Chapter 7:
Ocean
Circulation
Types of
Ocean
Currents
• Surface currents
• Wind‐driven
• Primarily horizontal
motion
• Deep currents
• Driven by differences in
density caused by
differences in
temperature and
salinity
• Vertical and horizontal
motions
Measuring Surface Currents
• Direct methods
• Floating
device tracked through time
• Fixed current meter (propeller flow meter)
• Indirect methods
• Pressure gradients – slopes caused by large‐scale bulges
and depressions in the ocean’s surface to determine the
internal distribution of density and the corresponding
pressure gradients across an area of the ocean.
• Radar altimeters – lumps and bulges are observed from
satellites to measure seafloor (recall previous chapters)
• Doppler flow meter – transmits low‐frequency sound
signals through the water. Remains stationary and
measures the shift in frequency between the sound
waves emitted and those backscattered by particles in
the water to determine current movement.
Ocean Dynamic Topography
Measuring Deep Currents
• Most often, they are mapped using underwater floats that are carried within deep
currents.
• Chemical tracers – Some are naturally present, others have been inadvertently added
to seawater (such as tritium).
• Tritium
• Chlorofluorocarbons
• Characteristic temperature and salinity
Measuring Deep Currents
• Argo
• Global array of free‐drifting profiling floats
• Free floating submersible device tracked through time
• Measures temperature, salinity, and other water characteristics of the upper 2000 meters (6600
feet) of the ocean.
• In 2014, the first of an array of Deep Argo floats was released to collect data down to 6000 meters
(19,700 feet).
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fUZZWrAAvYo
Surface Currents
• Occur within and above pycnocline (area of rapidly changing density).
• Affect only 10% of ocean water on Earth
• Friction between wind and ocean surface.
• 2% of wind energy transferred to ocean surface
• Surface currents slower speed than corresponding winds
• Generally follow Earth’s wind belt pattern.
• If there were no continents, the surface currents would generally follow the major
wind belts, however the landmasses do influence the nature and direction of flow
of surface currents in the ocean basin.
Wind Belts and Surface Current Movement
North Atlantic—Columbus Gyre
Subtropical Gyres South Atlantic—Navigator Gyre
North Pacific—Turtle Gyre
South Pacific—Heyerdahl Gyre
Indian Ocean—Majid Gyre
• Within each ocean basin, ocean
surface currents have a predictable,
recurring pattern of flow.
• Gyres—Large, circular loops of moving
water driven by wind belts.
• Subtropical gyres centered around 30
degrees latitude.
• Bounded by
• Equatorial current
• Western Boundary currents
• Northern or Southern Boundary
currents
• Eastern Boundary currents
Subtropical Gyre Currents
• Equatorial Currents Each sub‐tropical gyre is composed of four main currents
in general. These currents can form boundaries of the
• North or south of equator subtropical gyres.
• Travel westward
• Western Boundary Currents
• Warm water moving from equatorial regions
• Western edge of ocean basins
• Northern or Southern Boundary Currents
• Easterly water flow across ocean basin
• Northern boundary currents in Northern Hemisphere
• Southern boundary currents in Southern Hemisphere
• Eastern Boundary Currents
• Cool waters
• Eastern edge of ocean basins
Other Surface Currents
• Equatorial Countercurrents
• Eastward flow between North and South Equatorial Currents
• Due to minimal Coriolis effect at equator
• Subpolar Gyres
• Rotate opposite subtropical gyres due to polar easterlies
• Smaller and fewer than subtropical gyres
Gyres and Boundary Currents
SmartTable 7.1 Subtropical gyres and surface currents
• Observation that Arctic Ocean ice moved at a 20‐ to 40‐degree angle to the right of
the wind
Ekman Spiral and Ekman • Southern Hemisphere movement to the left of the wind
Transport • These movements are driven by a balance between the Coriolis effect, and frictional
effects, where the Coriolis effect causes objects to curve from their intended path
and frictional effects reduce the water’s speed with depth.
Ekman Transport
• Ekman transport
• Average movement of
surface waters
• 90 degrees to right in
Northern Hemisphere
• 90 degrees to left in
Southern Hemisphere
• Ekman transport generates
rotational flow in ocean
basin.
• Subtropical
Convergence—piling up
of water in middle of
gyre
Geostrophic Currents
• Surface water flows downhill
and is deflected by the opposing
Coriolis effect.
• Right in Northern
Hemisphere
• Left in Southern
Hemisphere
• Geostrophic current
• Balance of Coriolis effect
and gravitational forces
• Moves in circular path
downhill
Geostrophic Currents
• Ideal geostrophic flow
• Friction generates actual
geostrophic flow.
Western Intensification
• Top of hill of water displaced toward west due to Earth’s
rotation
• Western boundary currents intensified in both hemispheres
• Faster
• Narrower
• Deeper
• Warmer
• Coriolis effect contributes to western intensification.
Eastern Boundary Currents
• Eastern side of ocean basins
• Tend to have the opposite properties of Western Boundary
Currents
• Cold
• Slow
• Shallow
• Wide
Eastern and Western Boundary Currents
SmartTable 7.2 Characteristics of western and eastern boundary currents of
subtropical gyres
Current type Examples Width Depth Speed Transport Comments
volume
(millions of
cubic meters
per seconda)
Western Gulf Stream, Narrow: Deep: to Fast: hundreds Large: as much Waters derived
boundary Brazil Current, usually less depths of 2 of kilometers as 100 Sva from low latitudes
current Kuroshio than 100 kilometres per day and are warm; little
Current kilometres (60 (1.2 miles) or no upwelling
miles)
Eastern Canary Current, Wide: up to Shallow: to Slow: tens of Small: typically Waters derived
boundary Benguela 1000 depths of kilometers per 10 to 15 Sva from middle
current Current, kilometres (600 0.5 day latitudes and are
California miles) kilometre cool; coastal
Current (0.3 mile) upwelling common
aOne million cubic meters (35.3 million cubic feet) per second is a flow rate equal to one Sverdrup
(Sv).
Ocean Currents and
Climate
• Warm ocean currents warm the
air at the coast.
• Warm, humid air
• Humid climate on adjoining
landmass
• Cool ocean currents cool the air at
the coast.
• Cool, dry air
• Dry climate on adjoining
landmass
Upwelling and Downwelling
• Upwelling—Vertical
movement of cold, nutrient‐
rich water to surface
• High biological
productivity—an
abundance of algae at the
base of the food web
• Downwelling—Vertical
movement of surface water
downward in water column
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z2uc353n6us
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60_y6‐CiUMA
Diverging Surface Water
• Surface waters move away from area.
• Equatorial upwelling
• Divergence of currents at equator generates upwelling and
high productivity.
Converging Surface Water
• Surface waters move toward each other.
• Water piles up.
• Low biological productivity
Coastal Upwelling
• Ekman transport moves surface
seawater away from shore.
• Cool, nutrient‐rich deep water
comes up to replace displaced
surface waters.
• Western United States and cool
San Francisco temperatures
• Ekman transport moves surface
seawater toward shore.
• Water piles up and moves
downward in water column.
• Lack of marine life
Other Causes of Upwelling
• Offshore winds
• Seafloor obstruction
• Coastal geometry change
• Lack of pycnocline
• High latitude oceans
Antarctic Circulation
• Antarctic Circumpolar
Current
• Also called West Wind
Drift and Penguin Gyre
• Only current to
completely encircle Earth
• Moves more water than
any other current
Antarctic Circulation
• Antarctic Convergence
• Cold, dense Antarctic waters converge with warmer, less dense sub‐Antarctic
waters.
• Northernmost boundary of Antarctic Ocean
• East Wind Drift
• Polar Easterlies
• Creates surface divergence with opposite flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current
• Antarctic Divergence
• Abundant marine life
Atlantic Ocean
Circulation
• North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre
• North Equatorial Current
• Gulf Stream
• North Atlantic Current
• Canary Current
• South Equatorial Current
• Atlantic Equatorial Counter
Current
Atlantic Ocean
Circulation
• South Atlantic Subtropical Gyre
• Brazil Current
• Antarctic Circumpolar
Current
• Benguela Current
• South Equatorial Current
Gulf Stream
• Best studied of all ocean currents
• Moves northward along U.S. East Coast
• Meanders and loops
• Merges with Sargasso Sea
• Circulates around center of North
Atlantic Gyre
• Sargassum (floating marine algae tha
never attaches to the seafloor)
• Meanders or loops may cause loss of water
volume and generate:
• Warm‐core rings—warmer Sargasso
Sea water trapped in loop surrounded
by cool water
• Cold‐core rings—cold water trapped
in loop surrounded by warmer water
Loop Current
• Warm ocean surface current in
Gulf of Mexico
• Generates warm loop current
eddies
• Hurricanes intensify when passing
over warm cores.
• Labrador Current
Other North • Irminger Current
Atlantic • Norwegian Current
• North Atlantic Current
Currents • Canary Current
Climate Effects of North
Atlantic Currents
• North‐moving currents—warm
• Gulf Stream warms east
coast of United States and
northern Europe.
• North Atlantic and
Norwegian Currents warm
northwestern Europe.
• South‐moving currents—cool
• Labrador Current cools
eastern Canada.
• Canary Current cools North
African coast.
Indian Ocean
Circulation
• Monsoons—seasonal reversal of
winds over northern Indian Ocean
• Heat Capacity Differential
• Northeast monsoon—winter
• Southwest monsoon—summer
Indian Ocean
Monsoon
• Affects seasonal land weather
• Affects seasonal Indian Ocean
current circulation
• Affects phytoplankton
productivity
Indian Ocean Circulation
• Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre
• Agulhas Current
• West Australian Current
• Leeuwin Current
• North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
• Kuroshio Current
• North Pacific Current
• California Current
• North Equatorial Current
• Alaskan Current
• South Pacific Subtropical Gyre
• East Australian Current
• Antarctic Circumpolar Current
• Peru Current
• South Equatorial Current
• Equatorial Counter Current
Pacific Ocean Circulation
Atmospheric‐Ocean
Connections in the Pacific
Ocean
• Walker Circulation Cell—normal conditions
• High pressure and sinking air dominate
the coastal region of South America,
resulting in clear, fair and dry weather.
• On the other side of the Pacific, a low‐
pressure region and rising air create
cloudy conditions with plentiful
precipitation in Indonesia, New Guinea
and Northern Australia.
• Air pressure across equatorial Pacific is
higher in eastern Pacific.
• Strong southeast trade winds
• Pacific warm pool on western side of
ocean
• Thermocline deeper on western side
• Upwelling off the coast of Peru
El Niño—Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
• Walker cell circulation
disrupted
• High pressure in eastern
Pacific weakens.
• Weaker trade winds
• Warm pool migrates
eastward.
• Thermocline deeper in
eastern Pacific
• Downwelling
• Lower biological
productivity
• Peruvian fishing suffers.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WPA‐KpldDVc
E N S O Conditions in the
Pacific Ocean
La Niña—E N S O Cool
Phase
• Increased pressure difference across equatorial
Pacific
• Stronger trade winds
• Stronger upwelling in eastern Pacific
• Shallower thermocline
• Cooler than normal seawater
• Higher biological productivity
• E l Niño warm phase about every 2–10 years
• Highly irregular
• Phases usually last 12–18 months
Occurrence of E • 10,000‐year sediment record of events
N S O Events • E N S O may be part of Pacific Decadal Oscillation
(P D O).
• Long‐term natural climate cycle
• Lasts 20–30 years
Multivariate ENSO Index 1950–2015
ENSO Has Global Impacts
Notable E N S O Events
• 1982–1983
• 1997–1998
• 2015 – 2016
• Flooding, drought, erosion, fires,
tropical storms, and harmful
effects on marine life
• Unpredictable
• Tropical Ocean−Global Atmosphere (T O G A)
Predic ng E l program
• 1985
Niño Events • Monitors equatorial South Pacific
• System of buoys
• Tropical Atmosphere and Ocean (T O A)
project
• Continues monitoring
• E N S O still not fully understood
Sea Ice Formation
• Sea ice forms directly from
seawater.
• Needle‐like crystals become slush.
• Slush becomes disk‐shaped
pancake ice in calm waters.
• Pancake ice coalesces to form ice
floes.
Sea Ice Formation
• Rate of formation depends on
temperature
• Self‐perpetuating
• Ice floes thicken and form thick
pressure ridges.
Iceberg Formation
• Icebergs break off of glaciers.
• Floating bodies of ice
• Different from sea ice
Iceberg Formation
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxT9TUyH_zk
Iceberg Formation
• Arctic icebergs calve from
western Greenland glaciers.
• Carried by currents
• Navigational hazards
Shelf Ice
• Antarctica—glaciers cover continent
• Edges break off
• Plate‐like icebergs called shelf ice
Shelf Ice
• Shelf ice carried north by currents
• Antarctic iceberg production increasing due to global
warming
Deep‐Ocean Currents
• Thermohaline Circulation—deep ocean circulation driven by temperature and density
differences in water
• Below the pycnocline
• 90% of all ocean water
• Slow velocity
Thermohaline Circulation
• Originates in high latitude surface ocean
• Cooled, now dense surface water sinks and changes little.
• Deep‐water masses identified on temperature–salinity (T–S) diagram.
• Identifies deep water masses based on temperature, salinity, and resulting density
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EafneRiy1ls
T–S Diagram
Thermohaline Circulation
Thermohaline Circulation
• Some deep‐water masses
• Antarctic Bottom Water
• North Atlantic Deep Water
• Arctic Convergence
• Antarctic Intermediate Water
• Oceanic Common Water
• Cold surface seawater sinks at polar regions and moves equatorward.
Conveyor Belt Circulation
Power from
Currents
• Currents carry more energy than winds.
• Florida–Gulf Stream Current System
• Underwater turbines
• Expensive
• Difficult to maintain
• Hazard to boating
