the existing energy consumption
profile of a building or group of buildings, of an industrial operation and/or Several Non Destructive Testing (NDT) supports the building energy
installation of a private or public service, identify and quantify cost-effective audit to understand complex fluid dynamics phenomena, to char-acterize
energy savings opportunities and report the findings” [1]. The legislative materials and structures, to control the manufacturing pro-cesses, and to
framework emphasizes its role to identify energy inefficiencies, to reduce improve the design and the fabrication of products [13]. Particularly, infrared
energy inputs, and to define potential measures for improving energy thermography (IRT) provides very useful in-formation to identify quickly the
efficiency and human comfort [1]. In parallel, the literature attempts to outline thermal anomalies related to struc-tural features, building materials, and
a shared methodology for the energy as-sessment. The first studies concern energy problems [14–16]. It is a contactless test method based on the use of
the building management [2] and the efficiency of lighting and air- an infrared (IR) imaging system, calibrated for measuring the distribution of
conditioning systems [3]. Only later, specific procedures on the whole the emissive power of surfaces at various temperature ranges [17,18]. The IR-
building have been developed [4–6]. Particularly, Thumann and Jounger [6] camera pro-duces a sequence of two-dimensional and readable IR-images
theorized three types of building energy audit according to the analytical level (ther-mographs), where specific colors and tones identify differing tempera-
to be obtained: tures [18]. The devices normally operate in the short (3–5 µm) and in the long
(i) “walk-through audit”, a visual inspection to evaluate the general energy (7–14 µm) wave IR-bands [18]. Another window is in the near-IR (0.78–3.0
quality and to individualize inefficiencies and savings potentials during a µm). The short wave band is mainly applied for high-temperature inspections
short-term visit (one-day audit); (ii) “standard audit” to quantify the energy (i.e. industrial process and HVAC systems) while the long wave scanners are
losses linked to a specific problem; and (iii) “si-mulation audit” based on deep the most efficient for thermal ranges of 27–65 °C [6,13]. The IRT survey is
inspections and dynamic simulations of the energy performance. Each level of ever more used for building di-agnostics, both for new and existing
analysis requires data collection and elaboration of results more and more constructions. Its first applications
complex and refined. This

Corresponding author. Present address: EURAC Research, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy. E-
mail address: [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.031
Received 5 May 2017; Received in revised form 17 July 2017; Accepted 26 October 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Lucchi, E., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.031
E. Lucchi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Nomenclature and abbreviations Φ Heat flow rate in steady-state conditions, W

Ta Air temperature, K or °C
2
R Thermal resistance (or R-value), m K/W Ti Interior environmental (indoor) temperature
2
U Thermal transmittance (or U-value), W/m K Te Exterior environmental (ambient) temperature
2
CThermal conductance (or C-value), W/m K T Difference between indoor and ambient temperatures =
λThermal conductivity (or λ-value), W/mK (Ti-Te)
3
Cp Heat capacity, MJ/m K
2 Ts Surface temperature
α Thermal diffusivity, mm /s
ρ 3 Tsa Apparent surface temperature
Density, kg/m
ε Thermal emissivity on the entire spectrum, – Trefl Reflected temperature
ν Wind speed or air velocity, m/s P Difference between indoor and outdoor pressure, Pa

in the mid of 1980s regarded civil engineering and preservation of cultural

heritage [17,19]. By the early 2000s, it was applied also to electrical and find scientific interest and theoretical approaches (i.e. books, academic
mechanical installations [17]. Then, the International Energy Agency (IEA) journals, conference papers); (ii) “grey studies” [24] to discover tech-nical
stated its importance for detecting energy defects in Annex 40 (2004) [20] advice and practical methodologies (i.e. standards, professional guides,
and Annex 46 (2010) [21]. In parallel, the development of new restrictive technical reports, and governmental guidance notes); and (iii) “professional
European legislation on the energy ef-ficiency of buildings led to a diffusion works” to look for new products and innovative ap-proaches (i.e. commercial
of its use also to energy audit [1,22–24]. In the last fifteen years (2002–2017), web pages of products or IRT associations).
its applications in buildings considered also thermo-physics, fluid dynamics,
energetics analyses [19], passive methodologies [24], smart buildings, and en-
3. A brief history of infrared thermography
vironmental control [25]. Furthermore, IRT is obligatory for selling new and
existing houses in several countries (i.e. France, Denmark) [26]. Despite this,
IRT has a long history, although its use has increased dramatically with
an extensive overview of this literature lacks, with the aim of integrating
the commercial and industrial applications of the past fifty years. Sir William
academic and applied studies, standards proce-dures, future developments of
Herschel discovered the existence of a portion of the elec-tromagnetic
IR-cameras and key devices.
spectrum (“thermometrical spectrum”) in 1800, looking for optical filters to
reduce the brightness of the sun in telescopes during solar observations
[24,27–29]. Several years later (1835), Macedonio Melloni developed the first
2. Aims and methodology detector based on this type of radiation (“thermopile IR detector”), opening
the studies on the IR-band [19,27,29,30]. John Herschel, the Herschel's son,
The paper aims at presenting a critical review of the use of the IRT survey settled out the first thermograph utilizing the differential evaporation of a thin-
in the building energy audit, updating the studies published in the last fifteen film of an oil exposed to the heat patterns (1840) [24,28]. In parallel, Samuel
years (2002–2017) on its more general use in building diagnostics Pierpont Langley discovered the bolometer in 1880 (the “Langley's
[17,19,24,25]. After explaining the historical growth of IRT, its applicability bolometer”), a material that changes its electrical resistance with temperature
to the energy audit has been described, con-sidering both well-established and ranges [27,31]. This finding permitted the examination of the far solar
emerging approaches, general pro-cedures, types of IR-camera, qualification irradiance into the IR region and the measurement of the solar radiation
procedures, technical issues, and limitations. The passive approach results the intensity at various wavelengths, enabling significant improvements in the
most common to de-tect thermally significant defects [24]. Thus, a specific sensitivity of the IR rays detection [29,31,32]. This bolometer followed
procedure for the energy audit has been reported, matching different continuous advances over than 20 years and it is considered on the basis of
standards, guidelines, and professional advice. Similarly, recurring energy the modern IR-cameras [31]. Between 1870 and 1920, the first quantum
related problems are toughly presented, comparing practical and theoretical detector based on the interaction between these radiations was developed,
studies based both on passive and active approaches. Finally, ad-vantages, transforming definitively the nature of the detection for the considerable
limitations and potential sources of errors, as well as future trends in the use reduction of the response time and the increasing of the measurement
of IRT for the energy audit, have been described. Fundamentals of IR theory accuracy [29]. The thermal imaging cameras were established in the military
are not treated, because they are extensively explicated in the literature sector on the basis of this quantum detector. In 1929 Kálmán Tihanyi
[7,17,19,24,25,27,28]. The research neither means to be exhaustive or invented the first IR-sensitive camera for anti-aircraft defense [31]. Important
definitive, but simply aims to serve as a re-ference for energy auditors and progress on photo sensors and image converters was made between the two
thermographers to update their knowledge in this field. World Wars, showing the importance of this technology for the night vision
of military objects (missiles and so on) [30]. Significant was the in-troduction
of several IR detectors from the bolometer between 1930 and 1960, such as
The study adopted the same methodology developed by Fox et al. lead sulphide (PbS) (range 1.5–3 µm), indium anti-monide (InSb) (range 3–5
[24] that resulted very rigorous and compete. It is based on two re-search µm), and mercury – cadmium – tellurium (HgTeCd) (range 8–14 µm)
steps. First, a preliminary literature review using key-words has been [30,33,34]. They worked with on optical-mechanical scan systems and
conducted to determine the current issues on the use of the IRT in the energy required a cryogenic cooling [30]. In the late 1950s, Texas Instruments,
assessments. Key words concerns technologies (e.g. IR-camera), Honeywell and US Military settled out a single-element detector for
methodologies (e.g. IRT survey, thermographic inspection, thermovision; and producing IR-images [28]. The high cost of this technology forced its
so on), approaches (e.g. passive and active thermo-graphy, walk-through application mainly for military proposes also in the following decades (1950–
thermography, pulsed thermography, and so on), recurring problems (e.g. 1965) [29]. In parallel, some studies demonstrated its utility for visualizing
thermal performance, air leakage, moisture, and so on), and standards (e.g. the early stages of breast cancer, because the tumor cells would draw more
ASTM, RESNET, and ISO). Then, bib-liographies and references suggested blood creating a hot spot in the IR-image (1950–1960) [35]. Barnes-Agema in
by the literature have been fol-lowed up for a deeper investigation on specific the late 1960s sold the first commercial real-time IR-camera (1966) that
topics. In total 148 lit-erature sources have been analyzed spanning from the required cooling with materials such as liquid nitrogen and compressed gas
last fifty-five years (1962–2017). Literature was divided in: (i) “academic
studies” to

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[24,29,32,35]. Thanks to that, the thermal imaging was used also to identify weights, dimensions, shapes, performances, detector packaging, and costs, to
hot spots in the inspection of high-voltage power lines [28,35]. In the 1970s fulfil desires of a multitude of users in a vast variety of ap-plications in
the Swedish company AGA-Boforos developed the first radiometric thermal predictive maintenance, industry, security, transporta-tions, and buildings
images with a single photo type detector [19]. This camera also required a diagnosis [28,30,36]. By the early 2000s, the em-ployment of IR-imaging
cooling system but offered short response times and limited spectral ranges based on barium strontium titanate (BST) and microbolometer extended its
[19]. In the next years, the use of several types of cooled photon detectors use in the building sector [19], due to the reduction in unit size, lowering
allowed the improvement the IR sensitivity and the introduction of frame costs and improvements in resolution, sensitivity, accuracy, operability, and
rates with 15/30 Hz [19,33,34]. From the late 1970s, the use of the IRT portability [19,28,30]. Its use has been increased dramatically in the last
survey for quick periodic inspections and preventive maintenance of fifteen years, especially for the restoration of cultural heritage and civil
buildings, HVAC and electric systems was documented (i.e. firefighting engineering [17,19]. By 2005, the restrictive European legislations on energy
services, electric system maintenance, and so on) [17]. In 1980s new efficiency of buildings favored its diffusion also for the energy audit [1,22–
functions were inserted in the IR-camera, such as: (i) single cooled photon 24]. Its use con-cerns mainly the thermal characterization of buildings
detector with optomechanical scanning [19], (ii) sensors with frame rates of [13,19,42] and the assessment of heat losses, air leakages and moisture
30/ 60 Hz [19,34], (iii) new chromatic palettes [30], and (iv) software for data phenomena. The current market is driving to: (i) increasing of performance
elaboration based on the”Husky computer” (1985) [28]. These utilities favored [19,25,28], particularly sensitivity and accuracy; (ii) development of multi-
the use of IRT also in applied researches, particularly for medicine, point detection [24]; (iii) reduction of manufacturing costs for the
veterinarian science, and astronomy [28,30], as well as in the industry sector transformation of the IR factories to high volume manufacturing [19,25,28];
for maintenance purposes [17]. Other applications were very limited because (iv) production of smart [19,25], low-cost and low-resolu-tion sensors [19];
the equipment was not portable and required a main power supply [35]. In and (v) development of new techniques of detection and alarm employing
1987 a commercial product based on a single IR-camera was sold [29], different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum [25]. In parallel, new markets
opening new applications in the pre-servation of cultural heritage and civil for the IRT are developing (i.e. auto-motive, intelligent building and
engineering to plan periodic examinations and predict damage [15,16,35,36]. environmental control) due to the strong benefits from the microsystem
The application in building diagnosis focused on the characterization of technologies [25]. Following, the brief history of thermography and IRT
structures, ma-terials, surface defects, moisture transfer phenomena, applications has been reported in a graphic way (Fig. 1).
conservation state, and damage evolution of buildings and artworks [35–41].
In 1990s, the federal programs “Low-Cost Uncooled Sensor Program” (LO-
CUSP) provided funding for developing the thermal imaging technol-ogies
into the systems [29,31]. A new generation of equipment with array detectors 4. Current IRT approaches in energy audit
appeared in the market, enabling a simultaneous tem-perature reading at
different points without the use of the cryogenic cooling systems [29,32]. The Two approaches are employed in the building energy audit: (i) passive or
introduction of uncooled microbolometers in 1997 [19,24] led to the reduction static thermography; and (ii) active thermography. Passive IRT focuses on the
of the dimension of the IR-cameras. In parallel, their resolution became entire building fabric, looking for unknown defects to localize energy related
higher (320 × 240 pixel from 1999), permitting also the vision of little problems [24,43]. On the contrary, active thermography concentrates on
temperature differences [14]. This situation favored the proliferation of IR- detail areas analysis, closely examining building defects [24]. For this reason,
devices with different passive schemes are considered the typical approaches for the energy audit
[6,18,24,44]. Following, the current IRT approaches for each level of the
energy audit have been

Fig. 1. Brief history of the IR thermography related to the IRT applications (Images © Flir Systems).

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E. Lucchi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

indicated (Fig. 2). common passive approaches for the energy audit are walk-around and walk-
through thermography [6,18]. They are systematic scans of the building
surfaces [6]. The first observes every external building eleva-tion from the
4.1. Passive thermography street while the second performs both internal and ex-ternal imaging [43]. The
external survey is more susceptible to tran-sient environmental conditions
Passive thermography measures the temperature differences under normal than the internal, which provides much more controlled climatic condition
thermal conditions (e.g. presence of solar radiations). This ap-proach is [13,43,49]. On the contrary, it re-quires the direct access to the buildings,
divided in [24]: (i) aerial; (ii) automated fly-past; (iii) street pass-by (or drive- because specific features (i.e. bookshelves, wardrobes, or pictures) have an
in); (iv) perimeter walk-around; (v) walk-through; (vi) repeat; (vii) time- impact on the thermal performance [18,19,42]. Walk-around and walk-
lapse; and (viii) mock target. Not all these approaches resulted appropriate for through IRT can sup-port the walk-through energy audit [6], using similar
the energy assessments (i.e. internal defects such as moisture ingress, principles and procedures. The first is faster than the second, which can be
condensation or ventilation losses might be completely missed using outside time-consuming, especially in huge buildings or buildings with many rooms
IRT surveys from i to iv) [24]. Aerial survey is based on the use of an IR- [17]. Their use concerns the building envelope, HVAC and electrical systems
camera fixed to an airplane or a helicopter. It permits to observe problems on [13,17–19,42,49,50]. In addition, walk-through thermography can support the
large buildings but, nor-mally, the limitations in image blurring and the standard and simulation audits, permitting more de-tailed analysis [51].
impact of climatic conditions and thermal emissivity (ɛ) reduce its use for Repeat survey means a continuous monitoring of the building performances
energy assess-ments [24,45]. Sporadic applications regard the detection of for detecting the evolution of defects [43]. It is normally used for supporting
moisture or energy loss from roof surfaces [45]. Automated fly-past survey is the standard and simulation audits, especially for moisture detection [52],
based on the use of an IR-camera mounted on unmanned small aircrafts or refurbishment assessment [51] and Post Occupancy Evaluation [53]. Time-
drones. Similarly, it is not normally used in the energy audit for the impact of lapse survey is based on the use of record movies, sequences and time-lapse
vibrations, the reduction of the accuracy of spatial resolution, the equipment images to observe changes in material surface condition over the time [43,54].
costs, and the licensing restrictions [24]. Possible ap-plications concern the Its prac-tical limitations comprise safety and security concerns, such as spatial
detection of heat losses from windows [46]. Street pass-by thermography uses resolution and FOV limitations, distance between IR-camera and object
vehicle-mounted IR-cameras to au-tomatically capture high-resolution images surface, unwelcome foreground objects and challenges involved with
of dwellings from streets or public highways [24,43,47]. It is based on the supplying continual power to the IR-camera [54]. Also in this case, it could
“Kinetic Super Resolu-tion Process”, a system composed by multiple IR- support the standard audit for discovering the evaporation pro-cess and drying
cameras, slow driving speeds and image enhancement algorithms developed period of differ plasters [36] or for determining the thermal performances of
by MIT and Es-sess for improving the temporal resolution (sensor refresh construction build-up [50] or thermal in-sulation [54,55]. Practical guides
rate) and maintaining high spatial resolution [48]. To date, this approach is suggested adding the heat flux meter (HFM) measurements for monitoring the
used to speed up the thermal performance assessment [43], especially for the thermal performance of buildings [56]. Finally, mock target IRT is based on
building stock analysis. It permits to minimize discrepancies in results due to the measurement of the surface temperature of proper mock targets in thermal
surveying many buildings under different climatic conditions and it is equilibrium with the indoor air [57]. It provides instantaneous multi-
between 4 and 4.5 times cheaper than the traditional meth-odologies (e.g. are dimensional
walk-around and walk-through IRT) [47]. The most

Fig. 2. Current IRT approaches related to each level of the building energy audit.

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E. Lucchi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

air temperature (Ta) measurements in indoor spaces. Its main applica-tion for the building sector. The standard ISO 6781 [67] defines a general
concerns the assessment of human comfort during the standard and simulation procedure for detecting thermal anomalies and air leakages of the building
audits. envelope. This procedure has been considered also by the standard EN 13187
[69] that adds a simplify test for checking the thermal performance of the
building materials. The application in the field of mechanical engineering is
4.2. Active thermography
described in the standard ISO 18434 [68]. Besides, the ASTM defined both
specific practical advice for IRT measurements (i.e. definition of minimum
Active thermography employs an external energy source for pro-ducing a
thermal gradient resolvable or noise equivalent temperature difference,
thermal contrast (heating or cooling) between the features of interest and the
parameter for compen-sating the ɛ-value, etc.) [70–73] and general
surroundings. It permits high efficiencies and clear visualizations of the
procedures for detecting energy related defects (i.e. inspection of insulation
thermal anomalies compared with passive tech-niques [58]. This approach is
installations, elec-trical and mechanical equipment, etc.) [74,75].
divided in: (i) Pulsed Thermography (PT);
Furthermore, the RE-SNET [18] and the BISRA [76] suggest also specific
(ii) Lock-in Thermography (LT); and (iii) Laser Spot Thermography (LST).
advice for the use of IRT in the energy audit of buildings.
PT measurements are performed using a heating pulse on the surface under
investigation, and then monitoring and recording its temperature variations by
First of all, sample thermal images must be taken on a re-presentative part
the IR-camera during both heating and cooling transient phases [58].
of the building and perpendicular to the surfaces, to avoid the influence of
Similarly, Eddy Current Pulsed thermo-graphy (ECPT) combined the IRT
geometrical factors and environmental reflec-tions [18,67,75]. Key climatic
with the Eddy Current Testing (ECT), applying a short burst of
requirements include: (i) air temperature difference ( Ta) at least of 10 °C
electromagnetic excitation and a Joule heat for generating different
temperature distribution patterns on the object's surface [59]. PT and ECPT between internal and external spaces [18,67,75]; (ii) wind speeds (ν) lower
than 5 m/s [18,67,76,77]; (iii) surfaces free from direct solar exposure both
are typically employed for detecting building defects and cracks, also
during the test execution and in the 8 h [18] or 12 h [67,69] preceding the
connected with energy performances [59,60]. LT performs a periodic
survey; and (iv) cloudy conditions to avoid the reflection of a clear sky
deposition of heat on the specimen through sine-modulated lamp heating [61]
[67,76]. Fur-thermore, the standard EN 13187 [69] adds the following
for producing the variation of the surface temperature (Τσ) with the same condition for ensuring a stable surface apparent temperature profile: (i) Ta at
frequency of the heating source [62,63]. Anomalous regions have a different least of 5 °C between internal and external spaces to be maintained for 24 h
response to the signals, which correspond to inner structural changes or before the survey; (ii) respect of a specific relationship between thermal
unexpected defects [61]. Similarly, LST uses a high power laser for
transmittance (U-value) and indoor (Ti) and ambient (Te) temperatures for at
generating lo-calized heating spots, to recognize the presence of surface
cracks with reduced preparation time [39,64]. LT and LST focus on detail least the 24 h before the test (T i-Te > 3/U); and (iii) reduced variations of T i
areas to detect subsurface defects [65]. For this reason, their applications are (< ± 5 °C) and T e (< ± 2 °C) during the survey. These conditions are
related mainly to historic buildings or product characterization [66]. No recommended for a lightweight Scandinavian building, but they can be
applications in the energy assessment have been found. extended to more general existing buildings for en-suring the quasi-state
behavior. In each case, if the IRT survey deviates from the above conditions,
it is necessary to explain the motivations in the report [18,67,76,77].
Nerveless, it is not so easy to achieve these criteria in Europe, especially
5. Passive IRT procedure for the energy audit during summer [77,78]. However, several field tests prove that in the
European climate these requirements can be reached undertaken the IRT
Quasi steady-state behavior is virtually nonexistent. Thus, tradi-tional surveys during the cooler months, espe-cially in the evening and night-time
passive building thermography can be subject to a number of different sources [78]. In terms of good practice, outside inspections are best conducted during
of inaccuracy that can be classified in the following categories: (i) pattern night-time or in the early morning with heating systems switched on to
characteristics (i.e. emissivity, reflectivity, roughness or unevenness, stains, maximize the thermal contrast [79]. On the contrary, inside inspections are
color of wall surface); (ii) climatic conditions (i.e. solar radiation, cloud best collected during daytime or early evening periods to reduce the effects of
cover, direct sunlight, ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, the solar heat loads [79].
surface moisture, and in-terior to exterior air temperature gradient); and (iii)
environmental deficiencies (i.e. angle of vision, survey distance, orientation of
building, existence of any heat generating sources, presence of screening
objects, period of the day, season). For having comparable results and for
reducing the influence of these factors, the International Organization for 6. Qualification of the IRT personnel for the energy audit
Standardization (ISO) [67,68], the European Com-mittee for Standardization
(CEN) [69], the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) [70–75] The standards ISO 18436 [68] and ISO 6781 [67] define the criteria for
and the Residential Energy Services Network (RESNET) [18] established the qualification of the IRT personnel, respectively for the building diagnosis
specific qualitative IRT procedures and the energy audit. Three levels of competencies are in-troduced, as
reported in the following table (Table 1).

Table 1
Requirements of thermographic auditors for each level of specialization [67,68].

Certification level Activity description Training

Level I 1. To conduct an IRT campaign using well-defined procedures 32 h of training and 12 certified months or 400 h of professional
2. To evaluate the results activity
3. To process elementary post-elaboration activities of IR-images
Level II 1. To conduct an advanced IRT survey through the usage of many operating 64 h of training and 24 certified months or 1200 h of professional
instruments activity
2. To identify the right corrective action for the observed problem
Level III 1. To develop procedures, software and advanced instructions for the correct use of 96 h of training and 48 certified months or 1920 h of professional
IRT activity
2. To identify complicated conditions and to recommend thermodynamics corrective
actions

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7. IRT applications in the energy audit [44]. They follow the standard procedures for the qualitative thermo-graphy
in the building sector [18,67,69,76], which requires the control of whether and
The use of IRT for the energy assessment has been classified in qualitative boundary conditions and environmental deficiencies [82]. In general, to
and quantitative studies [13,16,18,19]. The qualitative analysis aims at minimize their impact, the IRT surveys should be undertaken during the
determining the presence of thermal anomalies in the building surface, cooler months, especially in evening and night-time [83]. Several multi-
without assigning temperature values to the patterns [13,49]. It has been methodological approaches have been pro-posed to improve the energy
extensively used in the walk-through and standard audits to gather assessment using the following high-depth techniques: (i) sonic trials for
information using simplified procedures, low costs, and reduced times [6]. Its identifying the wall density [13]; (ii) HFM measurements for quantifying the
fields of action are: (i) thermal characterization of walls, glazing and U-value of the element [13,42,56,84]; (iii) ultrasonic and electric-type micro-
windows; (ii) thermal bridging and excessive heat loss areas detection; (iii) geophysical methods for discovering the presence of structural defects
thermal insulation examination; (iv) air leakage inspection; (v) moisture and [85,86]; (iv) gravimetric tests for determining the moisture content [35]; (v)
water detection; (vi) HVAC and electrical systems characterization; (vii) strati-graphic and chemical investigations for characterizing the material
indoor temperature measure-ments; and (viii) human comfort assessment. The proprieties [44,87]; and (vi) computer simulation for understanding the defect
quantitative studies have been used in the standard and simulation audits to through the comparison with thermal models [44,88–91]. Be-sides, long-term
quantify the thermal performances of the building envelope [18]. Its main IRT surveys are used for the dynamic characterization of the α-value of walls
fields of action are: (i) determination of the percentage of the areas with [92–94], to consider the variation of the solar irradiance overcoming the
thermal anomalies; (ii) insulation level detection; (iii) U-value measurements; limitations of traditional contact sensors [95]. In parallel, a novel in situ
measurement procedure based on a single IR-camera and a thermal mirror has
(iv) dynamic characterization of walls; and (v) moisture content de- been proposed to quantify the time-shift and the temperature oscillation in
termination. Following, the energy related problems detecting with different thick walls, also re-ducing times and costs of traditional techniques [95].
IRT approaches are reported for walk-through (Fig. 3), stan-dard and Finally, IRT with periodic temperature variations has been applied to classify
simulation audits (Fig. 4). the per-centage of moisture in traditional masonries [96].
In both cases, we considered the match between energy audit and building
diagnostics because many defects may have an impact on the energy behavior
(e.g. internal moisture reduces the energy perfor-mance) and vice-versa
energy problems may have an impact on damage (e.g. missing, detaching and
misalignment in the insulation produce security problems and thermal 7.2. Thermal bridging and excessive heat loss areas detection
stresses).
Thermal bridging is defined as additional heat losses in the building
façade. It is classified into [18,78,97–99]: (i) “geometrical” connected to the
7.1. Thermal characterization of walls shape of the envelope (i.e. corner of an external wall; junctions between
walls, roofs or floors; adjacent walls or windows and walls);
IRT can be used in a qualitative way to locate the surface thermal (ii) “linear” caused by discontinuities due to different materials or
anomalies related to different material properties, such as thermal construction methods (i.e. corner areas between two outer walls, structural
conductivity (λ-value), heat capacity (cp), ɛ-value, thermal diffusivity (α), and junctions between pillar and masonry, walls around win-dows, doors and
density (ρ) [6]. Short and long term measurements are pos-sible. Short-term hatches); and (iii) “repeating” characterized by a regular pattern and
IRT surveys are used to characterize: (i) building ages [38,41]; (ii) wall distributed over a big area (i.e. mortar joints in a wall, timber studwork and
thicknesses [13,80]; (iii) material or structural com-ponents (e.g. solid or beams in timber frame construction and steel wall ties in masonry cavities).
hollow bricks, concrete, thermal insulation, etc.) [35,36,149]; (iv) geometries IRT survey clearly identifies in a qualitative way their presence in the
[78,81,149] (Fig. 5); (v) surface properties (ɛ-value) [149]; and (v) energy building façades, using standard procedures [18,67,69,76,98,99] (Fig. 6). As
problems related to layering techniques well, the presence of post-

Fig. 3. Energy related problems and IRT approaches used in the walk-through audit.

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E. Lucchi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 4. Energy related problems and IRT approaches used in the standard and simulation audits.

measurements [100] and laboratory tests [88–91]. Different numerical models

have been proposed to overcome the perturbations caused by the climatic
parameters on the external surface temperature (T s), especially during in situ
IRT surveys [88,91,101]. These models con-cern mainly linear thermal
bridging for their diffusion in new and ex-isting buildings. Due to the impact
of boundary conditions, the studies don’t consider the risk of surface
condensation [100]. Furthermore, to reduce completely the impact of weather
conditions, a simulation model has been defined without considering detailed
meteorological observations [101]. Finally, a method for the quantitative
measurement of thermal bridging performance without any supporting
methods (neither numerical models nor HFM measurements) has been in-
troduced [102]. The novelty of this approach includes the evaluation of the
real heat flow rate caused by the thermal bridging and the linear thermal
transmittance calculation using only IRT surveys.

Fig. 5. Thermal characterization of walls using the IRT survey. 7.3. Thermal insulation examination

processing techniques in the professional software permits to verify the risk of Thermal insulation has examined using both qualitative and quan-titative
condensation and mold growth linked with the thermal bridging [13]. More IRT approaches. First, qualitative IRT permits to detect missing
recently, IRT surveys have been used in a quantitative way to investigate their [18,49,103,104], non-performing [104], misalignment [18], “wind washing”
impact on building envelope during in situ [18], and damage [13,18] of the insulation. Missing or non-performing
insulation produces well-defined thermal anomalies related

Fig. 6. Geometrical (sx) and linear (sx) thermal bridging detection using the IRT survey.

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E. Lucchi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

to the variations of the energy performances caused by the presence of drops 7.4. Thermal characterization of glazing and windows
or different materials. They are clearly visible using the passive IRT, also with
limited Ta during the test (at least 10 °C) [105]. The most frequent defects Glass is opaque in the long-wave IR field (3–14 µm), has specular
concern roofs and filled insulation [49]. There are several limitations dealing reflections and a ɛ-value of 0.837 lower than several opaque building
with deep and low thermal resistance ma-terials [106]. In this case, the good materials (ɛ brick or wood = 0.90) [109]. For this reason, IRT surveys on
practices suggest increasing the Ta (at least 15 °C) [18] to localize better the glass are more affected by radiation sources compared with the opaque
thermal anomalies. Mis-alignment and “wind washing” are related envelope [78,105]. The most important errors are associated to:
respectively to the absence of contact and to the presence of air intrusions (i) specular reflections of surrounding objects [110]; (ii) inadequate
between the insulation and the air barrier [18]. They concern mainly framed estimations of the sky temperature [110]; and (iii) presence of low emissivity
buildings, where could compromise the effectiveness of the insulation because glass (i.e. low-e glass, selective glass) [111]. Different cor-rection methods
the long path exfiltration on the cold side of insulation allows the deposition have been proposed to avoid specular reflections of clear sky or surrounding
of moisture in the building assembly [18]. Damage concerns detachments, buildings, using adjunctive devices as a re-ference point (i.e. reflection errors
low adhesion, shrinkage, and cracking of board panels [78], External Thermal are corrected subtracting the ra-diance of an external object reflected on the
Insulation Composite Systems (ETICS) [13,105] (Fig. 7), Ex-terior Insulation glass in a specular way [110]) or specific equations for different incidence
and Finish Systems (EIFS) [105], and ceramic tiles [107]. In addition, to angles [112]. Fur-thermore, special procedures are proposed to avoid these
quantify the mechanical resistance of glue or panels it is possible to perform a reflections. They consider: (i) inside IRT surveys [113]; (ii) usage of high
tear test only in the areas with thermal anomalies [13]. Misalignment, “wind emissivity materials as reference ɛ-values [111] (e.g. black emissivity tape,
washing”, detachment and cracking generate less visible thermal anomalies electric tape, black rubber coating or spray); (iii) uniform environment, espe-
than missing and non-performing insulation [18]. The amount of these
thermal anomalies is connected to the Ta, the material performances, the types cially for wind velocity and T a [111]; and (iv) Ta over 15 °C across the
of defect, and the direction of the heat flux [107]. To better visualize these glazing [109]. The thermal characterization of glass, glazing systems, and
pro-blems, the standard procedures [18,67] suggest a Ta of 10 °C between insulating glass units is possible only under these strict boundary conditions
internal and external spaces for 4 h before the inspection. [109–111]. On the contrary, the exact estimation of the U-value of insulating
glass units and the inspection of the gas con-centration [111,113] are not
possible, neither using in situ nor la-boratory IRT surveys [111]. Further
Otherwise, quantitative IRT is mainly used to determine the per-centage studies in this fields are really encouraged.
of the areas with insulation problems. In this case, the ther-mograph is taken
orthogonal to the façade, using a ruler as scaling factor. The size of the areas
with problems has been calculated with traditional architectural software (i.e.
Autocad, Archicad, Revit, and so on) [13,44]. Furthermore, different 7.5. U-value measurement
knowledge-based systems based on the integration between IRT surveys and
visual inspections have been proposed to measure the areas at risks [103,104]. IRT has been used to measure the U-value of walls, both for in situ and
Normally, the HFM measurements [108] support the planar IRT to compute laboratory measurements. Time-sequential thermography (TST) permits to
the thermal resistance (R-value) of thermal insulation [42]. Moreover, map the temperature distribution in order to calculate the sensible heat flux
computer simulations help IRT surveys to verify the consistency between (ϕ) through the building envelope directly in situ [114]. The exterior surface
design stage and as-built thermal performances, especially for quantifying the should be divided into different parts by constructing polygons according to
insulation level [97]. The parameters considered in this case are: T a; surface temperature, shape, material, and position. Three measurements of T s in each
ɛ-value, wind speed, global solar irradiance, and thermal ra-diation to the sky. polygon must be taken during the day. Then, the sensible ϕ could be
calculated from the average Ts in each area, assuming as constants λ and Ta.
Unfortunately, the variability of the convective heat transfer coefficient do not
The IRT methodologies most used for examining the thermal in-sulation allow the definition of a method for measuring its spatial distribution. Several
are street pass-by, walk-around, and walk-through; only in few cases aerial procedures have been created from this study to measure the U-value of walls
survey. Street pass-by and walk-around surveys speed up the assessment on using IRT data. Mainly, short-term IRT campaigns are considered. These
insulated façades [43,47]. Walk-around and walk-through IRTs are used procedures are based on specific algorithms that consider: (i) Ta [106,114–
either for qualitative and quantitative purposes while aerial survey is used for 116]; (ii) ratio between the heat power flown through the envelope [115]; (iii)
detecting large insulation areas [45]. apparent surface temperature (Tsa) [50,55,67,115–117]; (iv) ɛ-value of walls
[50,106,115,119]; (v)

Fig. 7. Thermal insulation examination of two different ETIC systems using the IRT survey.

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E. Lucchi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

reflected apparent temperature (Trefl) [50,106,119]; and (vi) wind speed [118]. allow a correct estimation of specific heat losses within a precision range
Both, inside and outside IRT surveys are performed: inside measurements below ± 10% compared to the HFM measurements [55,117,126].
ensure acceptable results thanks to the reduction of the impact of boundary
conditions while outside IRTs require the calcula-tion of the external
convective coefficient on the basis of the weather conditions to achieve
7.6. Air leakage inspection
reliable results. Standards [50], calculated [84,106] and measured
[84,115,120] data validates the in situ IRT results. A percentage absolute
deviation of 25–35% is obtained between IRT measurements and theoretical Airflow through buildings elements causes a temperature gradient on its
surfaces [78,127,128]. Its magnitude depends on the nature and the size of the
U-values [50,84,106] and of 10–20% between IRT and measured data
leakage point, the pressure differential ( P) across the building envelope, and
[84,115,120]. Particularly, IRT mea-surements of T s and Ta gradients
the Ta [18,129]. Qualitative IRT surveys can be used to assess air infiltrations
compared to HFM techniques take the advantages of large surface
of the building thanks to their thermal gradient [56]. For a successful leakage
temperature measurements [120] and air's transparency to the IR emitted by
identification, the standard procedures require at least a T of 10 °C [18] or a P
the surfaces over short distances [115]. However, the deviance increases to of 10 Pa between internal and external spaces during the inspection [78]. In
80% with wind velocities larger than 1 m/s, because the higher external
order to achieve these conditions, it may be necessary to raise T i for at least
convective heat transfer coefficient enlarged the dispersion of the data [115].
12 h before carrying out the tests [18]. The increasing of P has a big in-
fluence in the qualitative analysis [129] while, on the contrary, the increasing
Literature underlined the difficulties related to the use of short-term IRT
inspections for quantitative measurements [50,106,114]. Particu-larly, the of Ta has a little influence [129]. For this reason, the vi-sualization of the
following issues have been defined for improving the result accuracy: (i) leakage pathway may be difficult under natural conditions [78], especially in
Southern European countries, where the mild climate and the user behavior
presence of high Ta [50,67,106,114]; (ii) correct de-termination of convective
lead to scenarios of adventitious ventilation [129]. Thus, air leakage
coefficients and compensation parameters (ɛ, Trefl, etc.) [50,106,118,119]; (iii) inspections are best conducted when the air is artificially forced across the
presence of conditions similarly to the steady-state [50,106]; and (iv) building enclosure [130], using fans, mechanical or ventilation systems [56].
reduction of the impact of weather conditions during outdoor surveys In this case, the analysis can be done during all seasons [131,132], also with a
[50,106,114,118]. Possible solutions have been outlined to obtain more
Ta of 1.7 °C during the survey [18]. Thus, passive solar gains and thermal
reliable data, such as: (i) performing surveys under appropriate and stable
storage are adequate to detect the problem under mechanical ventila-tion
weather condition [67,106,114];
pressure [18].
(ii) avoiding IRT campaigns during rainy and sunny days [67,106,114];
(iii) considering an average wind speed to calculate the convective
coefficient [106,115]; (iv) acquiring compensation parameters [106];
Qualitative IRT is based on the measurement of the airtightness and the
(v) using the same IR-camera to detect surfaces, indoor and outdoor
volume of air flow of the building envelope [133]. The “fan pres-surization
temperatures [106]; and (vi) conducting a sensitivity analysis for con-sidering
method” (or Blower Door Test) described in the standard EN 13829 [134]
the effects of radiations and boundary conditions [50]. Fur-thermore, the
applies a known P between the two sides of the con-struction element (Fig. 8).
quantification of systematic and random errors improves the method in terms
This procedure is based on several mea-surements within the range of 10–50
of bias correction and reduction of measurement uncertainty [118,120–122].
Pa with increments of 10 Pa and is repeated twice for pressurization and
For this reason, few studies have been done in the laboratory under controlled
depressurization conditions. This procedure has been reported widely also in
climatic conditions to reduce the impact of weather [121,123–125]. The
operative procedures and guidelines [18,78]. The main problem studied in
validity of different IRT methods [50,106,115] has been tested in the climatic
chamber on ty-pical walls [124]. Each equation gives stable results for scientific literature concern the accuracy of the method. For this reason, a
Pressurization Thermal Index (PTI) proportional to the thermal gradient
specific para-meters (e.g. ɛ, Trefl, T) [119]. Normally, IRT results are similar
between the average Te and the initial Ts has been found to compare the result
to design U-values, but lower than HFM results. Thus, each method should be
used on specific wall compositions. On the contrary, long-lasting survey and of different analyses and to decide upon the best result [129].
averaged data give more reliable results. In general, quick IRT surveys are not
representative of the real thermal performance in non-stationary boundary
conditions [123]. For this reason, the use of passive time-lapse or transient 7.7. Moisture and water detection
thermography has been explored to measure the Tsa over a prolonged period
[55,117,126]. These methods Moisture, water leak, penetrative and rising damp through the building's
elements cause a heterogeneous thermal patterns on the surfaces [44].
Particularly, wet surfaces are cooler than dry areas. Three

Fig. 8. Air leakage inspection from the walls using the IRT survey (sx) and the IRT survey combined with the Blower Door Test (dx).

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physical phenomena influence the reduction of Ts in moist materials [135]: (i)

“evaporative cooling” of the surface that causes an en-dothermic reaction; (ii)
increasing of ϕ [18]; and (iii) high heat storage capacity compared to dry
materials. These phenomena have an effect on the thermal performance of the
building elements, because reduces the λ-values of many materials. Several
IRT surveys aim at tracing water leaks and locating moisture before any
visible marks occur, particularly in heritage and existing buildings
[18,44,135], to avoid severe degradation such as condensation, efflorescence,
biological and mold growth, material's performance degradation, and
detachment [136]. Numerous operative procedures to detect moisture related
phenomena in building components using IRT are still under develop-ment,
using the IRT surveys alone [17,18,44,78,136] or combined with HFM
measurement, visual testing and coring [13]. Outside inspections are best
conducted in the early evening after a sunny day without wind or during the
evaporative cooling of the water [18,44]. Inside inspec-tions are normally
collected during cooling or heating conditions as the building materials tend Fig. 10. HVAC characterization using the IRT survey.
to absorb more water over time [18,44] (Fig. 9). Nevertheless, different
methods for the quantitative assessment have been defined, mainly using shows the presence of heat source embedded in a wall section or under a slab
active IRT techniques such as PT, differ-ential absolute contrast (DAC) and
when a Ta is induced [17] (Fig. 10). Similarly, water leaks may also locate
thermographic signal reconstruction (TSR) [96,137–141]. Quantitative
simply running hot water through pipes or networks [78]. However, water
measurements are possible but dif-ficult [142] because they need specific
leaks under concrete slabs are not visible when water is drained away in sand
controlled conditions to mini-mize the variation of ɛ-value and the
or gravel base layer. Alternatively, without fluid flow, the reflective method
environmental reflections [140,141]. The use of these techniques require very
can be used by applying a uniform heat source to the exterior of the heat pipe
scientific skills and sophisticated equipment [135]. Thus they are not always [17]. On the contrary, the in-spection of MVHR ductwork may not be
applicable, especially for large areas or variable environmental conditions possible with suspended ceiling or air gaps [78]. Finally, misalignment, faulty
[135]. To overcome these limitations and to validate thermographic results, bearing, inadequate lu-brication and improper use of electrical motors for
the use of additional tools has been advocated, such as moisture meters, pumps or funs can be easily identified as hotspots caused by mechanical
calcium carbide sampling and destructive investigation [143]. How-ever, the stresses or fric-tions. Anticipated motor life is reduced by 50% for every 10
thermography is also useful for directing the use of these tools and the °C rise over their rating [17].
inspection works [143].

7.9. Electrical system characterization

7.8. HVAC system characterization The use of IRT in the electric sector is closely related to the mea-surement
of the amount of electricity dissipated (i.e. overloads, load imbalance) and to
IRT is used also to visualize the performance of HVAC systems as well as the safety of the installation (i.e. poor connections, short circuits) [17], both
the difference between design and installation phases. The problems mainly for energy audit and maintenance purposes (Fig. 11). The electrical
detected are: (i) functioning, position and length of heated floors and heaters inspections are performed in a short time, without interrupting the service,
on walls [17,19,78]; (ii) functioning of boilers and mechanical ventilation under full load and real operating conditions [17,144]. The most significant
with heat recovery (MVHR) systems [78]; challenge for a correct in-spection is the determination of the ɛ-value of the
(iii) insulation of distribution networks (e.g. ductwork and pipes) [17]; material used for the pipes. In general, the standard ɛ-values for conductors
(iv) operating status of air supply [17]; (v) air leakages from installa-tions, (copper and aluminum) are in the range 0.9–0.95 [67–69], but the degree of
ducts, and pipes [78]; (vi) water leaks from pipes [17,78]; and oxi-dation, the surface finishing as well as the angle of recording could lead
(vii) internally damage sections (e.g. erosion, subsurface defect, cor-rosion). significant deviations for Ts [145]. There are two basic criteria for as-sessing
Establishing environmental conditions suitable for IRT is also likely to be the state of electrical equipment on the basis of the practical experience [145]:
more straightforward, assuming that the building heating systems are (i) “absolute temperature”, and (ii) “temperature
operational [78]. Typically, the thermal pattern clearly

Fig. 9. Moisture, mold and water detection from a terrace (sx) and a façade (dx) using the IRT survey.

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E. Lucchi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

heuristics model to predict the personal thermal comfort for individuals with
95% confidence level [148]. Considerable variations are observed in the
thermoregulation performance between the men and women. Females’
thermoregulation system responses are less sensitive to the perception of
warm conditions [148]. These studies put together the innovative discoveries
in medicine and human comfort surveys.

8. Conclusions

The paper presents a critical overview of the IRT applications in the

building energy audit. In total about 150 literature sources (composed by
books, guidelines, researches, and other documents) have been analyzed,
summarizing theories and approaches spanning from the last fifty-five years
(1962–2017). After explaining the historical growth of IRT, its applicability
in the building energy audit has been described. The passive approach results
Fig. 11. Characterization of air infiltration through the electric systems using the IRT survey. the most common to detect thermally significant defects. Thus, a specific
procedure has been reported, matching different standards, guidelines, and
professional advice. Similarly, recurring energy defects are toughly presented,
difference”. The first method compares the Ts of each component ac-cording comparing practical and theoretical studies. The use of IRT for the energy
to reference values of similar materials without any damage. In this case, the assess-ment has been classified in qualitative and quantitative studies.
Qualitative analyses are widely treated by literature, standards and practical
ɛ-value of pipes can be easily determined referring to the standard T s to be
reports. They focus on: (i) thermal characterization of walls, glazing and
obtained. On the contrary, the “temperature differ-ence” criterion takes into
windows; (ii) thermal bridging and excessive heat loss areas detection; (iii)
account the Ts between similar components under similar load conditions,
thermal insulation examination; (iv) air leakage in-spection; (v) moisture and
setting out four level of electric risks. In the case of a major difference
water detection; (vi) HVAC and electrical systems characterization; (vii)
between the measured load and the rated value, a correction of the allowed
indoor temperature measurements; and
temperature rise should be calcu-lated. On these bases, the operator can make
decisions on the operating state of each part [17]. Unfortunately, these criteria
(viii) human comfort assessment. On the contrary, quantitative studies are
don’t take into account the component load [146]. For this reason, several
organiza-tions have developed their own maintenance methodology [146]. worthy of investigation. Currently, they concentrate on: (i) de-termination of
The most famous is the NETA MTS-2005 (International Electrical Testing the areas with thermal anomalies; (ii) insulation level detection; (iii) U-value
Association), which suggests matching the previous methods [147]. measurements and dynamic characterization of building elements; (iv)
moisture content determination; and (v) damage evolution analysis. The
literature review presents also the possible to-pics for the research in this field,
suggesting the themes that need to be further explored. They are synthetized
7.10. Indoor temperature measurements above:

Although IR-cameras with sensors tuned at specific micrometer wave • Comparison among different passive methodologies for the building stock
bands are used for the detection of specific gas leakages, they cannot measure analysis;
• Development of procedures and tools for:
the indoor air temperature [57]. Traditional IRT pro-cedures are mainly
applicable for opaque objects with substantial ɛ-value. Thus, the use of ￮ U-value measurement and dynamic characterization of building
opaque mock targets that reach in short time the thermal equilibrium with the components (particularly for walls and glazing systems);
￮ Gas concentration determination of glass units and glazing sys-tems;
environment can accurately represent Ti. Mock target IRT is based on the
extraction of their Ts from the radiation emitted [57]. The interpolation of ￮ Moisture content determination;
consecutive measurements provides a quick and reliable monitoring of the ￮ Damage evolution detection;
multidimensional spatial dis-tribution of Ts. The thermal equilibrium of the ￮ Long-term environmental monitoring using the mock target IRT;
mock targets with the environment permits to define quickly the spatial ￮ Human comfort assessment;
distribution of Ti. Its major advantages are the simplicity of the method and ￮ Integration of different non-destructive testing for the building energy
the reduced time to carry out the measurement. Several advices are suggested audit;
to easily distinguished the mock target from the environment: (i) use of IR- ￮ Integration of energy audit, damage, and structural assessments;
cameras with an appropriate minimum focus distance to cut the influ-ence of • Development of smart sensors for indoor monitoring, environmental
the air (e.g. 0.3 m); (ii) selection of the option picture in picture to better control, and human comfort assessments.
visualize the mock targets; and (iii) place the mock targets at least 0.5 m from
walls and away from heat sources to avoid thermal reflections (e.g. radiators, Considering the wide and effective results and real field contribu-tions
windows, and so on). coming from innovative research all around the world in the field of IRT
technologies development, the present study contributed to make an instant
picture of the current progresses in the research. It want to be a reference for
energy auditors and thermographers to amplify and to update their knowledge
7.11. Human comfort assessment in this field. In parallel, it want also to outline the background for the
implementation of other studies, products, and results in the research sector.
Human comfort assessment with IRT techniques is based on the
monitoring of the variations of skin temperatures on several points on the
human face, using special eyeglasses equipped with IR-sensors [148]. These References
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