Chapter 1

Psychology : An Overview

Chapter Objectives

At the end of the chapter the students are expected to be able to:
1. Define the basic terms of the course.
2. Describe Psychology's key issues.
3. Describe the goals of Psychology.
4. Describe and evaluate the different schools and approaches of Psychology.
5. Distinguish the areas of specialization of Psychology.
6. Describe the scientific processes and methods used in Psychology.

Psychology

A. Definition of Terms
1. Psychology
1.1.1. coined from two Greek words, psyche (soul) and logos (study).

1.1.2. It is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

1.1.3. The science that seeks to understand behavior and mental

processes and to apply that understanding in the service of
human welfare.

1.1.4. People often confuse psychology with psychiatry, which is a

branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment
of psychological disorders (Franzoi, 2011).

a) Psychiatry is practiced by physicians.

b) Psychology also deals with the diagnosis and treatment

of such disorders, but this is only one area of
specialization in psychology.

c) Psychology has a much broader scope than psychiatry.

Whereas psychiatrists go to medical schools for their
training and obtain the M.D. (doctor of medicine),

1
 psychologists attend graduate schools in psychology and
obtain the Ph.D. (doctor of philosophy) or, in some
cases, the Psy.D. (doctor of psychology)

2. Science
1.1.5. It is a group of related facts and principles of a particular
subject.

1.1.6. In science we collect related facts by the use of objective

methods to develop a theory to explain those facts.

1.1.7. From a given set of conditions, science helps us to predict

future happenings.

3. Behavior
1.1.8. Generally, it refers to all types of human activities or everything
that human does.

1.1.9. It can be categorized as motor activities (talking), emotional

activities (fear), and cognitive activities (remembering).

2. It is also the reaction of an individual to a particular

environment. The environment exerts influence on individuals.
That influence is calledstimulus. The stimulus in turn arouses
an activity from the individual and this is called the response
(Lemma, 2006).

B. Key Issues in Psychology

1. Nature versus Nurture
1.1. How much of our behavior is due to heredity or how much is
due to environment?

2. Conscious versus Unconscious

i. How much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are

fully aware?
3. Observable behavior versus Internal mental processes

i. Should Psychology only focus on what it can see?

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C. Goals of Psychology

1. To describe behavior. This will help psychologists understand the basic

patterns of behavior and allows them to develop theories or assumptions
about behavior.

2. To make prediction about behavior. These predictions are often based on the
description psychologists have obtained.

3. To control behavior. Behaviors can be controlled or modify through giving

or withholding rewards.

4. To give explanation of the behavior. This is made possible through the

insights they gained from describing, predicting and controlling the
behavior.

D. Historical Background and Schools of Thought

1. How did Psychology evolve as a discipline?

i. The founders of psychology were philosophers – the ancient Greeks

were important antecedents to modern Western ideals.
a) Plato. For him, all knowledge is innate and can be
attained only through introspection, which is the
searching of one’s inner experiences.

b) Aristotle. For him, information about the

environment is provided by the five senses: sight,
hearing, taste, touch, and smell. He also believed
that the active reason part of the soul provides
humans with their highest purpose.

ii. During the 17th century – Psychological idea emerges as an

outgrowth of empirical and rational philosophy

2.1.1. Science displaces religion as an authority on understanding

2.1.2. During the 18th century – Psychology began to emerge as a

science in conjunction with studies of the nervous system
(Physiology).

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 3. Founder of Experimental Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt (1832-
1920).

a) Established the first laboratory for the study of psychology

in Leipzig in 1879;

b) Campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline;

c) Defined psychology as the scientific study of conscious

experience;

d) Trained psychologists who spread throughout Europe and

North America.

2. Schools of Thought (Lemma, 2006, pp. 11-18)

1.2. Structuralism

a) Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory in

1879 in the University of Leipzig in Germany. It is also where
formal research in psychology began.

b) Wundt is considered as the first psychologist and father of

experimental psychology.

c) He limited the subject matter of psychology to the study of

conscious experience. The elements of conscious experience
were considered to be of two kinds. These are:
0) Sensations: sights, sounds, tastes, smells and touch,
which arise from stimulation of the sense organs;
a) Feelings: love, fear, joy, and so on

d) He believed that all conscious experiences are merely intricate

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 combinations of elemental sensations i.e. sensory knowledge is
the building block of our intellect. Sensations combine to
become conscious experiences as basic elements are composed
to form complex substances in chemistry.
a) For example, an experience such as meeting and
recognizing an old friend in the street was thought to be
composed of many independent sensations, feelings
and images, which were drawn together and
synthesized by the mind.

e) Its method of study was introspection.

b) In introspection people are taught, trained to observe

and report the 'content' or 'elements' of awareness in a
particular situation. For example; people are presented
with stimulus such as a sentence on a card and asked to
describe in their own words their own experiences.
0) Introspection is detailed description and how people
perceive things in the world.

ii. Functionalism
a) The American psychologist William James pioneered
functionalism.

b) It focused on what the mind does on the functions of mental

activity and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to
their environment.

c) Functionalism was strongly influenced by biology. The work

and ideas of Charles Darwin had a great impact on the
emergence of functional psychology.

d) According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, living organisms

change and develop over time through a process of natural
selection. Organisms whose characteristics were best suited to
their environment survived and reproduced. While organisms
whose characteristics were less adaptable died out. Survivors
would transmit to the next generation those characteristics that
enabled them to survive.

e) William James was greatly influenced by Darwin. James held

that the function of consciousness was to enable humans to
behave in ways that would act survival through adaptation to
the environment. Where these adaptive behaviors were

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 repeated frequently they became habits. Habits provide
stability and predictability in society.

iii. Gestalt
a) The leading proponents of the Gestalt view were the German
psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Kafka and Wolfgang
Kohler.

b) Instead of considering separate parts that make up thinking,

Gestalt psychologists concentrated on the ‘whole’. Their slogan
is ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’. Gestalt means
shape, form or configuration.

c) Their belief was that the whole is different from the sum of its
parts. In order to understand our environment we have to
perceive it in its totality not in its individuality.

d) Max werthiemer said that ‘it is a mistake to analyze

psychological events into pieces, or elements, as the
strtucturalists did.’

e) Further research by the Gestalt psychologists led to the

development of a set of principles of perceptual organization.
Such organizations arose through the brains innate ability to
structure and organize the perceptual field into meaningful
patterns rather than perceiving the separate elements.

iv. Psychoanalysis
a) The Viennese neurologist and psychologist Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939) pioneered the psychoanalytic perspective.

b) Freud said that conscious experiences are only the tip of the
Iceberg. Beneath the conscious experience is primitive
biological urges that seek expression but which are in conflict
with the norms and morality of the society.

c) These unconscious motivations and conflicts have powerful

influences on our conscious thoughts and actions. Therefore
they are responsible for much of human behavior including
physiological problems. According to Freud, all behavior
whether normal or abnormal is influenced by the unconscious
mind. This belief is called psychic determinism.

d) They cannot be directly studied through introspection.

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 According to Freud the methods of studying the unconscious
mind are:
0) Free association
0) In this method the psychoanalyst gives the
client a word and asks to reply with the first
word that comes to mind be it nonsense or
irrelevant. The psychoanalyst makes
associations and meanings between ideas,
words, and thought.
a) Dream analysis based on case studies
0) The contents of dreams are analyzed for
underlying or hidden motivations.
a) Dreams are viewed as indication of what a
person is truly feeling within the conscious
mind. Freud said dreams are ‘the royal road to
the understanding of the unconscious.’

v. Behaviorism
a) John Watson (1878-1958) revolutionized psychology by
changing the subject matter of psychology from the study of
conscious experience to the study of behavior.

b) Watson believed that the study of psychology should be about

observable behavior and its aim should be to describe, predict,
understand and control behavior.

c) He contended that psychologists should never use the terms

consciousness, mental states, introspection, imagery and the
like.

d) Followers of behaviorism did not reject the existence of mind

and consciousness. Rather, they viewed these concepts as
impossible to observe and contributing little to a scientific
approach to psychology.

e) Watson’s focus on the study of observable behavior enabled to

formulate clear hypotheses, which could be tested by
experimentation.

f) Watson’s view of learning relied to a great extent on Pavlov’s

account of classical conditioning. Accordingly, it is possible to
break down and analyze a certain behavior into stimulus-
response units.

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 g) The work of John Watson contributed much to the use of more
objective and systematic methods to the study of human
behavior.

Table 1. Summary Presentation of the Different Schools of Thought in Psychology

School of Early Advocates Goals Methods

Thought

Structuralism Edward Titchener, To study conscious experience Experiments;

trained by Wilhelm and its structure introspection
Wundt

Gestalt Max Wertheimer To describe the organization of Observation of

psychology mental processes: “The whole is sensory/perceptual
greater than the sum of its parts.” phenomena

Psychoanalysi To explain personality and Study

Sigmund of individual cases
Freud behavior; to develop techniques

s for treating mental disorders

Functionalism William James To study how the mind works in Naturalistic observation
allowing an organism to adapt to of animal and human
the environment behavior

Behaviorism John B. Watson, B. To study only observable Observation of the

F. Skinner behavior and explain behavior relationship between
through learning principles environmental stimuli
and behavioral
responses

E. Today's Perspectives or Approaches in Psychology

1. Biological
i. Our brain is a complex biochemical organ that affects how we think and
how we behave. To understand behavior you must understand the roots of

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 behavior, the working of the brain and nervous system.

ii. It is focused on investigating how physiological processes shape behavior

and mental processes.
2. Evolutionary

i. It is focused on understanding the adaptive aspects of behavior.

ii. The brain and the mind evolved to solve problems encountered by our
hunter-gatherer ancestors during the upper Pleistocene period over
10,000 years ago (McLeod, 2007).

iii. Behaviors that we see have developed because these are adaptive and
crucial to the organism's survival.
3. Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic

i. This is based on the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud saw psychology as

the study of unconscious because he believed unconscious motivation
controlled behavior.

ii. It studies how human behavior is determined by hidden and unconscious

drives and conflict.

iii. It delves deeper to topics like dreams, childhood experiences,

aggression, sexuality, motivation, creativity and personality.
4. Behavioral

i. It studies the observable/overt behavior rather than the hidden mental

processes.

ii. It is specifically focused on how organisms learn observable responses.

iii. B.F. Skinner places emphasis on the consequences of behavior. He

found that people and other animals tend to repeat behaviors that are
followed by positive consequences and avoid behaviors that bring
negative consequences (Franzoi, 2011).
5. Cognitive

i. It focuses on the process that helps people to know, understand, and think
about the world.

ii. To undertand people's behavior, we have to understand how they think

or process information.

Iii. According to Franzoi (2011,15), the rise of cognitive psychology

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 occurred about the same time as the development of computer
technology. Cognitive psychologists argued that the mind was like a
computer. The mind, like a computer, receives input from the
environment. It then transforms, stores, and later retrieves this input
using a host of “programs,” which then generate specific response
outputs.
6. Humanism

i. It emerge as a reaction to the deterministic view of Psychoanalysis and

behaviorism and is regarded as the third force in Psychology.

ii. It emphasizes people’s inborn desire for personal growth and their ability
to consciously make choices (Franzoi, 2011).

iii. A new approach related to Humanstic Psychology is Positive

Psychology which is a relatively new approach to psychology that
studies how people find mental health and happiness in their everyday
living (Franzoi, 2011).

F. Areas of Specialization in Psychology (Franzoi, 2011, pp19-20)

1. Research Psychology- acquisition of psychological knowledge through
scientific methods.

i. Biopsychology (also called psychobiology)- Studies behavior by

examining biological processes, especially those occurring in the brain.

ii. Developmental psychology- Studies how people mature and change

physically, cognitively, and socially throughout the life span.

iii. Experimental psychology- Studies basic psychological processes such as

sensation, perception, learning, motivation, emotion, and states of
consciousness.

iv. Cognitive psychology- Studies all aspects of thinking, including problem

solving, decision making, memory, reasoning, and language.

v. Personality psychology Studies how people are influenced by relatively

stable internal traits.

vi. Social psychology Studies how people are influenced by others.

2. Applied Psychology- utilization of psychological knowledge to solve real-
life problems.

i. Clinical psychology- Diagnoses and treats people with psychological

disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia.

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 ii. Counseling psychology- Diagnoses and treats people with personal
problems that do not involve psychological disorders, including
marriage counseling, social skills training, and career planning.

iii. Industrial–organizational psychology- Focuses on ways to select,

motivate, and evaluate employees, as well as improving the
management structure and working conditions.

iv. Educational and school psychology:

a) Educational psychology- Conducts and applies research on
teaching and learning,

b) School psychology- Specializes in assessing and alleviating

children’s academic problems.
e) Forensic psychology- Focuses on understanding people’s behavior in
many areas of the criminal justice system such as determining whether
a defendant was insane at the time the crime took place or judging the
competence of a defendant’s ability to stand trial.

G. Scientific Processes and Methods in Psychology

1. The Scientific Method

i. The approach used by psychologists to systematicallyacquire knowledge

and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.

ii. Scientific processes involve:

a) Identify questions of interest

b) Formulate an explanation
 Specify a theory. A theory is an organized system
of ideas that seeks to explain why two or more
events are related (Franzoi, 2011, 33)
 Develop a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a
prediction stated in such a way that it allows to
be tested.

c) Carry out research

 Operationalize hypothesis
 Select a method
 Collect data
 Analyze data

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 2. Research Methods

i. Naturalistic Observation- It describes how people or animals behave in

their natural environment.

ii. Case Study- An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small

group of people
iii.Survey Research- A sample of people are asked a series of questions
about their behavior, thoughts, and attitudes in order to represent a larger
population.

iv. Correlational Studies- The relationship between two sets of variables is

examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated”.
a) Ranges from +1 to -1 (positive, zero or negative
correlation)
b) Correlation does not mean “causation”.

v. Experiment- A scientific method in which researchers manipulate, or

change, a variable to observe the effect on some other variable.
1. The variable that is manipulated is called the independent
variable. It is the one the researcher is testing as the
possible cause of any changes that might occur in the other
variables.

1.1.1.1. The variable that may change in response to the

manipulated changes in the independent variable is called
the dependent variable.

Table 2. Different Research Methods Used in Psychology

Method Features Strengths Pitfalls

NaturalisticObservation Observation of human or Provides descriptive data Observer bias and

animalbehavior in the about behavior presumably participantself-
environment inwhich it typically uncontaminated by outside consciousness can distort
occurs influences results

Case studies Intensive examination of Provide detailed May not provide

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 thebehavior and mental descriptiveanalyses of new, representativepicture of
processesassociated with a complex, or rare phenomena
specific person or situation phenomena

Surveys Standard sets of questions Gather large amounts Sampling errors, poorly
askedof a large number of ofdescriptive data phrasedquestions, and
participants relatively quickly and response biases can distort
inexpensively results

Correlational studies Examine relationships Can test predictions, Cannot confirm

betweenresearch variables evaluate theories, and causalrelationships
suggest new hypotheses between variables

Experiments Manipulation of an Can establish a cause- Confounding variables

independentvariable and effectrelationship between mayprevent valid
measurement of its effects on a independent and dependent conclusions
dependent variable variables

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 CHAPTER 2
THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:

1. Explain how messages travel across the nervous system.

2. Identify the structures and functions of the central nervous system, the
peripheral nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system.
3. Describe the major structures of the brain, and identify their function
4. Explicate the basic functions of the glands in the endocrine system, and
explain the role of neurotransmitters.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Nervous System

A. What is Nervous System

A. A complex combination of cells whose primary function is to allow an

organism to gain information about what is going on inside and outside
the body and to respond appropriately (Bernstein,2008).

B. Basic Functions

A. Sensation

A. Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside the body.

Such changes are known as stimuli and the cells that monitor
them are receptors.

B. Integration

B. The parallel processing and interpretation of sensory

information to determine the appropriate response

C. Reaction

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 C. Motor output.

D. The activation of muscles or glands (typically via the release of

neurotransmitters (NTs)

C. The Nervous System in Action

i. The Neuron: Messengers of the Nervous System

a) The neuron is a cell specialized to receive, process, and transmit

information to other cells. There are at least 200 different types
of neurons, which are typically comprised of dendrites, soma,
axon, and terminal buttons (Figure 1.).

 Dendrites are branched fibers that extend outward from

the body of the neuron and that receive messages from
other neurons
 The Soma, or cell body, integrates information received
by the dendrites and passes it along to the axon
 The Axon is a single extended fiber that conducts
information to terminal buttons
 Terminal buttons are bulblike structures that secrete
neurotransmitters which influence other neurons

Figure 1. The Anatomy of the Neuron

ii. The Three Major Classes of Neurons:

A. Sensory neurons carry messages from sense receptors toward

the CNS.

B. Motor neurons carry messages from the CNS to the muscles and
glands.

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 C. Interneurons carry messages between different neurons

B. Glia cells, derived from the Greek word for “glue,” outnumber
neurons in the brain by about five or ten to one and perform
three primary functions: housekeeping, insulation, and
protection of the brain.
 Housekeeping: Glial cells clean up after neurons die and
absorb excess neurotransmitters
 Insulation: Glial cells form a myelin sheath around the
axon of some types of neurons, greatly increasing the
conduction speed of the axon
 Protection: Glial cells form a blood-brain barrier that
prevents toxins from reaching the brain

iii. Neural Communication: Action Potential

a) Within a neuron, communication occurs through an action

potential(neural impulse that carries information along the
axon of a neuron).

Fig. 2. Neural Impulse

b) Myelin sheath is a fatty substance that wraps around some

axons and increases the speed of action potentials.

c) “The speed of the action potential as it moves down an axon is

constant for a particular cell, but in different cells that speed
can range from 0.2 meters per second to 120 meters per
second (about 260 miles per hour). The speed depends on the
diameter of the axon—larger ones are faster—and on whether
myelin is present.”(Bernstein,2008)

iv. Synapses and Neurotransmitters

a) Between neurons, communication occurs through transmission

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 of neural information across a synapse by neurotransmitters
(chemicals released by neurons that alter activity in other
neurons).

b) Once an action potential reaches an axon terminal button,

vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap
chemical substances thatstimulate other neurons. The
neurotransmitters then traverse across thesynaptic gap and
attach to receptor molecules embedded in thepostsynaptic
neuron membrane.

Figure 3. Synaptic Transmission

v. Neurotransmitters and Their Functions

a) At least 60 substances are suspected to function as

neurotransmitters in the brain

b) Acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter found in both the central and

peripheral nervous systems, is implicated in memory loss
associated with Alzheimer’s disease and in some types of
respiratory failure

c) Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) is thought to be related

to anxiety, as depressants bind to receptor molecules sensitive
to GABA and cause sedation

d) Catecholamines such as dopamine and norepinephrine play

prominent roles in mood disturbances and schizophrenia

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  Decreased levels of norepinephrine have been
related to depression
 Increased levels of dopamine have been related to
schizophrenia
e) Serotonin is involved in autonomic processes, arousal, and
depression

f) Endorphins are neuromodulators that modify the activities of

postsynaptic neurons and may play an important role in
emotional behaviours

D. The Organization of the Nervous System

Figure 4. Divisions of the Nervous System

i. Comprised of two major divisions

a) The central nervous system (CNS), comprised of all the

neurons in the brain and spinal cord

b) The peripheral nervous system (PNS), comprised of all the

neurons forming the nerve fibers that connect the CNS to
the body

ii. The Central Nervous System (CNS)

i. Integrates and coordinates all bodily functions, processes

all incoming neural messages, and sends commands to
different parts of the body

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 ii. Relies on PNS for information from sensory receptors

iii. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

iii. Provides the CNS with sensory information and relays

commands from the brain to the body’s organs and muscles

iv. Composed of two subdivisions:

iv. The Somatic Nervous System (voluntary), which regulates the

actions of skeletal muscles

v. The Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary), which sustains

basic life processes, further divided into two subdivisions:

 The Sympathetic Nervous System governs response to

emergencies (Fight and Flight)
 The Parasympathetic Nervous System governs routine
operation of internal bodily functions (Rest and Digest)

Figure 5. Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Activities

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E. The Major Divisions of the Brain

Figure 6. Division and Structures of the Brain

i. The hindbrain:

i. Medulla: responsible for breathing, heartbeat, and other vital

life functions

ii. Pons: involved with respiration, movement, waking, sleep, and

dreaming

iii. Cerebellum: coordinates fine muscle movements, balance, and

some aspects of perception and cognition

ii. The Midbrain: collection of brain structures in the middle of the brain
that coordinates movement patterns, sleep, and arousal

iv. Reticular formation: runs through the hindbrain, midbrain, and

brainstem and helps screen incoming sensory information and
controls arousal.

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 iii.The Forebrain: controls thoughts and reason

v. Thalamus: relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortex

vi. Hypothalamus: controls several metabolic functions(body

temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, and endocrine
system)

iv. Limbic System: interconnected group of forebrain structures involved

with emotions, drives, and memory

vii. Amygdala: emotion and emotional expression

viii. Hippocampus: vital to our memory system and the

storage of memory

v. Cerebral Cortex: thin outer layer responsible for regulating most

complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, and higher
mental processes.

F. . The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

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 Figure 7. Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

G. . Lateralization of the Brain

i. The left and right hemispheres of the brain each specialize in particular
operations.

ii. Information from the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere, and
information from the left visual field goes to the right hemisphere

iii. Speech may be the most highly lateralized of all brain functions. For
most people, speech is a left hemisphere function.

iv. The left hemisphere tends to be more analytical, processing information

bit by bit

v. The right hemisphere tends to be more holistic, processing information

in global patterns

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 Figure 8. Lateralization of Brain Function
The Endocrine System

A. A highly complex communication system comprised of a network of glands that

that manufacture and secrete hormones.

B. Hormones–“the messengers of life”–are chemicals secreted by the glands of the

endocrine system. They influence sexual development, physical growth, moods,
arousal level, immune functioning, and metabolism rate.

C. The Hypothalamus serves as an intermediary between the endocrine system and

the nervous system. Messages from the brain cause the hypothalamus to release
hormones to the pituitary gland.

D. The Pituitary Gland, the “master gland,” secretes about ten different types of
hormones, which influence the functioning of all other endocrine system glands,
and influences growth

i. In males, the pituitary gland activates secretion of testosterone, which

23
 leads to sperm production

ii. In females, the pituitary gland activates secretion of estrogen, which is

essential to the release of eggs from the ovaries

Table 3 : Endocrine Glands and Hormones

GLANDS HORMONES ABOUT….

Pineal Melatonin regulation of sleep-wake cycle

Pancreas Insulin metabolizes sugar

Thyroid Thyroxin Increases metabolic rate
Adrenal Corticosteroid resistance to stress
Epinephrine increases metabolic activity
Norepinephrine raises blood pressure
Testes Testosterone Male sex characteristics
Ovaries Estrogen Female sex characteristics

Chapter 3
Sensation and Perception

Objectives: At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:
1. Illustrate the process of sensation and perception
2. Identify and illustrate the structures of the different sensory systems
3. Explain the different rules in perception
__________________________________________________________________________

Sensation

A. What is Sensation

1. Key Terms

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 i. Sensationis the process that detects stimuli from your body and
environment.

ii. Accessory Structures– structures such as the lens of the eye that
modify a Stimulus

iii.Transduction– the process of converting incoming energy into neural

activity

iv. Sensory Receptors– specialized cells that detect certain forms of

energy.

B. Steps in Sensation and Perception

Figure 9: Steps in Sensation and Perception

Figure 10: Sensing and Perceiving (Kassin, 2001).

C. The Stimuli and Sensory Receptor for each Sense

Table 3: Stimuli and Sensory Receptors

Sense Stimulus Sensory Receptors

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Vision Light Waves Light-Sensitive rods and
cones in the eye
Hearing Sound Waves Pressure-sensitive cells in
the cochlea of the inner ear
Taste Chemical Molecules Taste cells in the taste buds
dissolved in the fluid in the of the tongue
tongue
Smell Chemical Molecules Sensitive ends of the
dissolved in the fluid in the olfactory (smell) neurons
nose
Touch Pressure on the skin Sensitive ends of the touch
neurons of the skin

D. Absolute threshold and Sensory Adaptation ( Source : Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2006)

1. Absolute threshold

A.A.A.A.A.A. The minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce

a sensory experience.

B. Gustav Fechner (1801–1887), a German Scientist was a pioneer in

psychophysics, the study of how physical stimuli are translated into
psychological experience and was the one to introduce absolute
threshold

B.A.A.A.A.A. Absolute threshold of human senses

26
 Figure 11: Absolute Threshold of the Senses

2. Sensory Adaptation

i. The diminishing responsiveness of sensory systems to prolonged

stimulus input.

ii. It occurs for all senses

iii. Example

Sensory
Sensory
Adaptation
Adaptation
Demonstration
Demonstration

PlacePlace
a substance
a substance
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a strong
a strong
odor—an
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for example—near youryour
nosenose
for afor
few
a few
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Its odor
Its odor
willwill
seemseem
lessless
intense
intense
overover
time.
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Next, Next,
remove
remove
the the
substance
substance
for five
for five
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and and
thenthen
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it should
smell
smell
as strong
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as itasdid
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whenwhen
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it it

3. Fundamental Features of the Human Sensory System

1. The eyes

0. It is use for vision

27
 0. Vision provides us with a great deal of information
about our environment and the objects in it—the
sizes, shapes, and locations of things, and their
textures, colors, and distances.
1. Visual dysfunctions exist, and the most severe of
all is total blindness which, often results from
traumatic damage to nerve tissue. One dysfunction
is called color deficiency which occurs when
particular cones are missing or malfunctioning.
The most common color deficiency is an inability
to recognize red and greens

1. Structures of the human eyes

Figure 12 : Parts of the eyes

0. Pupil- the opening in the iris that regulates the

amount of light entering the eye.

0. Iris- is a ring of muscles that range in color from

light blue to dark brown.

28
 1. Lens- a flexible, elastic, transparent structure in the
eye that changes its shape to focus light on the
retina.
2. Retina- the innermost coating of the back of the
eye, containing the light-sensitive receptor cells.
0. Cones – provide the receptors for color
vision and sharp details. They function
primarily in daylight or highly illuminated
visual circumstances.
0. Rods – are receptors that function in dim
light and are largely insensitive to color
and fine details.

1. Optic nerve - the nerve that carries impulses from

the retina to the brain. At the point where the optic
nerve leaves the eye on the retina, there are no rods
or cones, so there are no receptor cells.

0. Blind spot -the area on the retina where the optic

nerve leaves the eye and that contains no receptor
cells.

1. Fovea- the tiny area of sharpest vision in the retina

2. The Ears

2. It is use for hearing

2. The sounds humans hear range upward from 0

decibels, the softest sound the human ear can
detect, to about 140 decibels. Any sound over 110
decibels can damage hearing as can persistent
sounds as low as 80 decibels. Any sound that is
painful when you first hear it will damage your
hearing if you hear it often enough.

29
Figure 13 : The Human Ear

3. Three major parts of the ears

3. Outer Ear – it receives sound waves and sends it

down the passageway called the auditory canal. At
the end of the auditory canal is the eardrum, which
is a thin, flexible membrane that vibrates in
sequence with the sound waves.

4. Middle Ear - As the eardrum vibrates, it sets in

motion three tiny, interconnected bones—the
hammer, anvil, and stirrup. When the eardrum
vibrates from sound waves, these bones also
vibrate against the cochlea.

5. Inner Ear – the cochlea is part of the inner ear that

is coiled and is lines with special hair-like auditory
receptor cells. These hair cells change sound
vibrations into neuronal signals that travel through
the auditory nerve to the brain.

0. Decibel levels of common sounds

30
Figure 14 : Decibel levels of common sounds

3. The tongue

4. It is use for tasting

1. About 50 to 150 of these receptor cells are

contained in each of the 10,000 taste buds that are
located mainly on the tongue.

5. The human tongue

Figure 15 : The Human Tongue

Sensations

31
 2. Salty
3. Sour
4. Sweet
5. Bitter
6. Umami

The combination of smell and taste results in flavor due to

both are very sensitive to very similar chemical stimuli

4. The nose

Figure 16: The human nose

6. It is used for smelling

1. Smell receptors are the hair cells of the olfactory

membrane which makes it sensitive to different odors.
Odor molecules can reach olfactory receptors in the nose
either by entering the nostrils or by rising through an

32
 opening in the palate at the back of the mouth.

0. Smell depends on odor molecules in the air reaching the

nose and traveling to receptor cells, which send a neural
impulse through the olfactory nerve to the brain.

2. The nose has a structure called the vomeronasal organ

whose function has not been determined, but is suspected
of being sensitive to pheromones that influence the
reproductive cycle.

5. The human skin

0. The skin is your largest sensory organ. Your sense of

touch is actually a combination of three skin senses.

Figure 17: Layers of Skin

1. Three Types of Skin Senses

• Pressure - the entire body is sensitive to pressure,

some areas such as your fingertips and face have
more receptors so are more sensitive.
• Temperature - depends on which type of receptor
is stimulated. Whether more warm or cold receptors
are stimulated depends on the difference between
your skin temperature and the temperature you are
feeling.
• Pain - pain is an unpleasant experience, it is
important to survival because it serves as a warning
system that signals danger and the risk of injury

33
 2. Nerve Endings
7. Ruffini’s ending
8. Pacinian corpuscles
9. Meissner corpuscles
10. Krause end bulb

6. Body Position and Movement

3. The kinesthetic senseprovides information about the

movement and location of different parts of your body.
Kinesthetic information comes from receptors in muscles,
joints, and ligaments. You sometimes experience partial
disruption of your kinesthetic system when your leg “falls
asleep” and you have trouble walking.

4. The vestibular sense(or equilibrium) provides

information on the position of your body in space by
sensing gravity and motion. Vestibular sense information
comes from tiny, hair-like receptor cells located in your
inner ear. Whenever your head moves, these receptors
provide information that helps you maintain your balance.

Perception

1. What is Perception

1. Perception is the integration and organization of stimulus information

2. Factors that Influence perception

2. Sensation

3. Expectation

4. Emotion

5. Culture
3. Perceptual Set

2. When you have an expectation of what or how something should be, you
create a tendency to interpret sensory information in a particular way. This
expectation is known as a perceptual set

34
 1. Examples

Figure 17: Example of Perceptual set

Figure 18: Example of Perceptual set

4. Principles of Perceptual Organization and Constancy

2. Figure-ground organization

0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0. Certain objects or sounds are automatically identified as

figures, whereas others
become meaningless
background.

Figure 19: Figure and Ground

3. Gestalt Laws on Perception

i. In order to make sense

of our world our
brains try to see patterns or shapes that are recognizable. This
principle is called “grouping”.

ii. The brain makes sense of the world by creating whole structures
out of bits and pieces of information in the environment. “The
whole is more than the sum of the parts”.

ii.i. Principles that people use in organizing such patterns are

35
 proximity, continuity, similarity, simplicity, and closure.

Proximity
 The closer the objects or
events are to one another,
the more likely they are
perceived as belonging
together.
Similarity
 Similar elements are
perceived to be part of a
group.

Continuity
 Sensations that appear to
create a continuous form
are perceived as belonging
together.

Closure
 We tend to fill in missing
contours to form a
complete object.

Common Fate
 Objects that are moving in
the same direction at the
same speed are perceived
together.
Figure 20. Gestalt Principles

4. Stephen Palmer (1999) grouping principle

A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A. Synchrony. Stimuli that occur at the same time

are likely to be perceived as belonging together.

B. Common Region. Elements located within some boundary tend to

be grouped together. The boundary can be created by an enclosing
perimeter.

36
 B.A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A. Connectedness. Elements that are connected by
other elements tend to be grouped together.

4. Perception of Location and Depth

2. Knowing an object’s two-dimensional position (left and right, up
and down) and distance enables us to locate it.

2. Depth or distance perception uses stimulus cues such as

interposition, relative size, height, texture gradients, clarity, color
and shadow.

5. Perceptual Constancy

3. Perceiving certain objects as constant in size, shape, brightness,

color and other properties regardless of changing angle, distance
or lighting.

3. E.g. When you look out a window at night and see that the trees,
grass do not appear to be the same color or brightness as they are
during the daytime.

Figure 21. Shape Constancy

6. Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
1. Receiving information about the world through channels other
than the normal senses—is a hotly debated topic.

1. There are four types of ESP

0. Clairvoyance is perceiving objects or information
without sensory input;
1. Telepathy involves reading someone else’s mind or

37
 transferring one’s thoughts;
2. Psychokinesis involves moving objects through purely
mental effort;
3. Precognition is the ability to foretell events.

7. Illusions

1. Are incorrect perception

2. Sometimes stimuli can be interpreted incorrectly

3. Some stimuli exist in a configuration that almost always leads to

incorrect perception

Figure 22. Example of illusion

Chapter 4
Altered States of Consciousness

Chapter Objectives:

At the end of the chapter the students are expected to be able to:
1. Describe consciousness and its qualities.
2. Describe daily body rhythms.

38
 3. Explain the stages of sleep and sleep disorders.
4. Explain drug abuse and drug tolerance
5. Describe and assess psychoactive drugs, including depressants, stimulants,
hallucinogens and inhalants

_________________________________________________________________

Consciousness

A. What is Consciousness?

1. It refers to our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

2. Franzoi (2011) identified the following qualities of consciousness:

1.1. Consciousness is subjective.

1.2. Consciousness is selective.

1.3. Consciousness is divided.

1.4. Consciousness is continuous.

1.5. Consciousness is changing.

1.6. Consciousness is multi-leveled

B. Sleep and Dreams

1. Circadian rhythm- regular cycle of sleep and wakefulness that corresponds

to physiological changes including body temperature, blood pressure, and
hormone levels.

1.1.1. the biological clock

1.1.2. roughly corresponds to 24-hour day/night cycle

1.1.3. cyclical bodily rhythms

1.1.1.1. wakefulness

1.1.1.2. body temperature

2. Sleep

39
1. is an altered state of consciousness, which is an awareness of
yourself and your surroundings that is noticeably different from
your normal state of consciousness (Franzoi, 2011, 439).

1.1.1.1. While awake, the two most common EEG patterns are beta waves
and alpha waves.

2. Beta waves are very fast, low-amplitude brain waves associated

with an active, alert state of mind. Alpha waves are fast, low-
amplitude brain waves associated with a relaxed, wakeful state of
mind.

3. During sleep, theta waves (irregular, small, rapid brain waves

associated with stage 1 sleep) and delta waves (Slow, high
amplitude brain waves most typical of stage 4 deep sleep) occur.

4. Sleep Stages (About every 90 or 100 minutes of sleep, you cycle

through distinct stages, each associated with a different pattern of
brain activity).

1.1.1.1.1. Stage 1 NREM Sleep- brief stage; sensation of

falling, theta waves occurring

1.1.1.1.2. Stage 2 NREM Sleep- 20 minutes; spindles

(bursts of brain activity)

1.1.1.1.3. Stage 3 NREM Sleep- brief; transitioning to

deeper sleep, progressively more delta waves

1.1.1.1.4. Stage 4 NREM Sleep- 30 min.; delta (large,

slow) brain waves; deep sleep

2. REM Sleep- 10 minutes; vivid dreams, fast active brain

waves accompanied by rapid eye movements. REM sleep is
important to our health. Participants in sleep studies who are
deprived of REM sleep (by being awakened when they
begin rapid eye movements), report feeling tired and
experience REM rebound, meaning they spend more time in
REM sleep the next night. Studies also show that people
who experience prolonged REM sleep deprivation have
greater difficulty remembering recently learned material
(Franzoi, 2011, 441).

40
4.1.1.1. Why do we need sleep?
2.1.1.1.1. Protective- kept our early ancestors from
navigating at night

2.1.1.1.2. Recuperation- restore and repair brain tissue

2.1.1.1.3. Remembering- restore and rebuild memories

from the day

2.1.1.1.4. Growth- growth hormone released during deep

sleep

4.1.1.2. Sleep Disorders

3. Night Terror- A panic attack that generally occurs during

early-night stage 4 NREM sleep in children between the
ages of three and eight. Night terrors are not nightmares,
which are common, anxiety-producing dreams that occur
during REM sleep among adults and children. An immature
nervous system might be the cause of night terrors.

3.1.1.1.1. Sleepwalking- is a disorder in which a person

wanders during early-night NREM sleep. Sleepwalkers are
not acting out a dream.

3.1.1.1.2. Narcolepsy- characterized by uncontrollable

REM sleep during waking hours.

3.1.1.1.3. Sleep Apnea- Sleep disorder in which sleeping

individuals briefly stop breathing several times an hour,
interrupting sleep without the person’s knowledge

4.1.1.3. Dream Theories (Franzoi, 2011, 444)

3.1.1.1.4. Dreams are story like sequences of visual images

experienced during sleep

3.1.1.1.5. Dreams as Wish Fulfillment-

0. Freud's psychoanalytic theory stated that dreams are

disguised wishes of the unconscious mind. The dreamer
remembers the surface meaning, or manifest content, of
the dream. The true meaning of the dream, or latent
content, is hidden from the dreamer to avoid anxiety.
0.0.0.0.0.0. Dreams are constructed to express desires

41
 in a confusing symbolic manner to protect the dreamer’s
peace of mind and ability to sleep.

3.1.1.1.6. Dreams as Information Processing-

1. It is known as the off-line dream theory. This theory

states that dreaming combines and stores information
gathered during the day, allowing your brain to work
more efficiently. While dreaming, the brain integrates
new information with memories and experiences.
2. Research shows that both humans and animals spend
more time in REM sleep after learning difficult
material. If denied REM sleep, less learning occurs.
Some neuroscientists think that if humans did not have
off -line time, they would need larger forebrains to
handle daily learning experiences.

3.1.1.1.7. Dreams as Interpreted Brain Activity-

3. This activation-synthesis theory states that a

dream is the forebrain’s attempt to interpret
random neural activity coming from the
midbrain during sleep. The uppermost portion of
the forebrain is the brain’s thinking center and
consists of the left and right cerebral
hemispheres.
4. According to activation-synthesis theory, the left
hemisphere is the brain’s interpreter. It makes
sense out of information and creates dream plots.
The right hemisphere constructs the dream’s
visual features. The resulting dream made from
this random brain activity has a personal touch
unique to the dreamer because it is based on
available memories, but the dream has no real or
hidden meaning.

C. Hypnosis and Meditation (Franzoi, 2011, 448-451)

1. What is Hypnosis?

1.1.1. It is a state of altered attention and awareness in which a person

is unusually responsive to suggestions.

1.1. Features of Hypnosis

1.1.1. Enriched fantasy- The hypnotized person can readily imagine

42
 unusual situations that differ from normal reality.

1.1.2. Cognitive passivity-Instead of planning actions, the hypnotized

person waits for the hypnotist to suggest thoughts or actions.

2. Heightened selective attention- The hypnotized person focuses

attention on the hypnotist’s voice and ignores other stimuli. Even pain
that is unbearable during the normal waking state is tolerated through
this focused attention.

2.1.1. Reduced reality testing- The hypnotized person tends to accept

uncritically hallucinated experiences suggested by the hypnotist.

3. Posthypnotic amnesia- When instructed, the hypnotized person forgets

all or most of what occurred during the hypnotic session. These
memories are restored when the hypnotist later gives a prearranged
signal.

1.2. Practical Uses of Hypnosis-

2. Research demonstrates that hypnosis is an effective way to help people

relax and reduce physical pain. Hypnotized patients can undergo
surgery without pain and with less-than-normal bleeding. Brain-
imaging studies suggest that hypnosis is effective in reducing pain
because when hypnotized individuals are told to imagine pleasant
sensations, the suggestion alters activity in the brain areas associated
with pain.

2.1. False Beliefs about Hypnosis

2.1.1. Hypnotized people can be forced to violate their moral values.

There is no evidence that hypnosis causes people to act against their
will.

4. Memory is more accurate under hypnosis.Hypnosis can help people’s

memory, but also can result in people recalling events that never
happened.

4.1.1. While hypnotized, people are much stronger than normal.

Hypnosis has no effect on strength.

4.1.2. Hypnosis acts like a truth serum, forcing people to tell the
truth. Hypnotized people can lie and keep secrets.

5. Hypnotized people can be age-regressed to relive childhood

experiences. Although hypnotized people may believe they have

43
 mentally returned to an earlier age, they typically display cognitive
abilities far beyond those of a child.

2.2. Theories of Hypnosis

3. Neodissociation theory- hypnosis is an altered state with two streams of

consciousness operating at the same time, one actively responding to
suggestions and the other passively observing.

6. Social influence theory- Hypnosis is a normal state of consciousness in

which people act the way they think hypnotized persons are supposed
to act.

3.1. Meditation- Mental exercises that focus attention and increase awareness.

4. Most types of meditation—such as Zen, transcendental meditation, and

the relaxation response—teach people to focus attention on the breath
or a single sound or image.

7. Accomplished meditators show high-amplitude alpha waves, reduced

oxygen consumption, and a slowed heart rate while meditating, all
indicators of a deeply relaxed state.

8. Research shows that meditation is an effective treatment for insomnia,

anxiety, depression, and drug abuse. It also improves the well-being
among individuals living with life-threatening diseases. Other studies
suggest that meditation may extend people’s lives by reducing negative
effects of heart disease and strengthening the immune system.

D. Psychoactive Drugs (Franzoi, 2011, 454-458)

1. Psychoactive Drugs refer to chemicals that changes mental processes and

behavior. These drugs alter consciousness by attaching themselves to
synaptic receptors in the brain and either block or stimulate neural activity.

2. Drug abuse- Continued drug use despite it interfering with the drug user’s
behavior or social relationships.

3. Drug tolerance-An effect of drug abuse in which greater amounts of the

drug are necessary to produce the same results once produced by a smaller
dose. It leads to physical and psychological dependence.

4. Types of Psychoactive Drugs

i. Depressants

44
 i. are psychoactive drugs that slow down, or depress, the
nervous system and decrease mental and physical activity.
Depressants include alcohol, sedatives, tranquilizers, and
opium and its derivatives.

i. Alcohol

i. Slows reaction times

ii. Speech slurs
iii. Lowers inhibitions
iv. Feelings of invincibility
v. Disrupts processing of recent experiences into long-
term memories
vi. Blackouts result partly from the suppression of
REM sleep
vii. Prolonged & excessive drinking can affect
cognition (brain shrinking)

ii. Tranquiliers

viii. Mimic the effects of alcohol

ix. Depress nervous system activity
x. Prescription barbiturates used to induce sleep or
reduce anxiety
xi. Can be lethal if taken with alcohol or in large doses

iii. Opium and its derivatives (e.g. Morphine, Heroin)

xii. Depress (slow down) neural activity

xiii. Lessen pain and anxiety by creating a sense of
pleasure
xiv.Pleasure is short term and another dose may be
craved
xv. Larger and larger doses are needed
xvi. Withdrawal symptoms can be extreme
xvii. Increasing dose can lead to overdose death

ii. Stimulants-

ii. are drugs that speed up, or stimulate, the nervous system
and increase mental and physical activity. Commonly used
stimulants are caffeine and nicotine. Caffeine is in coffee,
tea, cocoa, and colas. Nicotine is found in tobacco.

ii. Moderate doses of caffeine fight off drowsiness. Large

doses make a person jittery and anxious and cause insomnia.

45
 Caffeine withdrawal symptoms include headaches and
depression.

i. Nicotine increases mental alertness and elevates heart rate,

respiration, and blood pressure. It reduces blood flow to the
skin, causing a drop in skin temperature.

ii. The stimulants cocaine and amphetamines produce a sense

of euphoria—a high—but cause severe psychological and
physical problems.

iii. Cocaine activates the sympathetic branch of the

autonomic nervous system, raising body
temperature, heart rate, and breathing. It also
reduces the desire for food and sleep.
iv. Habitual amphetamine and cocaine users have
hallucinations, which are sensations and
perceptions that occur without any external
stimulation. Users may hear strange voices, see
snow, or feel bugs crawling on or under their skin.
v. Cocaine induced spontaneous fi ring of sensory
neurons causes the bug-crawling sensation. Other
symptoms are depression, paranoia, teeth grinding,
and repetitive behaviors.

ii. Hallucinogens- (also called psychedelics) are psychoactive drugs that

dramatically alter consciousness and produce hallucinations. These
drugs also may produce relaxation and excitement, as well as anxiety
and fear.

i. LSD.

i. The most potent of the hallucinogenic drugs is

LSD(technically known as lysergic acid
diethylamide).
ii. LSD is a synthetic drug that acts on the brain like
the neurotransmitter serotonin. LSD’s effects are
felt within an hour and last for 10 to 12 hours.
vi. The main psychological effects involve
hallucinations and distortions. Unpleasant
experiences are frequent, and flashbacks—
experiencing the drug’s effects without taking the
drug—occur in more than 15 percent of LSD users
and can persist for months.

iii. Marijuana

46
 i. produced from the Cannabis plant.
ii. The major psychoactive ingredient in marijuana is
THC, short for the molecule delta-9
tetrahydrocannabinol.
vii. Marijuana is mildly physically addictive, but
habitual users experience unpleasant withdrawal
symptoms such as insomnia, anxiety, irritability,
and headache. Physiological effects are increases in
heart rate and blood pressure, and dryness of the
mouth and throat.

i. Inhalants-

viii. are chemicals whose vapors are breathed in to

produce a mind-altering effect. The act of breathing
in the vapors is called sniffing, bagging, huffing, or
inhaling.
ix. Inhalants are absorbed into the lungs and quickly
travel through the bloodstream causing an
immediate, but short-lived, high. The effect is
similar to alcohol intoxication, and it can cause
vomiting, drowsiness, unconsciousness, and even
death.
i. Inhalants are addictive. Long- term use can cause
brain damage, muscle weakness, loss of sense of
smell or hearing, and depression.
ii. Four categories of inhalants
0. volatile solvents (such as gasoline and glue),
i. aerosols (such as deodorant and hair sprays),
ii. gases (such as nitrous oxide found in
whipping cream and butane lighters), and
iii. nitrites (used for heart patients).

5. Drug Use and Influences

1.1.1. Biological Factors

1.1.1.1. Adopted individuals more susceptible to alcoholism if

one or both parents have history.

1.1.1.2. Genes identified that are more common among people

predisposed to alcoholism

1.1.2. Psychological Factors

47
 1.1.1.3. Feeling that life is meaningfulness
1.1.1.4. Stress
1.1.1.5. Psychological disorders (e.g. depression)

1.1.3. Socio-cultural influences

1.1.1.6. peer influence

1.1.1.7. cultural attitude toward drug use
1.1.1.8. Urban environment

Chapter 5

48
 Learning and Memory

Chapter Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to be able to:
1. Explain how people learn and remember things.
2. Develop better ways of learning and remembering.
3. Explain why people forget.
________________________________________________________________________

Learning

A. What is Learning

A.A. Definition

A.A.A. A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is

due to experience.(Weiten)

B. A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a

result of practice or experience and cannot be attributed to drugs or
accident.(Kimble)

C. Learning includes the acquisition of knowledge or skills but it

also shapes personal habits, personality traits, emotional responses and
personal preferences.

B. Forms of Learning

C.A. Associative Learning:

C.A.A. Definition

A.A.A.A. Forming connections between events in the environment

C.A.B. Behavioral Learning

Figure 23: The ABC of Behavioral Learning

49
C.A.C. Types of Associative Learning

A.A.A.B. Classical Conditioning

:
0.0.0.0.0. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in
which an individual’s natural response to one object or
sensory stimulus transfers to another stimulus

0.0.0.0.A. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (Russian Physiologist)

0.0.0.0.B. Pavlov’s Experiment

Figure 24 : Source : www.google.com.ph/search?

0.0.0.0.C. Basic Elements

0.0.0.0.0.0. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A

stimulus that elicits a response without
conditioning.
0.0.0.0.0.A. unconditioned response (UCR)
The automatic or unlearned reaction to a
stimulus.
A. conditioned stimulus (CS) The originally
neutral stimulus that, through pairing with the
unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a
conditioned response.
A.0.0.0.0.0. conditioned response (CR) The
response that the conditioned stimulus elicits.

50
 0.0.0.0.D. Basic Process (Bernstein,2008)

0. Extinction - The gradual disappearance

of a conditioned response when a conditioned
stimulus is no longer followed by an
unconditioned stimulus.
0.0.0.0.0.0. Reconditioning - The quick
relearning of a conditioned response following
extinction
A. Spontaneous recovery - The reappearance
of the conditioned response after extinction and
without further pairings of the conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli.
B. Stimulus generalization - A phenomenon
in which a conditioned response is elicited by
stimuli that are similar but not identical to the
conditioned stimulus.
C. Stimulus discrimination- A process
through which individuals learn to differentiate
among similar stimuli and respond appropriately
to each one.

A.A.A.C. Operant Conditioning

0.0.0.0.E. A process through which an organism learns to

respond to the environment in a way that produces
positive consequences and avoids negative ones.
0.0.0.0.F. Operant: a response that has some effect on the
world; it is a response that operates on the environment.
0.0.0.0.G. Burrhus Fredirick Skinner
C.0.0.0.0.0. introduced the term operant or
operant response to distinguish the responses in
operant conditioning from those in classical
conditioning.

0.0.0.0.H. Figure 25 : The Skinner’s Experiment

51
0.0.0.0.I. Schedules of Reinforcement:

C.0.0.0.0.A. Continuous reinforcement

schedule: A pattern in which a reinforcer is
delivered every time a particular response
occurs.
D. Partial / intermittent reinforcement
schedule: A pattern in which a reinforcer is
administered only some of the time after a
particular response occurs.
0.0.0.0.0.0.0. fixed-ratio (FR)
schedule: A partial reinforcement
schedule that provides reinforcement
following a fixed number of responses.
0.0.0.0.0.0.A. variable-ratio (VR)
schedule: A partial reinforcement
schedule that provides reinforcement
after a varying number of responses.
A. fixed-interval (FI) schedule: A partial
reinforcement schedule that provides
reinforcement for the first response that
occurs after some fixed time has passed
since the last reward.
A.0.0.0.0.0.0. variable-interval (VI)
schedule: A partial reinforcement
schedule thatprovides reinforcement for
the firstresponse after varying periods of
time

Figure 26

A. Response Cost : is the decrease in frequency of an action

52
 when followed by the termination of an appetitive
stimulus.
A.0.0.0.0. Extinction : a decrease in the frequency of a
previously reinforced response because it is no longer
followed by a reinforcer (Carlson and Buskist, 1997). 
A.0.0.0.A. Shaping : Shaping involves reinforcing a
behavior that 'successively approximates' the desired
response.

A.B. Cognitive Learning

B. Cognitive psychologists see both types of conditioning as the

result not only of automatic associations but of more complex mental
processes, including how people represent, store, and use information.

B.0.0.0. Learning is affected not only by the nature of the stimuli

we experience but also by our expectations about them.

A.A.A.D. Just as our perceptions depend on the meaning we attach

to sensations, learning can depend on the meaning we attach to
events.

C.A.D. Types of Cognitive Learning

B.0.0.A. Insight Learning

A.0.0.0.B. Involves a sudden realization distinct from

cause-and-effect problem solving.
A.0.0.0.C. Is also expressed as the “ aha moment”,
accompanying the sensation of suddenly of knowing
something after the disenchantment of being
uninformed.
A.0.0.0.D. Two Phases
D.0.0.0.0.0. The initial phase - which involves
problem solving to derived a solution.
D.0.0.0.0.A. The second phase - in which the
solution is stored in memory and retrieved
whenever a similar problem/situation exists.

A.A.A.E. Observational Learning

A.0.0.0.E. Learning how to perform new behaviors by

watching others.(Bernstein)
A.0.0.0.F. Vicarious conditioning: a kind of observational
learning in which a person is influenced by seeing or
hearing about the consequences of other people’s

53
 behavior.
A.0.0.0.G. Four Processes of Observational Learning
D.0.0.0.0.B. Attention
D.0.0.0.0.C. Retention
D.0.0.0.0.D. Reproduction
D.0.0.0.0.E. Motivation

A.A.A.F. Latent Learning (Bernstein, 2008 ,pp.223-224)

A.0.0.0.H. Learning that is not evident when it first occurs

A.0.0.0.I. Example: (Bernstein, 2008)
D.0.0.0.0.F. Tolman’s experiment
0.0.0.0.0.0.0. Tolman allowed rats to
explore a maze once a day for several
consecutive days (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
A. For rats in Group A, food was placed in the
goal box on each trial these rats gradually
improved their performance so that by the
end of the experiment, they made only one or
two mistakes as they ran through the maze.
A.0.0.0.0.0.0. For rats in Group B, there
was never any food in their goal box. These
animals continued to make many errors
throughout the experiment.
B. A third group of rats, Group C, was the
critical one. For the first ten days, there was
no food in their goal box, and like Group B,
they continued to make many mistakes.
B.0.0.0.0.0.0. But on the eleventh day, food
was placed in their goal box for the first
time.
B.0.0.0.0.0.A. On day 12, the day after
receiving their first positive reinforcement,
these rats made almost no mistakes.
B.0.0.0.0.0.B. .Tolman’s argument :
A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A. First, the
reinforcement on day 11 simply
changed their subsequent
performance.
A.A.A.A.A.A.A.B. Learning could have
taken place already as they go
around the maze
E. after years of experience in your neighborhood,
you could probably tell a visitor that the corner
drugstore is closed on Sundays, even if you had
never tried to go there on a Sunday yourself .

54
Memory

A. What is memory

A.A. Memory refers to processes by which people and other organisms

encode, store, and retrieve information.

A.B. A constructive process, in which we actively organize and shape

information as it is processed, stored, and retrieved (Huffman,2007).

A.C. It allows us to retrieve events from the distant past or from moments
ago.

B. Biological basis of memory

B. engram to refer to the physical change in the nervous system that occurs as
a result of experience. (Today most psychologists use the term memory
trace to describe the same thing.)

B.A. Biological changes in neurons facilitate memory through long-term

potentiation (LTP), which happens in at least two ways:
A.A.A. repeated stimulation of a synapse strengthens the
synapse, and
A.A.B. neuron’s ability to release its neurotransmitters is
increased or decreased.

B.B. Hormones also affect memory

B.C. Brain Structures for Memory

55
 Figure 26 : Brain Structures for Memory

A.A.C. memories are not localized in one place in the brain, but
rather involve interacting circuits operating across the brain

A.A.D. The hippocampus is thought to be one of the most

important brain structures involved in memory

B. the hippocampus and its surrounding structures in the medial

temporal lobe play a critical role in the encoding of episodic
memories, especially in binding elements of memories together to
locate the memories in particular times and places.

C. “Different brain structures help us remember different types of

information. The hippocampus is particularly important in explicit
memories, the cerebellum is particularly important in implicit
memories, and the amygdala is particularly important in emotional
memories.” (Charles Stangor)

C. Basic Memory Processes

1. Encoding: The process of acquiring information and entering it into memory.

1.1. Types of memory codes:
1.1.1. Acoustic encoding: The mental representation of
information as a sequence of sounds.
1.1.2. Visual encoding: The mental representation of
information as images.
1.1.3. Semantic encoding. The mental representation of an
experience by its general meaning.

2. Storage: The process of maintaining information in memory over time.

56
 3. Retrieval: The process of recalling information stored in memory.

D. Four Memory Models (Huffman, 2007)

C.A. Information Processing Approach: memory is a process analogous to

a computer, which encodes, stores, and retrieves information

C. Parallel Distributed Processing Model: memory is distributed across a

network of interconnected units that work simultaneously (in a parallel
fashion) to process information

C.A. Levels of Processing Approach: memory depends on the degree or

depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered

C.B. Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model: memory requires three

different storage boxes to hold and process information for various lengths
of time

C.A.A. Diagram of Three-Stage Memory Model

Figure 28 : Source : Huffman, 2007

A.A.A.A. Sensory memory refers to the initial, momentary

recording of information in our sensory systems.

0.0.0.0.0. iconic memory and refers to the usually

brief visual persistence of information as it is being
interpreted by the visual system.
0.0.0.0.A. Echoicmemory is the name applied to the
same phenomenon in the auditory domain:

A.A.A.B. Working/short-term memory to refer to the ability

to hold information in mind over a brief period of time.

57
 0.0.0.0.B. It can hold only a limited amount of
information at one time (magical 7 plus minus 2)
0.0.0.0.C. Working memory is critical for mental
work, or thinking.
0.0.0.0.D. Working memory capacity is correlated
with intelligence

A.A.A.C. Long-term memory a system in the brain that can

store vast amounts of information on a relatively enduring
basis.

0.0.0.0.E. There seems to be no finite capacity to

long-term memory.
0.0.0.0.F. People can learn and retain new facts and
skills throughout their lives.
0.0.0.0.G. Three long-term memory systems:
0. Episodic memory. Memory of an event
that happened while one was present.
0.0.0.0.0.0. Semantic memory. A type of
memory containing generalized knowledge
of the world.
0.0.0.0.0.A. Procedural memory. A type of
memory containing information about how to
do things.

A.A.A.D. Types of Rehearsal

0.0.0.0.H. Maintenance vs. Elaborative

0.0.0.0.I. Repetition vs. Meaningful associations

Table 4 : Differences between Maintenance and

Elaborative Rehearsal

58
 Source : https://www.google.com.ph/search?q

Forgetting

A. What is Forgetting
A.A. Loss of information overtime

B. Two factors involved in forgetting

A.B. Accessibility –The information available can be assessed at a specific

time/place

A.C. Availability – The information is represented in memory

C. Theories of Forgetting

A.D. Trace Decay theory

A. Natural forgetting which takes place due to the decay of

memory traces in the brain and due time.
(http://www.slideshare.net/KrycesTorcato/theories-of-forgetting)

A.A.A. Memory traces are formed in the brain when we learn

information, and they gradually disintegrate over time.

A.A.B. Problem :
0.0.0.0. does not really provide an explanation of
forgetting, but merely a description.
0.0.0.A. the phenomenon of reminiscence, the fact that

59
 sometimes memories actually recover over time.

A.E. Interference Theory

0.0.A. Proactive interference occurs when prior learning or

experience interferes with our ability to recall newer information.

A.A.C. Retroactive interference occurs when new information

interferes with our ability to recall earlier information or
experiences.

A.F. Repression or Motivated Forgetting

0.0.B. Conscious process of burying memories to protect ego.

(http://www.slideshare.net/KrycesTorcato/theories-of-forgetting)

A.A.D. Refers to forgetting an unpleasant event or piece of

information due to its threatening quality.

B. Repressed memories may continue to unconsciously influence

people’s attitudes and behaviors and may result in unpleasant side
effects, such as unusual physical symptoms and slips of speech.

How to improve memory

Table 5 : Helpful Memory Techniques Based on Psychological Research

Technique Description Useful example

Use elaborative Material is better remembered if Think, for instance, “Proactive interference is like
encoding. it is processed more fully. retroactive interference but it occurs in a forward
manner.”

Make use of the Material is better remembered if Think, for instance, “I remember a time when I
self-reference it is linked to thoughts about the knew the answer to an exam question but

60
Technique Description Useful example

effect. self. couldn’t quite get it to come to mind. This was an

example of the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.”

Be aware of the Information that we have Review the material that you have already studied
forgetting curve. learned drops off rapidly with right before the exam to increase the likelihood it
time. will remain in memory.

Make use of the Information is learned better Study a little bit every day; do not cram at the last
spacing effect. when it is studied in shorter minute.
periods spaced over time.

Rely on We can continue to learn even Keep studying, even if you think you already have
overlearning. after we think we know the it down.
information perfectly.

Use context- We have better retrieval when it If possible, study under conditions similar to the
dependent occurs in the same situation in conditions in which you will take the exam.
retrieval. which we learned the material.

Use state- We have better retrieval when Many possibilities, but don’t study under the
dependent we are in the same psychological influence of drugs or alcohol, unless you plan to
retrieval. state as we were when we use them on the day of the exam (which is not
learned the material. recommended).

(source: Charles Stangor at http://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/bookhub/127?e=stangor-ch08_s02)

Chapter 6
Motivation and Emotion

Chapter Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to be able to:

1. Define Motivation and Emotion

2. Explain how motives and emotion influence behavior
3. Give personal examples of motives and emotions
_________________________________________________________________________

61
Motivation

A. What is Motivation

A.A. Definition

A.A.A. Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain, direct, and

terminate actions ( www1.gdufs.edu.cn/.../ppt/chapter9)

A.A.B. Factors within and outside an organism that cause it to

behave a certain way at a certain time
B. The process by which activities are started, directed, and
continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.
(https://www.ivcc.edu/uploadedFiles/_faculty/_dockins/)

B.A.A. Motives (Pastorino, E. and Doyle-Portillo,S.)

A.A.A.A. Motive – tendency to desire, seek out positive
incentives/rewards and to avoid negative outcomes

A.A.A.B. Motives serve to protect us – eat, drinks, engage

in some detrimental behavior

A.B. Characteristics of motivated behavior

A.A.B. Motivated behavior is goal directed

B.A.B. Motivated behavior varies from time to time

B.A.C. Motivated behavior varies from one person to another

A.C. Model of How motivated behavior works(from the ppt of Pastorino, S)

Drive - A psychological state of arousal

created by an imbalance in homeostasis
that prompts an organism to take action to
restore the balance and reduce the drive.
Need - A biological requirement for well-
being that is created by an imbalance in
homeostasis.
Homeostasis - The tendency for organisms
to keep their physiological systems at a
stable, steady level by constantly adjusting
themselves in response to change

62
 Figure 29

B. Types of Motivation

A.B. Primary Motivation (Biological Motives)

A.B.A. Automatic and built in process

B.A.D. These behaviors are regulated by our hypothalamus

B.A.E. Examples

A.B.A.A. Hunger ( www1.gdufs.edu.cn/.../ppt/chapter9)

0.0.0.0.0. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) – a substance in

the brain that initiates eating
0.0.0.0.A. Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1) – a
substance in brain that terminates eating
0.0.0.0.B. Lateral Hypothalamus: If turned on, an
animal will begin eating; if destroyed, an animal will
never eat again!
0.0.0.0.C. Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Stops
eating behavior
0.0.0.0.D. Leptin: Substance released by fat cells
that inhibits eating
0.0.0.0.E. External Eating Cues: External stimuli
that tend to encourage hunger or elicit eating; these
cues may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed
0.0.0.0.0.0. Sight or smell of food
0.0.0.0.0.A. Relate food to customs, holidays,
celebration
0.0.0.0.0.B. Connect joy and food

A.B.A.B. Thirst (AP Psychology, Riverside High School,ppt)

0.0.0.0.F. Regulation of thirst is similar to

regulation of hunger.
0.0.0.0.G. Mouth dryness plays a role
0.0.0.0.H. Most important is the fluid content of
cells and the volume of blood
0.0.0.0.I. When we vomit, have diarrhea, or donate
blood, the volume of our blood decreases.
0.0.0.0.J. Our hypothalamus encourages us to drink
to bring this system back to homeostasis.

63
 0.0.0.0.K. Extracellular Thirst: When water is lost
from fluids surrounding the cells of the body
0.0.0.0.L. Intracellular Thirst: When fluid is drawn
out of cells because of increased concentration of
salts and minerals outside the cell
0.0.0.0.0.C. Best satisfied by drinking water

A.B.A.C. Pain avoidance

0.0.0.0.M. An episodic drive

0.0.0.0.N. Distinct episodes when bodily damage
takes place or is about to occur

A.B.A.D. Sex drive

0.0.0.0.O. Estrus: Changes in animals that create a

desire for sex; females in heat
0.0.0.0.P. Testosterone = sexual motivation
0.0.0.0.Q. Sexual arousal
0.0.0.0.0.D. When something gets your
“sexual attention” your Hypothalamus sends
a signal to the pituitary gland.
0.0.0.0.0.E. The Pituitary gland then secretes
two hormones (luteinizing and follicle
stimulating)
0.0.0.0.R. Puberty = increased testosterone and
estrogen
0.0.0.0.S. Erogenous Zones: Areas of the body that
produce pleasure and/or provoke erotic desires
(genitals, breasts, etc.)

A. Sexual Orientation: Degree of emotional and erotic

attraction to members of the same sex, opposite sex,
or both sexes
0.0.0.0.0.F. Heterosexual: Attracted
romantically and erotically to the opposite
sex
0.0.0.0.0.G. Homosexual: Attracted
romantically and erotically to the same sex
0.0.0.0.0.H. Bisexual: Attracted romantically
and erotically to both sexes

A.D. Secondary Motivation

0.0.A. develop as a result of specific learning experiences

64
 B.A.F. Example

0.0.A.0. Social Motives: Acquired by growing up in a

particular society or culture

A.B.A.E. Need for Achievement (nAch): Desire to meet

some internal standard of excellence

A.B.A.F. Need for Power: Desire to have impact or control

over others

C. Views (Theories) of Motivation

0.A. Instinct Theory

0.A.0. Proposes that motives are innate

B.A.G. Instincts –inborn forces that direct behavior ; complex

behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is
unlearned

B.A.H. States that we are motivated by our inborn automated

behaviors.

A.E. Drive –Reduction Theory

0.A.A. Explains that motivation comes from desire to reduce

internal, uncomfortable, state (drive) when needs not fulfilled

B.A.I. Drives
0.A.A.0. Drives push people to satisfy needs, thereby
reducing the drives and the arousal they create.

A.B.A.G. Types of Drives

A.0.0.0.0. Primary drives maintain

homeostasis/equilibrium such as food, water
0.A.A.0.0.0. Negative feedback loop:
information systems monitor bodily process,
adjust accordingly
A.0.0.0.A. Secondary drives motivate behaviors not

65
 related to biological needs

B.A.J. Drive theories believe that the source of motivation lies

within the person (not from the environment)

A.F. Arousal Theory

0.A.B. People are motivated to maintain an optimum level of

arousal—neither too high nor too low

C. Accordingly, an individual operates best at optimal level of

arousal (often moderately aroused); too much or too little arousal
weakens performance

C.A.A. Examples

0.A.B.0. Sensation seekers

A.0.0.0.B. Seek out levels of arousal higher than
most
A.0.0.0.C. Zuckerman found low levels of
monoamine oxidase (MAO) in sensation seekers
A.0.0.0.D. MAO affects dopamine release; may
cause sensation seekers to seek intense arousal

B. Curiosity motive - helps us understand

our environment

A.G. Incentive Theory

0.A.C. Incentives are things that motivate to action

0.A.C.0. Extrinsic motivation behavior that is motivated

from outside (praise, material items)

B.A.A.A. Intrinsic motivation are incentives that come

from within (feeling good about self, pride in
accomplishment)

C.A.B. According to incentive theory, motivation comes from

the environment around you.

C.A.C. Push vs. Pull theory –

0.A.C.A. Internal states of tension push people certain
directions.
B.A.A.B. External stimuli pull people in certain directions.

66
A.H. Humanistic Theory

0.A.D. Abraham Maslow

A. Posits that needs are divided into different levels; ordering

of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some
needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence
behavior to a greater degree

B.A.A.C. The Hierarchy of Needs

A.0.0.0.E. Needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy

must be at least partially satisfied before people can
be motivated by higher-level goals
A.0.0.0.F.

Figure 30:
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Maslows+1990+hierarchy+of+needs

67
 Figure 31
Source : www.google.com.ph/search?espv=2&biw=1440&bih=809&tbm=isch&sa

Emotion

A. What is Emotion

A.A. Definition

A. A transitory positive or negative experience that is felt as

happening to the self, is generated in part by cognitive appraisal of a
situation, and is accompanied by both learned and innate physical
responses.

A.A.A. State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in

facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings

B. Emotion involves a subjective conscious experience (cognitive)

accompanied by bodily arousal (physiological) and a characteristic
overt expression (behavioral)

A.B. Components of Emotion

B.A.A. Cognitive Component

A.A.A.A. Emotions are personal and subjective

B.A.B. Physiological Component( www1.gdufs.edu.cn/.../ppt/chapter9)

A.A.A.B. Sympathetic nervous system is aroused with emotions

(fight-or-flight response)

68
 A.A.A.C. Different emotions stimulate different responses

0.0.0.0.0. Fear—decrease in skin temperature (cold-feet)

0.0.0.0.A. Anger—increase in skin temperature (hot under
the collar)

A.A.A.D. Amygdala

0.0.0.0.B. evaluates the significance of stimuli and

generates emotional responses
0.0.0.0.C. generates hormonal secretions and autonomic
reactions that accompany strong emotions
0.0.0.0.D. Direct connection to thalamus allows for rapid
reaction to potentially dangerous situations

A.A.A.E. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is activated when

one experiences an emotion

A.A.A.F. A polygraph (lie detector test) is really an emotion

detector – heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate

B.A.C. Behavioral Component

0.0.0.A. Emotions are expressed in “body language”– non verbal

behavior

A.A.A.G. Facial Expression

A. Each basic emotion is associated with

a unique facial expression
A.0.0.0.0. Facial expressions are innate
A.0.0.0.A. Innate facial expressions is universal

Figure 32: Facial Expressions

B. Classification of Emotion of Emotions

A.A. Basic Emotions : Fear, surprise, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness

A.C. Complex emotions: are a blend of many aspects of emotions

69
 A.D. Two Dimensions

A.A.0. Pleasant - emotions that persons would likre to experience and

maintined

B.A.D. Unpleasant - unwanted emotional states

A.E. Robert Plutchick’s Classification

Figure 33: Classification of emotions by Plutchick

Source: :https://www.google.com.ph/search?biw=1440&bih=809&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=plutchik+emotions

C. Theories of Emotions

A.B. James-Lange Theory: (William James and Carl Lange)

A.B.0. Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from

awareness of such arousal.

B.A.E. Example

A.B.0.0. “I see a bear, I am running away from the bear, therefore

I am afraid.”

A.F. Cannon-Bard Theory: (Walter Cannon and Philip Bard)

A.B.A. The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily
arousal to occur at the same time.

B.A.F. Example

A.B.A.0. “I see the bear, I am afraid of the bear therefore I will

run.”

70
A.G. Schachter’s Cognitive Theory:

A.B.B. Emotions occur when a label is applied to general physical

arousal.

B.A.G. “I see a bear. Is the bear posing a threat? If yes, run. If not, get
the camera.”

A.H. Illustration of the theories of emotions

Figure 34

A.I. Modern View of Emotion

A.B.C. Emotional Appraisal: Evaluating personal meaning of a

stimulus

C. Emotional Intelligence: Combination of skills, including

empathy, self-control, self-awareness, sensitivity to feelings of others,
persistence, and self-motivation

C.A.A. Contemporary Model of Emotion

71
Figure 35

72
 Chapter 7
Human Development

Chapter Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:

1. Differentiate the role of nature vs. nurture on development.

2. Describe the different characteristics / changes of the periods in the life span.
3. Explain the theories on cognitive, psychosocial and moral development.
___________________________________________________________________________

A. What is Human Development?

1. “The scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout the human
life span” (Papalia and Feldman 12th ed. , 2012 p.4).

B. Nature vs. Nurture

1. John Locke: nurture

1. Locke thought of the newborn as a blank slate or a tabula rasa.
2. Jean Jacques Rousseau: nature
2. Rousseau claimed that children are capable of discovering how the world
operates and how they should behave without instruction from adults.
3. Arnold Gesell: nature
2. Gesell found that motor skills such as standing and walking, picking up a
cube and throwing a ball, developed in a fixed sequence of stages. The order
of the stages and the age at which they develop are determined by nature
and relatively unaffected by nurture.
4. John B. Watson: nurture
1. Watson claimed that the environment molds and shapes behavior.
5. Jean Piaget: nature and nurture
2. Piaget suggested that nature and nurture work together and that their
influences are inseparable and interactive.

C. Domains of development

1. Physical Domain
2. Cognitive Domain
3. Psychosocial Domain

73
 D. Periods of the Human Life Span

Figure 36

A. Prenatal Period - conception to birth

B. Infancy and Toddlerhood - birth to age 3
C. Early Childhood - 3 – 6 years
D. Middle Childhood - 6 – 11 years
E. Adolescence - 11 – 20 years
F. Young Adulthood - 20 – 40 years
G. Middle Adulthood - 40 – 65 years
H. Late Adulthood - 65 years and above

E. Major developments during the Life Span

Table 6 :
Age Period Physical Cognitive Psychosocial
Development Development Development
Prenatal Conception occurs by Abilities to learn and Fetus responds to
normal fertilization or remember and to mother’s voice and
other means. respond to sensory develops a preference
stimuli are developing. for it.
The genetic endowment
interacts with
environmental
influences from the
start.

Basic body structures

and organs form; brain
growth spurt begins.

Physical growth is the

most rapid in the life
span.

Vulnerability to
environmental
influences is great.

74
Age Period Physical Development Cognitive Psychosocial
Development Development

Infancy and All senses and body Abilities to learn and Attachments to parents
Toddlerhood systems operate at birth remember are present, and others form.
to varying degrees. even in early weeks.
Self-awareness
The brain grows in Use of symbols and develops.
complexity and is ability to solve
highly sensitive to problems develop by Shift from dependence
environmental end of second year. toward autonomy
influence. occurs.
Comprehension and use
Physical growth and of language develop Interest in other
development of motor rapidly. children increases.
skills are rapid.

Early Childhood Growth is steady; Thinking is somewhat Self-concept and

appearance becomes egocentric but understanding of
more slender and understanding of other emotions become more
proportions more people’s perspectives complex; self-esteem is
adultlike. grows. global.

Appetite diminishes, Cognitive immaturity Independence,

and sleep problems are results in some illogical initiative and self-
common. ideas about the world. control increase.
Memory and language
Handedness appears; improve. Gender identity
fine and gross motor develops.
skills and strength Intelligence becomes
improve. more predictable. Play becomes more
imaginative, more
Preschool experience is elaborate and usually
common, and more social.
kindergarten experience
is more so. Altruism, aggression
and fearfulness are
common.

Family is still the focus

of social life, but other
children become more
important.

75
Age Period Physical Development Cognitive Psychosocial
Development Development
Middle Childhood Growth slows. Egocentrism Self-concept becomes
diminishes. more complex,
Strength and athletic affecting self-esteem.
skills improve. Children begin to think
logically but Coregulation reflects
Respiratory illnesses concretely. gradual shift in control
are common, but health from parents to child.
is generally better than Memory and language
at any other time in the skills increase. Peers assume central
life span. importance.
Cognitive gains permit
children to benefit from
formal schooling.

Some children show

special educational
needs and strengths.

Adolescence Physical growth and Ability to think Search for identity

other changes are rapid abstractly and use including sexual
and profound. scientific reasoning identity, becomes
develops. central.
Reproductive maturity
occurs. Immature thinking Relationships with
persists in some parents are generally
Major health risks arise attitudes and behaviors. good.
from behavioural issues
such as eating disorders Education focuses on Peer group may exert a
and drug abuse. preparation for college positive or negative
or vocation. influence.

Young Adulthood Physical condition Thought and moral Personality traits and
peaks then declines judgments become styles become relatively
slightly. more complex. stable but changes in
personality may be
Lifestyle choices Educational and influenced by life
influence health. occupational choices stages and events.
are made, sometimes
after period of Intimate relationships
exploration. and personal lifestyles
are established but may
not be lasting.

Most people marry and

most become parents.

76
Age Period Physical Cognitive Psychosocial
Development Development Development
Middle Adulthood Slow deterioration of
Mental abilities peak; expertise and continues to develop;
Sense of identity practical problem- midlife transition may
sensory abilities, solving skills are occur.
health, stamina, and high.
strength may begin, Dual responsibilities
but individual Creative output may of caring for children
differences are wide. decline but improve and parents may
in quality. cause stress.
Women experience
menopause. For some, career Launching of children
success and earning leaves empty nest.
powers peak; for
others, burnout or
career change may
occur.
Late Adulthood Most people are Most people are Retirement from
healthy and active, mentally alert. workforce may occur
although health and and may offer new
physical abilities Although intelligence options for use of
generally decline. and memory may time.
deteriorate in some
Slowing of reaction areas, most people People develop more
time affects some find ways to flexible strategies to
aspects of compensate. cope with personal
functioning. losses and impending
death.

Relationships with
family and close
friends can provide
important support.

Search for meaning in

life assumes central
importance.
Source: Papalia and Feldman, 2012; Experience Human Development,12 th ed., (p.8-9)

77
 F. Theories on Human Development

Table 7 : Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development

Period Achievement Description
Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years) Maturation of senses Immaturities that limit the
newborn’s vision and hearing
are overcome

Voluntary movement Reflexes disappear and infants

begin to gain voluntary control
over their movements.

Mental representation Infants can form images of

objects and actions in their
minds.

Object permanence Infants understand that objects

exist even when out of sight.

Preoperational (2-7 years) Symbolic thought Young children use symbols to

represent things that are not
present in their pretend play,
drawing and talk.

Intuitive thought Children reason about events,

real and imagined, by guessing
rather than by engaging in
logical analysis.
Concrete Operational (7-11 Conservation Children can apply simple
years) logical operations to real
objects. They can appreciate
that certain properties of an
object remain the same despite
changes in appearance, and
they can sort objects into
categories.

Information Processing Children can remember more

information; they begin to
learn strategies for
memorization.
Formal Operational (over 11 Abstract reasoning Only adolescents and adults
years) can think logically about
abstractions, can speculate, and
can consider what might be or
what ought to be.

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Table 8 : Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Age Central Psychological Issue or Resolution
Crisis
First Year Trust versus Mistrust Hope

Infants learn to trust that their

needs will be met by the world,
especially by the mother or they
learn to mistrust the world.
Second Year Autonomy versus Shame and Will
Doubt

Children learn to exercise will, to

make choices and to control
themselves or they become
uncertain and doubt that they can
do things by themselves.
Third to fifth year Initiative versus Guilt Purpose

Children learn to initiate activities

and enjoy their accomplishments,
acquiring direction and purpose. If
they are not allowed initiative,
they feel guilty for their attempts
at independence.
Sixth year through puberty Industry versus Inferiority Competence

Children develop a sense of

industry and curiosity and are
eager to learn or they feel inferior
and lose interest in the tasks
before them.
Adolescence Identity versus Role Confusion Fidelity

Adolescents come to see

themselves as unique and
integrated persons with an
ideology or they become confused
about what they want out of life.
Early adulthood Intimacy versus Isolation Love

Young people become able to

commit themselves to another
person or they develop a sense of
isolation and feel that they have no
one in the world but themselves

Age Central Psychological Issue or

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 Resolution
Crisis
Middle Age Generativity versus Stagnation Care

Adults are willing to have and

care for children and to devote
themselves to their work and the
common good or they become
self-centered and inactive.
Old Age Integrity versus Despair Wisdom

Older people enter a period of

reflection, becoming assured that
their lives have been meaningful
and ready to face death with
acceptance and dignity. Or they
are in despair for their
unaccomplished goals, failures
and ill-spent lives.

Table 9 : Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Level / Stage What is Right?

Level 1: Preconventional

Stage 1 Punishment Orientation Obeying, and avoiding punishment from a

superior authority.

Stage 2 Reward Orientation Making a fair exchange, a good deal.

Level 2: Conventional

Stage 3 Good Boy/Good Girl Pleasing others and getting their approval.
Orientation Living up to social expectations and roles.

Stage 4 Authority Orientation Doing one’s duty, following rules and social
order.
Level 3: Postconventional

Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Respecting rules and laws but recognizing
that they may have limits.

Stage 6 Individual principles & Following universal ethical principles such as

conscience orientation justice, reciprocity, equality and respect for
human life and rights.

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 Chapter 9
Personality

Chapter Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:
1. Describe personality.
2. Explain the different approaches of personality.
___________________________________________________________________________

A. What is Personality

A.A. refers to the consistent, enduring, and unique characteristics of a

person.

B. Theories of Personality

B.B. Psychoanalysis Theory

A.A.A. Sigmund Freud and the Unconscious

0.0.0.0. Freud suggests that every personality has a large

unconscious,or unaware, component.
A. For Freud, experiences include feelings and thoughts as well as
actual events. And that many of our experiences, particularly the
painful episodes of childhood, are not forgotten but are stored in
the unconscious and continue to influence our behavior.

A.A.B. Structure of Personality

A.0.0.0. The Id

0.0.0.0.0. The id is the only component of personality that

is present from birth.
0.0.0.0.A. It is driven by the pleasure principle, which
strives for immediate gratification of all needs. If these
needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is tension.
0.0.0.0.B. It tries to resolve the tension created through the
primary process.

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0.0.0.0. The Ego

0.0.0.0.C. It is the component of personality that is

responsible for dealing with reality. It operates on the
reality principle.

0.0.0.0.D. It strives to satisfy the id’s desires in a realistic

and appropriate ways.

A. The ego discharges tension created by unmet needs

through the secondary process, in which it searches for
objects in the real world to satisfy the wishes that the id
creates to represent the organism’s need.

0.0.0.0. The Super-ego

 It is the last component of our personality to develop.

 It acts to decide whether it is right or wrong so that it
can act in accordance with the moral standards
authorized by society.
 There are two aspects of the superego:
 Conscience - is an internalization of punishments
and warnings.
 Ego-ideal - It derives from rewards and positive
models presented to the child

Figure 37. Structure of Personality

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 A.A.C. Ego Defense Mechanisms

0. The ego's job was to satisfy the id's impulses, not offend the
moralistic character of the superego, while still taking into
consideration the reality of the situation.

0.0.0.0. Types of Defense Mechanisms

Table 10 : Defense Mechanisms and its examples

Denial arguing against an anxiety provoking stimuli
by stating it doesn't exist.
Displacement taking out impulses on a less threatening
target.
Intellectualization avoiding unacceptable emotions by focusing
on the intellectual aspects.
Projection placing unacceptable impulses in yourself
onto someone else.
Rationalization supplying a logical or rational reason as
opposed to the real reason.
Reaction Formation taking the opposite belief because the true
belief causes anxiety.
Regression returning to a previous stage of development.
Repression pulling into the unconscious.
Sublimation acting out unacceptable impulses in a socially
acceptable way.
Figure 2. Ego Defense Mechanisms

Figure 38: Ego Defense Mechanisms

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 D.D.D.D.D.D.D.D.D. Psychosexual Stages

0. According to Freud, the exact way in which the ego deals

with both the id and superego is determined during
childhood as he/she goes through the psychosexual stages
of development.

A. Furthermore, Freud described that problems at any stage of

development can result in the child getting stucked at a
stage. If it happens, traces of that stage will remain in their
behavior as an adult.

Stage Center of Pleasure Key Events Result of Fixation

and Conflict
Oral Mouth Breast Feeding. Smoking, Nail
Weaning onto Biting,
solid food. Dependency
Anal Anus Potty Training Messiness,
Destructive or
Tidiness,
Obsessiveness
Phallic Genitals Oedipus and Vanity, Self-
Elektra Doubt, Anxiety
Complex
Latent Sports, School, Acquiring
Recreational knowledge and
Activities understanding
the world.
Genital Opposite Sex ‘Normal’ adult
Relationship personality and
sexuality
Figure 39. Psychosexual Stages

A.B. The Trait Approach

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 0.0.A. It is a perspective in which personality is seen as a combination
of characteristics that people display over time and across situations.

A.A.D. Three basic assumptions:

0.0.0.0. Personality traits are relatively stable and therefore

predictable over time.
A. Personality traits are relatively stable across situations, and they
can explain why people act in predictable ways in many
different situations.
B. People differ in how much of a particular personality trait they
possess; no two people are exactly alike on all traits. The result
is an endless variety of unique human personalities.

A.A.E. The Robust Five

0.0.0.0. More recent factor analyses by researchers such as Paul

Costa and Robert McCrae have led many trait theorists to
believe that personality is organized around only five basic
factors.

0.0.0.A. Often called the “five robust factors,” or “the big five,”
they are:

Figure 40. The Big Five Personality Factor

A.C. Humanistic Theory: Carl Rogers Person-Centered Theory

85
0.0.A. It is founded on the belief that all human beings strive for self-
actualization.
A.A.F. It is the realization of our potentialities as unique human beings.

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B. Rogers believed that each person is constantly struggling to
become more and more complete and perfect. Anything that furthers
this end is good—the person wants to become everything he or she can
possibly be.
B.A.A. Carl Roger’s view, the self-concept is the most important
feature of personality.
B.A.B. Rogers believed that people are aware of their self-concepts
and that they do not often exactly match reality.

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89
The fully-functioning person
1. Openness to experience.  It is the accurate perception of
one's experiences in the world, including one's feelings.
2. Existential living.  This is living in the here-and-now. 
3. Organismic trusting.  Organismic trusting assumes you are
in contact with the actualizing tendency.
4. Experiential freedom.  Rogers says that the fully-
functioning person acknowledges that feeling of freedom,
and takes responsibility for his choices.
5. Creativity.  Creativity as Rogers uses it is very close to
Erikson's generativity.

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 Chapter 9
Health and Stress

Chapter Objectives

At the end of the chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:

1. Describe stress and identify the types of stress.

2. Identify the impact of stress on health.
3. Enumerate and explain the adjustment techniques.
____________________________________________________________________

1. What is Stress?
1. Stress occurs when there is an imbalance between a demand made on a
person and the resources available to respond to the demand.
2. Stress is your body's way of responding to any kind of demand.
(http://www.mtstcil.org/skills/stress-definition-1.html)
3. Stress is the process where the person and environment interact. (Nezu, et.al.,
2003)

2. What causes Stress?

1. Stressor is a condition or event that causes stress.
a. Examples:
i. Death of a spouse or family member
ii. Conflict in interpersonal relationships
iii. Unemployment
iv. Starting a new job
v. Marriage
vi. Taking a vacation

3. What are the types of Stress?

1. Distress
1. Negative stress
2. Something that is directly causing the brain and body to shrink in
its working capacity, resulting in low-performance levels.
3. Drain the person’s energy and his ability to perform well.
4. This occurs when a person feels he or she:
1. Is being forced to face a challenge that he does not want to.
(“I do not want to do it”)
2. Cannot think of a solution to the challenge.
(“I do not know how”)
3. Lacks the resources to solve the challenge.
(“I cannot do it”)
4. Has little or no control over the situation.

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 (“I am helpless”)
2. Eustress
2. Positive stress
5. Can have a positive impact on a person.
6. Gives the person extra energy to perform at his best.
7. This is caused when a person is feeling as though he or she:
1. Has ideas of possible solutions to the challenge.
(“Look at all these possibilities”)
2. Has the resources to solve the challenge.
(“I can do it”)
3. Has some control over what’s happening.
(“I have choices”)
4. Has had sufficient rest between his/her challenges.

4. Signs and Symptoms of Stress

Cognitive Symptoms Emotional Symptoms

 Memory problems  Moodiness
 Inability to concentrate  Irritability or short temper
 Poor judgment  Agitation, inability to relax
 Seeing only the negative  Feeling overwhelmed
 Anxious or racing thoughts  Sense of loneliness and isolation
 Constant worrying  Depression or general unhappiness
Physical Symptoms Behavioral Symptoms
 Aches and pains  Eating more or less
 Diarrhea or constipation  Sleeping too much or too little
 Nausea, dizziness  Isolating yourself from others
 Chest pain, rapid heartbeat  Procrastinating or neglecting
 Loss of sex drive responsibilities
 Frequent colds  Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs
to relax
 Nervous habits (e.g. nail biting,
pacing)
Source: Smith, et.al, 2015 (www.helpguide.org)

5. Impact of Stress on Health

 Pain of any kind  Depression

 Heart disease  Weight problems
 Digestive problems  Autoimmune diseases
 Sleep problems  Skin conditions, such as eczema
Source: Smith, et.al, 2015 (www.helpguide.org)

6. Coping Process

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 1. What is Coping

1. Coping refers to the way the mind responds to events that are
challenging or threatening. It is important to be aware that an
occurrence perceived as threatening by one person may be a challenge
to another; and be perceived by a third person as normal.

2. Effective coping is the ability to manage internal or environmental

stressors. Adequate physical, psychological,behavioral, or cognitive
resources aid effective coping.

2. Coping Strategies

1. Emotional focused coping

1. It is a coping style in which a person experiencing stress

attempts to relieve it by changing his or her internal
reactions to environmental stressors.

2. Problem focused coping.

2. It is a coping style in which a person experiencing stress

seeks to change the external event that is causing the
internal stress reaction.

3. Appraisal focused coping

4. The mind is monitoring external and internal events that cause

distress. It is engaged in active conscious problem solving about the
distress. When the solutions work, we call it coping devices.

3. The three steps in process appraisal are:

3.Primary appraisal
3.Secondary appraisal
4.Reappraisal
.

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