CHAPTER 8: SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STRATIFICATION Caste Systems

● Are closed stratification systems–people are unable to change

Social Stratification their social standing.
● Refers to the division of large social groups into smaller groups ● Promote belief in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher spiritual
based on categories determined by economics. power rather than the promotion of individual freedom.
● Members are arranged in a hierarchy based on their access to or ● People born into a caste system are socialized to accept their
control over basic economic resources. social standing will remain permanently.
● Promotes inequality.
● Social stratification gives rise to inequality in society. And relates ● Cannot be escaped: born rich, live rich, die rich.
to social standing. ● No other opportunities
● Include: wealth, property, access to material and cultural goods,
and access to political power, race, gender, and religion, and the Apartheid
influence of social stratification on politics and social relations ● 1948-1994
differs from society to society. ● The South African government instituted a system of racial
segregation which lasted in 1994 (46 years).
Social exclusion ● The rights and activities of black south africans were curtailed and
● Refers to the process by which individuals are cut off from full the rule of white citizens were emphasized.
involvement in the wider circles of society.
● People who are excluded are due to poor housing, lack of Class System
employment, inferior schools, or limited transportation. ● An open system
● Is a stratification system based on the ownership of resources
● In the Philippines, homeless are the most vulnerable and and the individual’s occupation or profession.
exploited groups in society, and often have limited social, political, ● Base social status on achievement rather than ascription and are
and economic opportunities. thus moe open in terms of social mobility.
● People are free to move from one social class to another and
TWO PRIMARY SYSTEMS OF STRATIFICATION achieve a higher status in life through education and employment.
● Results in prevalence of exogamous marriages.
A. Open System
● Based on achievement Exogamous marriages
● Allowing more flexibility in social roles increased social mobility, ● Marriages between people who come from different social
and better interaction among social groups and classes. classes.

B. Closed System Endogamous marriages

● Impose rigid boundaries between social groups and limit ● Marriages between people from the same social class
interactions among members who belong to different social
groups or occupy different levels in the social hierarchy.
● Is also resistant to change, particularly in the social roles of its
members.
Meritocracy Conflict Theory
● Another system of stratification that is determined by personal ● Proposed by Karl Marx
effort and merit. ● Believe that stratification perpetuates inequality.
● Social standing and advancement in this system is determined by ● Marx believed that social stratification is influenced by economic
how well a person performs his or her social role forces and that relationships in society are defined by the factors
● Remains an ideal and is only implemented in certain areas such of production.
as business and industry as well as certain positions in the civil ● He considered society divided into two groups
service. ○ Bourgeoisie
■ capitalists who own the factors of production;
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ON SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ■ they belong to the upper class
Functionalism
● Examines how the different aspects of society contribute to ○ Proletariat
ensuring its stability and continued function. ■ workers that provide manual labor need to
● They believe that each part or aspect of society serves an produce goods.
important purpose. ■ Belong to the lower class and experience great
hardships and inequality.
Davis-Moore Hypothesis ● Marx believed that the prevalent in societies cause workers to
● Introduced by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore in 1945. experience alienation, isolation, and great misery due to
● Proposed that a social role that has a greater functional purpose powerless status.
will result in greater reward. ● The inequalities brought about by social stratification lead to class
● Certain tasks in society are more valued than others and the conflict.
individuals who are able to perform highly valued work are
rewarded with greater income, prestige, and power in society. Symbolic interactionism
● Refrains from looking into the larger structural factors that define
➔ Social stratification is then necessary because it motivates social stratification and contribute to inequality and poverty.
individuals to be more efficient and productive in their tasks. ● Examines stratification from a microlevel perspective and
attempts to explain how people’s social standing affects their
Melvin Tumin everyday interactions.
● 1953 ● Social stratification is a system that groups people together.
● Criticized the David-moore hypothesis and said that it was unable ● Interactionists observe people’s appearance reflects their
to consider situations where individuals of little talent or skill are perceived social standing.
able to access better opportunities or occupy higher positions in
society. Theory of conspicuous consumption
● Tumin sees social stratification as being defined by lack of ● Refers to buying certain products to make a social statement
opportunities for the less-privileged sectors of society. Which then about status.
becomes a hindrance that prevents qualified people from ● Carrying pricey but environment-friendly items or driving luxury
occupying significant roles. car could indicate a person’s social standing.
● Buy to impress.
 Social Mobility ● Social classes are derived from the inequalities brought about by
● Is the ability of individuals or groups to change their positions the possession and control of resources, as well as access to
within a social stratification system opportunities for education and employment.
● Also refers to how individuals progress from a lower to a higher Class
social class, or even how individuals lose their status and occupy ● Karl Marx considered class as an essential characteristic based
a much lower social position in society. on the economic structure of society.

TWO TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY Karl Marx defined stratification through the concept of status which he
defined as the esteem or “social honor” given to certain individuals or
A. Upward Mobility groups.
● Refers to an upward movement in social class
● Ex: people who have gained wealth and individuals who rose to fame or Market position
power like politicians and celebrities. ● Refers to the ability of individuals or groups to engage in
● Others may be through employment, marriage, and education. economic activities.
● Their success in economic transactions is determined by personal
B. Downward mobility power, knowledge, skills, and scarcity of resources.
● Refers to the lowering of an individual’s social class.
● This may be brought about by economic setbacks, unemployment, 4 types of classes in society
illness, and dropping out of school. 1. Lower or working class
● Refers to those employed in low-paying wage jobs with
Intergenerational mobility very little economic security.
● Refers to changes in social standing experienced by individuals 2. Middle Class
belonging to different generations. ● The most contested of three categories
● An example of this may be successful businessmen who were ● Refers to a group of people who are socioeconomically
raised by lower-income parents, or powerful politicians who traces between the lower or upper classes.
his or her roots to generations of poor immigrants. 3. Upper class
● composed of rich, well-born, powerful, or combination.
Structural mobility ● They wield great political power.
● Large scale changes in society can result in the improvement or 4. Under class
decline of the conditions and status of a large group of people. ● Refer to the segment of society that is not only affected
● The Industrial age resulted in a massive upward mobility that by poverty but is also subject to social exclusion.
benefitted many countries and improved the lives of people ● Often experiences impediments that hinder them
across social classes. participating in society.

Social inequality ➔ Income, affluence, and poverty are also important factors that
● Unequal distribution of wealth, status, and power within society define social inequality.
and result in individuals and groups occupying different positions
of influence and power.
 POVERTY Patriarchy
● Refers to socially sanctioned and systematic domination of males
A. Absolute poverty over females, and this is expressed in various aspects of society.
● Refers to lack of basic resources like food, clean water, safe ● I.e., men are traditionally recognized as the head of the family
housing, and access to health care needed to maintain a quality and when couples are married, women usually take on the family
lifestyle. name of her husband.

B. Relative poverty Liberal Feminism

● Applies to those who may be able to obtain basic necessities but ● Explain gender inequality in terms of social and cultural attitudes.
are still unable to maintain an average standard of living
compared to the rest of society. Radical feminism
● Ague that men are responsible for exploitation of women through
C. Subjective poverty patriarchy
● Type of poverty that is defined by how an individual evaluates his
or her actual income against his or her expectations and Black feminism
perceptions. ● Identifies factors such as class and ethnicity, in addition to
gender, as essential for understanding the oppression
GENDER INEQUALITY experienced by on white women
Gender
● refers to the culturally-imposed characteristics that define Ethnicity
masculinity and femininity. ● is the feeling of affinity or loyalty towards a particular population
cultural group, or territorial area.
Sex ● a form of cultural identity, although it operates at a deeper and
● refers to the biological and anatomical differences that distinguish more emotional level.
males from females .
● An unchanging aspect of a person’s identity while gender, being a Race
social construct, is a fluid concept that changes depending on the ● refers to a group of people who share a common ancestry.
mores, norms, and values espoused by a particular society. ● Refers to physical or genetic differences among humankind that
distinguish one group of people from another such as skin, hair
Gender role color, and facial features.
● Refers to specific tasks and behaviors expected of a person by
virtue of his or her sex. Racism
● refers a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the
Gender identity superior treatment of one racial or ethnic group and the inferior
● Is another important concept which refers to how a person treatment of other racial group
identifies himself or herself as belonging to a particular gender.
Displacement and Scapegoating
● are psychological mechanisms associated with prejudice and
discrimination.
Prejudice Market-oriented theories such as modernization theory
● involves stereotypes or preconceived views that are often based ● claim that cultural and institutional barriers to development
on faulty generalizations about members of a race or particular explain poverty in low-income countries.
ethnic groups. ● This theory claims that poverty can be eliminated by overcoming
● also manifests as close-mindedness or an inflexible way of or adjusting cultural values like negative attitudes regarding work,
thinking regarding certain beliefs in society. limiting government intervention in economic affairs, and
encouraging high rates of savings and investment.
Discrimination
● refers to actions or behavior of members of a dominant social Dependency theories
group that negatively impacts other members of society that do ● claim that global poverty is the result of exploitation of poor
not belong countries by wealthy ones, thereby creating a cycle of
dependence.
Other Minorities ● For dependency theorists, low income countries are trapped in a
● The discrimination and prejudice these groups experience is not cycle of structural and economic dependency on high income
under class, gender, ethnicity, and race. countries.
● The elderly experience difficulties with regard to employment and
to meet their needs without assistance. ➔ Low-income countries depend on high-income countries for infusion
● Certain religious groups also have to deal with being subjected ro of economic capital. High-income countries also provide markets for
stigma or isolation because other members of society perceive raw materials coming from low-income countries.
their beliefs and behavior as “peculiar” or “dangerous.”
➔ This relationship does not benefit the poorer nations, since they are
GLOBAL INEQUALITY not given the chance to be economically independent and attain
development on their own. However, dependency theorists still argue
Global stratification that even though the economic fate of poor countries is ultimately
● refers to unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige on a determined by wealthy ones, some development is possible within
global basis, dependent capitalist relations.
● highlighting patterns of social inequality and resulting in people
having vastly different lifestyles and opportunities both within and ➔ Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore had high rates of dependency
among the nations of the world. during the initial stages of their development but were able to attain
economic development due to government reforms, astute economic
GNP - gross national product planning, and implementing cultural changes that encouraged
GDP - gross domestic product, a country’s average national wealth per economic growth.
person.
World-systems theory
The world happiness report — ranks countries according to ● focuses on the relationship among the "core," "peripheral" and
measurements of well being. "semi-peripheral" countries in the global economy.
● This theory also focuses on long-term trends in the global
economy and global commodity chains that erase national
borders.
 State centered theories ★ Social stratification can be examined from different perspectives.
● emphasize the role of governments in fostering economic
development. ○ The functionalist perspective states that stratification is an
● These theories draw on the experiences of the essential feature of society.
newly-industrialized countries in East Asia like Hong Kong,
○ Conflict theorists observe that stratification promotes inequality.
Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea
○ Symbolic interactionists observe how social standing affects
➔ Oxfam expressed concerns that if left unchecked, this wealth people's daily interactions and how the concept of "social class" is
concentration will lead to constructed and maintained through everyday interactions.
● opportunity capture,"
○ which means that the lowest tax rates, the best education, the ★ Social mobility describes a shift from one social class to another. There
best health care, and political representation are claimed by the are different types of mobility: upward, downward, intragenerational,
children of the rich. intergenerational, individual, and structural mobility.
○ This can create dynamic and mutually reinforcing cycles of
advantage that are transmitted across generations. ★ Social and political inequalities are features of societies and the
○ This, however, will perpetuate the cycle of inequality and lead to a global community. There are a number of dimensions that define
growing rift between the rich and poor. inequality such as social class and status, gender, race and ethnicity.
Each of these dimensions of inequality can also be explained using
★ Social stratification involves the categorization of large social groups different theoretical perspectives.
based on their control Over basic resources. It therefore Involves
structural inequality associated with membership in each of these social
categories or groups. CHAPTER 9: SOURCES OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE
★ A caste system is a closed system in which social standing is based on ➔ Social and cultural changes have a great impact on people’s lives.
ascribed social status or birth. ➔ The terms “social change” and “cultural change” are often used
interchangeably.
★ Class systems are open systems where achievement plays a role in
determining social position. Social change
● Defined by Robert McIver and Charles Page
★ People fall into social classes based on wealth, income, education, and ● Refers to transformations that alter the roles and status of people
occupation. as well as the structure and organization of society and its
institutions.
★ A meritocracy is a system of social stratification that confers standing
Cultural change
based on personal worth, rewarding effort.
● Is much broader and of which social change is an integral part.
● Refers to the dynamic process where the living creatures of the
world change and adapt to external or internal forces.

Great transformations, Karl Polanyi

● Cites the industrial revolution and french revolution as examples
of social change.
 ➔ The spread of ideas is also a significant part of social change.
GLOBALIZATION, TECHNOLOGY, AND DEMOGRAPHIC SKILLS ➔ Social change can also underscore continual tensions and
contradictions in society.
William Ogburn
● Considers technology as the primary factor that induces social change.
ACCULTURATION AND ASSIMILATION
Narrowcasting
● Described by Jessica Matthews Acculturation
● The dissemination of information to specific segments of the public via ● Process by which individuals or groups learn aspects of a culture
shared source, primarily online social platforms. that is not their own.
● I.e. Filipinos who act and speak American but still identify
Globalization themselves as filipino.
● Refers to the economic, cultural, political processes that connect state ● Emphasizes blending of cultures, with the individual still retaining
and non-state elements in a manner that transcends territorial certain aspects of his or her original or native culture.
boundaries.
● Brought increased interconnectedness in economic and financial Assimilation
relations, as well as political events. ● Is the process by which an individual or group fully adopts
another culture
➔ Demographic shifts likewise result in social change. ● Full assimilation results in loss of native culture and bears little
➔ Population changes can be brought about by industrialization, semblance to their native culture.
urbanization, natural disasters, and conflicts.

CFO – Commission on Filipinos Overseas SOCIAL CONTRADICTIONS AND TENSIONS

Cultural Migration Social contradiction

● Where traveling abroad for work has become an opportunity for ● Occurs when 2 social groups or classes are so different that a
many filipinos to better their lives compromise between them is impossible.

PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE ➔ Opposition to social change occurs because groups within societies fear
that any change or innovation might result in a loss of power or status.
Innovation ➔ Another reason why certain groups oppose change is their fear of losing
● The process of introducing new ideas, things, and methods in certain aspects of life that they consider important. This perspective
society. considers any change as suspicious and is an indication of the
● Entails the improvement of things and processes and is primarily decline of society.
driven by technological changes.
● Leads to social change – where new ideas begin to spread ➔ Another form of contradiction in society exists when social change or
throughout a society. transformations only affect a certain segment of society, while a number
of individuals or groups do not benefit from the transformations and
Diffusion innovations introduced.
● Refers to the spread of certain elements from one group to ◆ It could be said that child labor was effectively eliminated in
another in society. Western society due to the laws that banned child labor in industry.
● Once an idea is introduced and becomes widely known and However, in other parts of the world, particularly in less-developed
accepted in society, greater transformation happens in society. countries, child labor is still a stark reality that affects millions.
➔ Social contradictions eventually cause social tension and if these
contradictions are unresolved, these may bring about conflict. ➔ Legislative power was concentrated in the executive branch while
◆ Going back to the conflict theory model, the contradiction between military and the police were empowered to conduct searches and
the capitalist and worker classes is assumed to be unresolvable, arrest without limits of the law. (martial law)
and that the only way to resolve it is through struggle or revolution. ➔ The imposition of martial law in our country was an extreme type
of political change, namely a change in the regime.

★ Social change refers to transformations that alter the roles and status of ➔ A change in the system of government is one of the more
people as well as the structure and organization of society and its extreme types of political change normally brought about by
institutions. historical events involving conflict.

★ Cultural change refers to the dynamic process where the living cultures Revolution
of the world change and adapt to external or internal forces. ● Defined by Theda Skocpol as a “rapid and basic
transformation of a society’s state and class structures that are
★ Innovation refers to the introduction of new ideas, products, and services accompanied and in part through class-based revolts from below”
that transform social relations and social processes over time. Diffusion
happens when these ideas or products permeate society. TWO PRIMARY FORMS OF REVOLUTIONS
★ Acculturation happens when a minority group accepts some facets of
a. Political revolution
the dominant group's culture or way of life.
● Results in the replacement or transformation of the
★ Assimilation occurs when a minority group rejects its indigenous culture government, without altering other aspects of society.
and adopts the culture of the dominant group.
b. Social revolution
★ Social contradictions and tensions are part of the overall process of social ● Results in such as the government, bringing about great
and cultural change. Nevertheless, these contradictions and tensions can changes, in socioeconomic relations.
bring about profound changes in society.
➔ Several social revolutions have occurred throughout the course of
human history.
CHAPTER 10: SOURCES OF POLITICAL CHANGE ➔ The Revolution in France between 1789 and 1799 was a major
upheaval in French society that abolished the monarchy and stripped
Political change the nobility of their privileges. The leaders of the French Revolution
● Occurs when there is an alteration in the way authority is sought to establish a republican form of government grounded on the
exercised in a particular state. ideals of the Enlightenment such as liberty and equality. These inspired
● Entails a shift in the relationship between those who govern and other revolutions in other parts of the world, including the Philippine
those who are governed. Revolution of 1896.
➔ Often, revolution entails the use of violence. Coercion and force are
➔ Profound political change occurred in contemporary Philippine often utilized in a revolution to truly cause changes. This is because the
society when the country was put under martial law by President powerful forces within the status quo always try to prevent a revolution
Ferdinand Marcos in 1972. by ensuring that the instruments of violence - which are often
possessed by the armed forces - are within their control.
➔ Critics considered the declaration of martial law as a means by
which Marcos could concentrate all political power to himself, in ➔ Thus, a revolution is often characterized by a conflict between the
violation of the democratic principles of the 1935 Philippine military, which is loyal to the government, against revolutionary forces or
Constitution, for an extended period of time. militias. However, there are political revolutions that did not result in
bloodshed or violence.
➔ GLOBALIZATION is seen in reaching developments worldwide such as ● Marx believed that certain periods in history were characterized
enhanced communications brought about by information tech has given by specific means of production, resources, technology, economic
rise to social contradictions and tensions activities, and knowledge that influenced politics, culture, religion.

Civil war Karl Marx

● is also an example of a social conflict that could produce political ● political change is a result of changes in the economy, particularly
change in a country. the way goods and services are produced in society
○ Conflict between rival factions could bring about regime ● considered society as being defined by divisions between social
changes in a country. Prolonged civil wars, however, could classes that have conflicting interests.
destabilize a country and cause economic and social ● The key to political change is altering the means in which
problems. individuals produce the things they need for survival.
● These changes in modes of production would bring about
○ Regime changes could also be brought about by military economic shifts that would eventually give way to political
action such as a coup d'etat, which is the forcible removal of ● believed that the introduction of capitalism brought about
a ruling government by members of the military. dehumanization, exploitation, and inequality between the
capitalist and worker classes.
➔ Other events that bring about political change in society include ➔ Information technology is also an important factor in introducing
protests, riots, and popular movements. These often force ruling political change. The rapid pace of generating and distributing
government officials to either implement socio economic reforms or information has changed the way citizens understand the often
step down from power. complex matters related to politics.
➔ News and information are now delivered in real time, and the
➔ Political change also involves changes in the pattern of political speed by which people get a large amount of information
behavior, ideologies, and individual attitudes regarding politics. contributes to a growing awareness of events and issues in
society.
PERSPECTIVE ON POLITICAL CHANGE
➔ The inherent weaknesses of capitalism, Marx believed, would
Political change — is the consequence of various economic and social eventually bring about the establishment of a communist society.
processes and circumstances ➔ Marx's view of society and his recommended means of change
through a social revolution led by the working class have inspired
➔ In particular, the ideas of Karl Marx (1818-1883), Emile Durkheim a lot of people to raise arms against their governments.
(1898-1917), and Max Weber (1864-1920) embodied the major
perspectives regarding political and social change. Emile Durkheim
➔ They focused primarily on the rapid changes in 19th-century ● agreed with Marx that political change is a result of great
European societies, and were particularly interested in transformations in society.
modernization, ● Durkheim focused on the impact of modernization on the division
of labor and the social roles played by individuals in society
● considered relations among individuals in traditional societies to
Modernization be primarily influenced by physical resemblance and shared
● the process by which traditional societies transform into modern characteristics.
societies. ● The interactions in modern societies are defined by organic
● is a major socioeconomic process that results in political change. solidarity.
● For Marx, political change is a result of changes in the ● He considered society as a living organism whose members
economy, particularly the way goods and services are interact for their mutual benefit and survival.
produced in society.
 ○ Individual members of society are distinguished by their ● In the 20th century industrialization brought about the
specific characteristics and roles but at the same time, democratization of European states through the emergence of
they all work together to meet common goals and survive. a new economic class composed of workers.
○ These workers were better educated and politically
Max Weber active, and they organized themselves and mobilized to
● focused on the significant role of culture and ideas in advance their interests and call on the government to
implementing change. implement significant social and political reforms.
● He paid close attention to how practices, beliefs, and attitudes ○ Economic development has also contributed to
shape the political values and behavior of individuals. political change in Asia over the past 25 years
● We applied this view in his analysis of how societies changed
through history. ➔ However, not all cases of economic growth resulted in political
● He believed that the governments of traditional societies are change.
based on tradition and charisma or the personal appeal of ➔ It is observed that Singapore, China, and Malaysia have
individual leaders. experienced decades of economic development but political
● More modern societies became more suited to democratic change toward a more democratic form of government remains
governments since these appealed to the rational-legal type of
authority. Economic Crisis
● can also bring about dramatic political change.
MODERNIZATION: ● The government's mismanagement of the economy can also
The engine of Political Change trigger a crisis that could result in the removal of even the most

Modernization ❖ Socio-cultural changes also have an impact on the political

● is defined by political scientist Samuel Huntington as "a attitudes and values of individual members of society.
multifaceted process involving changes in all areas of human ❖ Political change can also be caused by external factors.
thought and activity.”
● permeates culture, economics, politics, individual beliefs, and all Globalization
other aspects of society. ● is one such phenomenon whose influence goes beyond territorial
● A modern society has a complicated network of structures borders and gives rise to widespread changes that affect
and organizations. economies, societies, and states.
● Its members are more open to change, and have easy access to ● generally refers to the increased interconnectivity between
information that is shared through channels such as education individuals, groups, and other agents in an international system
and mass

Information Technology ➔ Increased migration has given rise to demographic shifts that affect
● is also an important factor in introducing political change. national politics. The changing populations of countries often give rise to
● A more informed citizenry is thus more demanding, and the a new electorate who advocate new issues and concerns, and whose
government faces the challenge of quickly and efficiently political activities affect the government.
addressing citizen's concerns. If demands for reforms go
unaddressed or are insufficiently addressed by the government, ➔ Globalization has also given rise to the spread of post-material
citizens may be prompted to enact more direct action such as values that emphasize self-expression and choice rather than
mass protests. conformity.
◆ The spread of these values has led citizens to increasingly call on
Economic changes also bring about political change. their governments to address various social concerns such as the
protection of the environment, upholding the rights of minorities, and
the elimination of all forms of discrimination.
 ◆ Societies are becoming complex and this requires a great
➔ Globalization has likewise given rise to certain social contradictions and deal of tolerance and acceptance. Individuals are more
tensions. as some citizens in certain countries have resisted these empowered to express themselves in different ways.
changes ◆ Political attitudes and behavior should be open and
tolérant of differences.
ADAPTING TO POLITICAL CHANGE: Active Citizenship

Populism ★ Political change occurs when there is an alteration in the way

● is not necessarily the opposite of democracy. In fact, populist power and authority are exercised in a state.
leaders have been elected into office often by a majority.
● What differentiates them from other elected leaders is their ★ A revolution is defined as a rapid and basic transformation of a
appeal to champion the cause of the common people by being society's state and class structures that is accompanied and in
anti-elite as well as anti-liberal. part carried through by class-based revolts from below.

➔ Populist politicians consider opposition politicians, the ★ A coup d'état is a forcible removal of the ruling government
media, the courts, and civil society as their enemies, which from power that is instigated by a faction within the
therefore imply that they are enemies of the people. established regime, usually by the military. War initiated by
◆ They also downplay the importance of political liberties the military.
and the rule of law by invoking the people's will as the
★ Modernization is a multifaceted process involving changes in all
source of their legitimacy.
areas of human thought and activity.
How does one manage all the political changes that are happening ★ Globalization is the increasing interconnectivity between
around the world? individuals, groups, and other actors in the international system. It
can result in the spread of post-material values in some societies
1. one must view political changes critically, meaning that they that put emphasis on self-expression rather than conformity.
should be viewed as neither entirely good nor entirely bad for
society. An individual should embrace changes that will be ★ Populism is a leadership style generated by massive popular
beneficial to himself or herself individually and as a member of support for a leader who espouses an anti-elite and anti-liberal
society. political stance.

2. Second, changes often require a shift in orientation and mindset.

People must not be afraid to broaden their loyalties -from their
families and clans, to larger groups in the community, to being
citizens of one's country, and as members of humanity.

➔ Adapting to change also requires individuals not to be afraid to

learn and acquire new knowledge. As information becomes
readily available, they need to open themselves to learning more
about the world around them.
◆ The increasing interconnectivity between individuals
means that they are no longer strangers to one another

➔ Finally, political change means that people must adopt a new set
of values that appreciates diversity among individuals.
 What is Monarchy ● GLOBALIZATION – generally refers to the increased
● interconnectivity between individuals, groups, and other agents in
an international system
Who is the voter and its role
● Voter: Client
CLOSED SYSTEM (ascribe) OPEN SYSTEM (achievement)
● Politician: Patron
- Impose rigid boundaries - Born rich; live rich; die
Nature of traditional Authority
between social groups rich
● Authority based on the system that is based to have always
-
existed - Limits interactions
● Some people have this because they are inherited or the position among members
they occupy is passed on to them.
● Legitimacy is based on long-established customs and traditions - Resistant to change,
that do not need to be justified. esp in social roles
● Ex: Monarchy

ASSIMILATION ACCULTURATION CASTE SYSTEM CLASS SYSTEM

● A process by which an ● Process by which an individual or - People are unable to - Stratification based on the
individual FULLY adopts groups learns aspects of a culture that change their social ownership of resources &
another culture. is not their own. standing occupation.
○ Which results in loss ● I.e., when immigrants learn a new - Promote belief, fate, and - Imposed on people who
of culture, and the language. destiny. have the same background.
assimilated ● Occurs when there is a blending of 2 - People born in this system - Base social status on
individuals bear little or more cultures, resulting in the are socialized to accept achievement.
resemblance to their emergence of a hybrid culture. their social standing
culture. ● Emphasizes blending of cultures, with - Promotes social
the individuals still retaining certain inequality
aspects of his or her original or native
culture. Climate Change
● Rise in average surface temperatures one art atmosphere mostly
Globalization due to the burning of fossil fuels
● Refers to the economic, cultural, political processes that connect state ● Further described as the consequence of unchecked pollution
and non-state elements in a manner that transcends territorial when carbon emissions caused by human activity enter the air.
boundaries.
● Brought increased interconnectedness in economic and financial Social Movement
relations, as well as political events. ● Refers to sustained, organized, collective effort that seeks to
bring about change.
● is seen in reaching developments worldwide such as enhanced ● Mst movements engage in government, international
communications brought about by information tech has given rise to organizations, corporations, etc.
social contradictions and tensions ● Include street protests and other mass demonstrations.
● is one such phenomenon whose influence goes beyond territorial ● Actions that call immediate attention to significant social issues .
borders and gives rise to widespread changes that affect economies,
societies, and states. .
 When can we say when that authority is legitimate?
● When a person has the right to decide, make rules, and is
TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT:
followed by others.
1. Reform movements
Social contradiction (concept and examples)
● American-african civil rights movement
● Occurs when a two social groups are too different where it
● Changes in political structures and processes of their respective
reaches a point nga compromise is impossible.
societies.
● Example: capitalists and workers – these 2 have opposing and
irreconcilable views and opinions.
2. Revolutionary movements
Reason why certain people opposite change is because they are afraid
● Caused massive and deep changes ins society & politics
of losing some important aspects of their life (i.e., money)
3. Religious movements
Social change
● Movement wherein they want better recognition for their culture.
● Transformation that alters the roles and status of people as well
as the structure and organization of society and its institutions.
Tensions
● Contradictions that may bring about conflict. Coup d’etat
● Forcible removal of a ruling government by members sof the
Civil war military.
● Example of social conflict that could produce political change in
the country.
ENDOGAMOUS EXOGAMOUS
Gender inequality
- Marriages who come from - Marriages who come from
● Another aspect of social inequality
the same class different classes.
● unfair treatment to those who have different gender/s
- endo(same) - exo (different)(outside)
Characteristic of Meritocracy

Meritocracy
● System of stratification that is determined by personal effort and INNOVATION DIFFUSION
merit.
● Social standing in this system is based or determined to how well - Process of introducing new ideas, - Refers to spread of certain
a person performs his or her social role. things, and methods. elements from one group to
● Is an ideal and only is applied to certain areas (i.e., business and - Entails improvement of things and another in society.
civil service) process - Once mag spread ang isa ka
- Primarily driven by technological idea and ma accept, great
● High level will equal to high level and vice versa changes. transformations will happen.
- Leads to social change when new
Political Clientelism ideas begin to spread through
● Defined by Susan Stroke diffusion.
● Giving away material goods in return for electoral support.
● Technology is an important factor that enables the diffusion of ideas
and innovations throughout society.
 Bill of rights
● List of fundamental and important rights that every citizen should
POLITICAL REVOLUTION SOCIAL REVOLUTION
enjoy
- Results in replacement of - Results in large-scale
Citizens under the Philippine Constitution
the government, transformation of socials
- without altering other aspects structures , organizations,
1. those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the
of society and maintaining the and institutions
adoption of the 1987 Constitution;
relationship between - Ex: government
socio-economic classes. bringing about change 2. those whose parents, mothers or fathers are citizens of the
in socioeconomic Philippines;
relations.
3. those born before 17 January 1973, of Filipino mothers, and who
elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and

4. Those who undergo the naturalization process.

KARL MARX MAX WEBER EMILE DURKHEIM

● Political change is ● Focused on ● Agreed with Marx: Peacemaking Peacekeeping Peacebuilding

result of changes in significant role of political change is
the economy (way culture and ideas result of great refer to the negotiation preservation of peace rebuilding of
goods are produced) implementing change. transformations. of a peace agreement efforts through the economic and social
● Society being defined ● Payed attention to ● Focused on the between conflicting involvement of civilian infrastructures that
as divisions between how practices, impact of parties, often monitoring teams and will sustain the
social classes that beliefs, & attitudes modernization on mediated by military peacekeeping peace efforts.
have conflicting shape political values division of labor and third-party negotiators. forces.
interests and behavior of social roles.
● When shifted to individuals.
Migration
traditional aspects to Traditional societies:
capitalism, change in Traditional government: Influenced by physical ● Movement of people from one place to another for temporary or
governments were Based on tradition and resemblance & shared permanent residence.
organized ensued. charisma or personal characteristics
● Recommended appeal of leaders. ● Brought about by various social, economic, and political factors.
means of change Modern societies:
through social Defined by organic ● The emergence of communities in many nations often leads to
revolution solidarity social issues such as discrimination and ethnic conflict.
● E-migration or out-migration Immigration
They both DO NOT recommend revolution as a refers to the movement of people refers to the movement of people
means of political change. out of their own native country. into a country that is not their
native land
They believe in gradual types of changes like reforms
and modernization
Internal Migration
● refers to movement of people within their own country, and
I.e., elections and changes in the legal system.
involves transferring from one city or locality to another.
 - Rich, wel-born, powerful
PULL PUSH
4. Underclass
MIGRATION MIGRATION
- Refer to segments of society that are not only affected by
society but are also subject to social exclusion.
- Positive - Negative
- Kung ano ang - Kung ano ang ga
Social stratification
gapabalik kanimo pahalin (push)
● Refers to the division of large social groups into smaller groups
sa country mo kanimo to migrate
based on categories determined by economics.
● Members are arranged in a hierarchy based on their access to or
● Political stability ● Conflict
control over basic economic resources.
● More opportunities ● Political oppression
● Good government ● coruption
● Social stratification gives rise to inequality in society

EXAMPLES OF CONFLICT Social exclusion

1. Ethnic conflicts ● Refers to the process by which individuals are cut off from full
- Brought about by issues of identity and ethnicity. involvement in the wider circles of society.
2. Religious conflicts
- Brought about by religious differences. Mobility
3. Ideological conflicts ● Is the ability of individuals or groups to change their positions
- Brought about by disparities in certain beliefs and views. within a social stratification system

Refugees Status
● are migrants who are forced to move into another country ● Standing
because they were displaced by wars, political persecution, or
natural disasters. Wealth
● Abundance in money, assets, etc.
Discrimination
● are psychological mechanisms associated with prejudice and Narrowcasting
discrimination. ● Described by Jessica Matthews
● The dissemination of information to specific segments of the
Power public via shared source, primarily online social platforms.
● Ability to do something in order to achieve a desired outcome.
Inclusive citizenship
4 CLASSES OF SOCIETY ● Refers to a type of citizenship that empowers marginalized
groups and individuals to be included in political processes.
1. Lower
- Those employed in low-paying jobs with very little E-democracy
economic security. ● covers a diverse range of activities that may be initiated by
2. Middle government and other public bodies ("top-down") or by citizens
- Refers to a group of people who fall socioeconomically and activists (“bottom-up”)
between lower and upper.

3. Upper
- Yield greatest political power.
E-politics

E-voting
● Digital innovations have also affected elections through
electronic voting (e-voting), giving rise to a “push-button
democracy.”

E-petitions