CHAPTER-1
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
- The term psychology is derived from two Greek words psyche meaning soul and
logos meaning science or study of a subject. Thus, psychology was a study of the soul
or mind.
- Psychology is defined formally as a science which studies mental processes,
experiences and behaviour in different contexts.
- It uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically.
- The state of consciousness or awareness is known as mental processes. We use our
mental processes when we think or try to solve a problem, to know or remember
something. Even when we are asleep some mental activities go on. We dream, and
receive some information such as a knock on the door while we are asleep. Mental
processes, such as remembering, learning, knowing, perceiving, feeling are of interest
to psychologists. They study these processes to try to understand how the mind works.
- Experiences are subjective in nature. We cannot directly observe or know someone
else’s experience. Only the experiencing person can be aware. Thus, experiences are
embedded in our awareness or consciousness. Experiences are influenced by internal
and the external conditions of the experiencer.
- Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. Some
behaviours are overt. They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an observer. Some are
internal or covert. All behaviours, covert or overt, are associated with or triggered by
some stimulus in the environment or changes that happen internally.
- Some psychologists study behaviour as an association between stimulus (S) and
response (R).
Psychology as a discipline
- It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different mental
processes result in different behaviours.
- Psychologists try to minimise biases in their explanations of behaviour and experience
in various ways. Some do so by seeking to make their analysis scientific and objective.
Others explain behaviour from the point of view of the experiencing persons.
Subjectivity is a necessary aspect of human experience.
- Psychology, though it is a very old knowledge discipline, is a young science.
- First laboratory of psychology in 1879 in Leipzig.
- Psychology as a discipline today has two parallel streams:
1. The first case, psychology considers itself as a discipline, which focuses
largely on biological principles to explain human behaviour. Here, researchers
aim to know the cause and effect relationship so that prediction can be made
and behaviour can be controlled if need be.
2. On the other hand, psychology as a social science focuses on how behavioural
phenomena can be explained in terms of the interaction that takes place
between the person and the socio-cultural context of which s/he is a part.
Psychology as a natural science
- Modern psychology has developed because of the application of the scientific method
to study psychological phenomena.
- Science places a great deal of emphasis on objectivity.
- The hypothetico-deductive model suggests that scientific advancement can take place
if you have a theory to explain a phenomenon.
- Based on a theory, scientists deduce or propose a hypothesis that offers a tentative
explanation of how a certain phenomenon takes place. The hypothesis then is tested
and proved true or false based on empirical data that one has gathered.
- Using the above approach psychologists have developed theories of learning, memory,
attention, perception, motivation and emotion, etc.
Psychology as a social science
- Psychology is recognised more as a social science because it studies the behaviour of
human beings in their socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not only influenced by
their socio-cultural contexts, they also create them. Psychology as a social science
discipline focuses on humans as social beings.
- Psychology is a social science with focus on the individuals and communities in
relation to their socio cultural and physical environment.
UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR
- It is true that the mind cannot exist without a brain, but the mind is a separate entity.
This can be appreciated on account of several interesting cases that have been
documented.
- It was earlier believed by scientists that there is no relationship between the mind and
the body.
- Recent studies have clearly shown that there is a relationship between mind and
behaviour. It has been shown that using positive visualisation techniques and feeling
positive emotions, one can bring about significant changes in bodily processes.
- A new discipline called Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which emphasises
the role played by the mind in strengthening the immune system.
POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY
- Commonsensical explanations of human behaviour are based on hindsight and explain
very little.
- Psychology as a science looks for patterns of behaviour which can be predicted and
not explained after the behaviour occurs.
- Scientific knowledge generated by psychology often runs against common sense. One
such example is a study performed by Dweck (1975).
- Not too long ago it was believed in some cultures that men are more intelligent than
women or women cause more accidents than men. Empirical studies have shown that
both of these are untrue.
- Common sense also tells us that one is not able to give one’s best if you are asked to
perform before a large audience.
- Psychological studies have shown that if you have practiced well, you may actually
perform better because the presence of others helps your performance.
EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
- Psychology as a modern discipline has a short history. It grew out of ancient
philosophy concerned with questions of psychological significance.
Structuralism
- First laboratory of psychology in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt.
- Wundt was interested in the study of the building blocks of the mind and he analysed
the structure of the mind through introspection.
- Introspection was a procedure in which individuals or subjects in psychological
experiments were asked to describe in detail their own mental processes or
experiences.
- It was considered less scientific because the introspective reports could not be verified
by outside observers.
Functionalism
- An American psychologist, William James, set up a psychological laboratory in
Cambridge, Massachusetts developed a functionalist approach to the study of the
human mind.
- Instead of focusing on the structure of the mind, psychology should instead study
what the mind does and how behaviour functions.
- According to William James, consciousness as an ongoing stream of mental processes
interacting with the environment formed the core of psychology.
Gestalt perspective
- In the early 20th century, a new perspective called Gestalt psychology emerged in
Germany. It focused on the organisation of perceptual experiences.
- Gestalt psychologists argued that when we look at the world our perceptual
experience is more than the sum of the components of the perception. What we
experience is more than the inputs received from our environment. Experience is
holistic; it is a Gestalt.
Behaviourism
- Around 1910, John Watson rejected the ideas of mind and consciousness as subject
matters of psychology.
- For Watson, mind is not observable and introspection is subjective because it cannot
be verified by another observer.
- Scientific psychology must focus on what is observable and verifiable. He defined
psychology as a study of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which can be measured
and studied objectively.
Psychoanalysis perspective
- Sigmund Freud viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious
desires and conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure
psychological disorders.
- He viewed human beings as motivated by unconscious desire for gratification of
pleasure seeking (and often, sexual) desires.
Humanistic perspective
- Humanistic perspective in psychology took a more positive view of human nature.
Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasised the free will of
human beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold their inner potential.
- These different approaches provided multiple perspectives to its development. Each
of these perspectives has its own focus and draws our attention to the complexity of
psychological processes. There are strengths as well as weaknesses in each approach.
Cognitive perspective
- Aspects of Gestalt approach and structuralism were combined and led to the
development of the cognitive perspective which focuses on how we know about the
world.
- Cognition is the process of knowing. It involves thinking, understanding, perceiving,
memorising, problem solving and dealing with the environment in specific ways.
- Some cognitive psychologists view humans like a computer. It receives, processes,
transforms, stores and retrieves information.
- Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their
minds through their exploration into the physical and the social world. This view is
sometimes called constructivism.
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA
The modern era of Indian psychology began in the Department of Philosophy at Calcutta
University where the first syllabus of experimental psychology was introduced and the first
psychology laboratory was established in 1915. Calcutta University started the first
Department of Psychology in 1916 and another Department of Applied Psychology in 1938.
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
- Cognitive Psychology investigates mental processes involved in acquisition, storage,
manipulation, and transformation of information received from the environment along
with its use and communication.
- Biological Psychology focuses on the relationship between behaviour and the
physical system, including the brain and the rest of the nervous system, the immune
system, and genetics.
- Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of research where psychologists and
neuroscientists are working together.
- Developmental Psychology studies the physical, social and psychological changes
that occur at different ages and stages over a life-span, from conception to old age.
- Social Psychology explores how people are affected by their social environments,
how people think about and influence others.
- Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology examines the role of culture in
understanding behaviour, thought, and emotion.
- Environmental Psychology studies the interaction of physical factors such as
temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural disasters on human behaviour.
- Health Psychology focuses on the role of psychological factors (for example, stress,
anxiety) in the development, prevention and treatment of illness.
- Clinical and Counselling Psychology deals with causes, treatment and prevention of
different types of psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, eating disorders
and chronic substance abuse. A related area is counselling, which aims to improve
everyday functioning by helping people solve problems in daily living and cope more
effectively with challenging situations. Like clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also
study the causes, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders.
- How are clinical psychologists and psychiatrists different? Clinical psychologist has
a degree in psychology. In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree psychiatrists
can prescribe medications and give electroshock treatments whereas clinical
psychologists cannot.
- Industrial/Organisational Psychology deals with workplace behaviour, focusing on
both the workers and the organisations that employ them.
- Educational Psychology studies how people of all ages learn. Educational
psychologists primarily help develop instructional methods and materials used to train
people in both educational and work settings.
- School psychology focuses on designing programmes that promote intellectual, social,
and emotional development of children, including those with special needs.
- Sports Psychology applies psychological principles to improve sports performance
by enhancing their motivation.
- Other Emerging Branches of Psychology, like aviation psychology, space
psychology, military psychology, forensic psychology, etc.
PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES
Psychology is located at the intersection of many fields of knowledge pertaining to human
functioning.
PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
- Psychology is not only a subject that satisfies some of the curiosities of our mind
about human nature, but it is also a subject that can offer solutions to a variety of
problems.
- These may range from purely personal, the family set up, larger group or community
or may have national or international dimensions.
- Many psychologists now play an active role in designing and executing intervention
programmes in order to provide people with a better quality of life.
- The knowledge of psychology is also personally relevant to you in your day to-day
life.
- You may use psychological principles in a positive manner to develop good habits of
study for improving your learning and memory, and for solving your personal and
interpersonal problems by using appropriate decision making strategies to reduce the
stress of examination.
- Thus, the knowledge of psychology is quite useful in our everyday life, and is
rewarding from personal as well as social points of view.
KEY TERMS
Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, Cognitive approach, Consciousness, Constructivism,
Developmental psychology, Functionalism, Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, Humanistic
approach, Introspection, Mind, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, Psychoanalysis,
Sociology, Stimulus, Structuralism
