Social Stratification
Dr. Anindya J. Mishra
Associate Professor of Sociology
IIT Roorkee
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• Social stratification:
Refers to persistent patterns of social
inequality in a society
Is perpetuated by the way wealth, power,
and prestige are distributed and passed
on from one generation to the next
Exists in all societies
Characteristics of Social
Stratification
• 1. Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply
a reflection of individual differences.
• Children born into wealthy families are more likely
than children born in poverty to experience good
healthy life, achieve academically, succeed in life’s
work and live a long life.
• 2. Social stratification persists over generations.
• To see stratification as a trait of society rather than
one of individuals, we need to only look at how
inequality persists along generations. In all societies,
parents pass their social position on to their children.
Characteristics of Social
Stratification
• 3. Social stratification is universal but variable.
• In some societies, inequality is mostly a matter
of prestige; in others, wealth or power is the key
dimension of difference. More importantly
some societies display more inequality than
others.
• 4. Social stratification involves not just
inequality but beliefs.
• Any system of inequality gives some people
more than others and the society also defines
the arrangements as fair.
TYPES OF STRATIFICATION
SYSTEMS
1. Open stratification system:
Stratification system in which merit rather than
inheritance (ascribed characteristics) determines
social rank
Allows for social change
• Is reflected in a meritocracy:
Positions are achieved, not ascribed
Characterized by equal opportunity and high social
mobility (movement up or down a social hierarchy)
TYPES OF STRATIFICATION
SYSTEMS
2. Closed stratification system
Stratification system in which inheritance
rather than merit determines social rank
Little social change possible
• Reflected in a caste system:
Positions are ascribed, not achieved
Characterized by little social mobility
• Although India isin principle a meritocracy
constitutionally, ascribed statuses still play
an important role
Class and Class Structure
• Class: Position in an economic hierarchy occupied
by individuals or families with similar access to,
or control over, material resources (e.g., working
class, professional class)
• Class structure: Relatively permanent economic
hierarchy comprising different social classes
• Socioeconomic status: Person’s general status
within an economic hierarchy, based on income,
education, and occupation
Social Mobility
• Social Mobility – the movement of people b/w
social classes
• Horizontal mobility- changing form one
occupation to another at the same social class
level
– Ex. When and army officer become a teacher, or a
waiter becomes a taxi driver
• Vertical Mobility – person’s occupational status
or social class moves upward or downward
– Intergenerational mobility – when the change takes
place over a generation
• A plumber’s daughter becoming a physician, or a lawyer’s
son becoming a carpenter
Social Mobility
• Caste and Open-Class Systems
– Caste system – there is no social mobility b/c
social status is inherited and cannot be changed
• Statuses and occupation are ascribed
• Apartheid – was a caste system based on race
• India – Brahmin, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudra, and
Untouchables
– Tradition keeps the caste system intact
– Open-class system – a system in which social
class is based on merit and individual effort,
movement b/w classes is allowed
• Ex. - The U.S., Western Europe for the most part
Karl Marx on Stratification
• Writings focus particularly on 19th century
European world rapidly being changed by
industrial capitalism
Industrial Revolution: Tremendous
increase in level of economic production
and degree of inequality
• Key concepts in Marx’s theory:
Mode of production: Overall system of
economic activity (e.g., slavery, capitalism)
Karl Marx on Stratification
• Mode of production comprises:
i. Means of production: Technology,
capital investments, raw materials used
in production
ii. Social relations of production:
Relationships between main classes
involved in production
Karl Marx on Stratification
• Two major classes within industrial capitalism:
i. The bourgeoisie: Owners of the means of
production
ii. The proletariat: Workers who exchange their labour
for a wages
• Secondary class:
The petite bourgeoisie: Independent owners/
producers (e.g., farmers) and small business
owners
Karl Marx on Stratification
• Exploitation of wage labourers was result
of surplus value:
When proceeds from sale of goods
produced by wage-labourers far exceed
cost of wages, raw materials, etc.
Surplus value then turned into profits for
owners (i.e., capitalists)
Karl Marx on Stratification
• Class conflict: Conflict between major
classes within a mode of production
Is driving force behind social change
Eventually leads to evolution of new mode
of production
• Envisioned capitalism being replaced with
socialist mode of production (i.e., no
private property with its attendant
exploitation and inequality)
Karl Marx on Stratification
• Theorized workers would develop class-
consciousness:
Recognition by members of a class of their
shared interest in opposition to members of
another class
Would lead to revolutionary upheaval and
eventually classes society based on
collective ownership of means of production
(e.g., communism)
Criticism of Marx
• Criticized for predictions not finding support in:
i. Later capitalist societies, which were characterized by
absence of widespread class conflict, growth of the
middle class, and relative decline in material inequality
in 20 century
th
Example: Western Europe and North America
ii. Later socialist systems of government, which were
characterized by persistent inequality, and new
hierarchy that controls political and bureaucratic
apparatus
Example: Russia
Max Weber on Stratification
• Sees class in economic terms
• Classes develop in market economy: where individuals compete for
economic gain
• Class: a group of individuals who share a similar position in market
economy and receive similar economic rewards, share similar “life
chances” – of access to higher education & good housing
• Differs from Marx on no. of counts
• 1. Diversified class
Propertied upper class
Propertyless white –collar workers
Petty bourgeoisie
Manual working class
• 2. Not only property but also skill distinguishes different classes
• 3. Expansion of middle class
• 4. Does not agree to inevitability of proletarian revolution
Max Weber on Stratification
• Status: groups form because members share similar social
prestige– unequal distribution of social honour
• For exm: Occupations, ethnicity, race, caste, religion
• Members aware of their common status situation and try to
preserve it – Put barriers to social intercourse (intermarriage of
castes)
• Class and status are linked: Property as such not a status
qualifier but in the long run it is
• People of same class may not be in same status group: For exm
– nouveau riche (newly rich) whose manners, taste, dress
considered vulgar
• People of different class may be in same status group
• For exm: Blacks in USA – can be basis for collective political
action
• Presence of different status group in a single class & status
group cutting across class can weaken class solidarity and
reduce potential for class consciousness
Max Weber on Stratification
Parties: groups specifically concerned with influencing
policies and making decisions in the interests of
their membership
For exm: mass political parties, professional
association, pressure or interest groups, trade unions,
automobile association
Concerned with acquisition of social power
Represent often class or status
Most cases, they are partly class parties or status
parties or neither
Black Power Organisations – represent both class &
status
Interplay of class, status & party in formation of social
group is complex & variable and must be examined
in particular societies and particular time periods
Davis and Moore: Functional Theory of
Stratification
In an article “ Some Principles of Stratification” they argue
Inequality exists in all societies stratification is necessary
Certain functional prerequisites must be met for the system to
survive and operate efficiently
One such functional prerequisite: role allocation & performance
1. The roles must be filled
2. They be filled by those best able to perform them
3. Necessary training must be undertaken for that
4. Roles must be performed conscientiously
People differ in innate ability and talent
Positions differ in functional importance
These functionally important positions require special skills and
there are limited no. of individuals with such special skills
Major function of stratification is to match the most able person
with these important positions
Davis and Moore: Functional Theory of
Stratification
High rewards are attached to these positions
Such positions require long, extended period of training
High rewards act as inducements or motivators to
undergo such long training
How does one justify “functionally important positions”?
1. Degree to which a position is functionally unique
For exm: doctors and nurses
2. Degree to which other positions are dependent on
the one in question
For exm: managers and routine office staff
Social inequality is therefore necessary and inevitable
Criticisms of Davis and Moore: Melvin Tumin
1. Questions the adequacy of functionally important
positions: highly rewarded jobs most important
For exm: engineers and unskilled labour force
2. They ignored the influence of power on unequal
distribution of rewards
Difference in pay & prestige may be due to
difference in power
For Exm: Farm labourers and coal miners
3. Questions the assumption that limited talent is
available for important positions
For exm: no proof that exceptional talent required
for functionally important positions
For exm: there is a greater pool of talent available in
society
Criticisms of Davis and Moore: Melvin Tumin
4. Questions the view that training required for important
positions is a sacrifice hence need more compensation
Rewards of a student: leisure, freedom and opportunity for
self-development
Initial loss of earnings can be made up in 5 to 10 years: No
need for continuing higher compensation for rest of their
lives
5. Tumin rejects the view that function of unequal reward is
to motivate individuals
Stratification often act as a barrier to motivation and
recruitment of talent
For exm: caste system and racial segregation in close
societies
In open societies: class limits discovery and utilisation of
talent
Lower an individual’s class position, more likely the person is
to leave school at minimum leaving age and less likely to
aspire for highly rewarded position
Criticisms of Davis and Moore: Melvin Tumin
6. There is a possibility that those who occupy highly
rewarded position can erect barriers for others to enter
Tumin cites instance of American Medical Association
7. Only when there is equal access to recruitment and
training then one can justify differential rewards
Stratification system is inherently antagonistic to
development of such full equality of opportunity
8. Tumin rejects that social stratification integrates the
system
Rather it is divisive - differential rewards can encourage
hostility, suspicion and distrust
Social stratification gives a feeling of exclusion to the
lower strata
