Year 1 Module 3

What is Social Stratification?

Sociological Definition
Rothman (1993) states that stratification involves patterns of structural inequality that are
associated with members of the different groups as well as the ideology that supports these groups
(some groups experience advantages in society while others do not).

Easy definition
Social stratification refers to the way society is structured into different layers or groups based on factors like wealth,
power, race, and gender. Some groups have more advantages than others.

Key Concepts of Social Stratification

1. Sex vs. Gender – Sex is biological (male or female), while gender is a social construct (masculine or feminine).
2. Status – A person’s position in society, which can be based on birth (ascribed) or achievements (achieved).
3. Race & Colour – Race refers to physical traits (e.g., skin color, hair texture), while color is a more subjective way of
classifying people (e.g., black, brown, white).
4. Ethnicity – Cultural background, including nationality, language, and traditions.
5. Social Class – Groups of people with similar wealth, power, and social status.
6. Mobility – Movement within the social hierarchy, either horizontal (same class, different job) or vertical (moving
up or down in class).

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Types of Stratification Systems

1. Closed Systems (little or no movement between classes)
- Feudal System– Medieval Europe (9th-16th century), where status was inherited (nobles-> clergy->
merchants-> peasants-> serfs). A person's position was determined by law, inheritance – inheritance of land was
the most important basis for social ranking. Each estate had certain rights and privileges that were different from
the other estates. Estates were believed to be fixed by God
- Caste System – Found in India and South Africa, based on birth and religion, restricting social mobility.
Influences beliefs and behaviours especially marriage (endogamy) to ethnic purity - the degree to which one did not
mix with others of a different caste.
India:
•Brahmins – priests/teachers
•Kshatriyas – rulers/administrators
 •Vaisyas – Skilled workers/traders
•Sudras – unskilled workers
•Harijans/panchamas/Dalits/untouchables

South Africa:
•Whites
•Coloureds
•Asiatic
•Blacks

•Religion (Hinduism) was used to reinforce separation of caste (reincarnation and Karma).
•Also found in Africa during the Apartheid period

- Slavery – Found in the Caribbean (15th-19th century), based on race and justified by law and religion.

2. Open System (allows movement between classes)

- Class System – Based on merit and achievement rather than birth, though inequalities still exist.

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Theories on Social Stratification

1. Functionalist Theory (Davis, Moore, Parsons) Social Stratification by extension social inequality
is inevitable and necessary, it contributes to the maintenance and wellbeing of society. Stratification systems are fair
and just because allocation to social position is based on merit.
Davis and Moore
•People have different talents and abilities – the greatest awards (wealth, power and prestige) go to those
who perform the most important tasks in society – there will always be inequality.
•Stratification is useful for motivating persons to become the most talented, to strive to work hard; it also
ensures social order because of value consensus
Talcott Parsons
•Outstanding individuals perceived to be successful –seen as valuable by society should be ranked highly
and rewarded.
•Stratification results from common values in society (age, skill, aptitude) not everyone can lead some must
follow
 •If consensus exists and everyone agrees, order is maintained and this becomes functional, as it integrates
various groups in society.

- Inequality is necessary for society to function.

- The most important jobs get the highest rewards (wealth, power, prestige).
- Criticism: Melvin Tumin criticizes Davis and Moore – how do we know which jobs are functionally more
important than others?
2.Functionalist ignore the dysfunctions in stratification of society
3.There are restrictions, obstacles and limitations in stratification systems they are not all fair and just
4.Meritocracy presented by functionalist does not always exist e.g. nepotism
5.Functionalist present an oversimplified view of how people accept values and positions in society,
contemporary society is far more complex.

2. Marxist Theory (Karl Marx, John Scott)

- Stratification can become oppressive causing conflict and oppression leading to drastic social change
•Social stratification in Capitalist societies is skewed in favour of the status quo (rich remain rich and poor
remain poor) i.e. social reproduction
•They reject the view of the functionalist – stratification is not necessary nor inevitable.
•Capitalism brings about stratification – which is rooted in the economic structure with its inequality, conflict,
subordination and exploitation. There will always be ongoing conflict in capitalism because the two groups
have opposing goals
•A classless society is seen as ideal because of the collective ownership limited by inequality and conflict

- Criticism: The 2 class model is rigid

2.Working class is not as homogenous – unite to revolt may not be successful
3.Economic factors are not the only factors for social stratification (ethnicity, gender, religion etc.)
4.Times have changed since Marx’s Writing

3. Weber’s Theory (Max Weber)

- Social stratification is based on three factors:
1. Economic (Class) – Class situation identifies a person's economic position – skills, qualifications and work
experience give some advantage over others, making them marketable and of greater demand.
•People are in the same class when they share the same chances of obtaining the scarce resources (jobs, income,
property). This also depends on market situations.
•Like Marxist Weber saw economic rewards as unequally distributed
•Weber saw 4 classes: Propertied upper class, White-collar professionals, Petite Bourgeoisie, manual working
class

2. Status –This is where there are people of similar levels of prestige, not always related to economic (income and
wealth)… marrying upward changes the status of someone from the working class; people can be admired based on
non-economic criteria
 3. Power (Party) – A group with similar levels of power, this again does not necessarily connect to wealth
(politicians), Associations, Trade Unions, Pressure groups
•Lockwood expanded on Weber’s work

4. Symbolic Interactionist Theory

-​ Consistent with its micro orientation, symbolic interactionism tries to understand stratification by looking
at people’s interaction and understandings in their daily lives. Unlike the functionalist and conflict views,
it does not try to explain why we have stratification in the first place. Rather, it examines the differences
that stratification makes for people’s lifestyles and their interaction with other people.

-​ Symbolic interactionists also note that people’s appearance reflects their perceived social standing. Housing,
clothing, and transportation indicate social status, as do hairstyles, taste in accessories, and personal style.

-​ One of the most insightful analyses of stratification that fits into a symbolic interactionist framework was
Thorstein Veblin’s (1899/1953) famous discussion of conspicuous consumption, or the acquisition and
display by the wealthy of lavish products that show off their wealth.

-​ In most communities, people interact primarily with others who share the same social standing. It is
precisely because of social stratification that people tend to live, work, and associate with others like
themselves, people who share their same income level, educational background, or racial background, and
even tastes in food, music, and clothing. The built-in system of social stratification groups people together.

5. Feminist Theory
-​ Occupation is largely used to determine social position in the stratification system; but this is taken to mean
occupation of males…
-​ A woman is allocated to the role of house wife or earning lower than her partner; her position is determined
by her partner’s position.
-​ Social stratification cannot be fully understood because it leaves out gender inequalities

Types of Feminism:
- Liberal Feminists – Equal opportunity for women through legislation, education and the workplace.
•Put women in male dominated fields and men in women dominated fields.
•Millett – socialisation within the institutions reinforces inequality. Women internalise and accept male
dominance… sexual and physical abuse are ways that men intimidate women and keep them subordinate

- Marxist/Socialist Feminists –
 ●​ Because women are there to do housework, men perform better in the workplace, since they don’t
have that to think about housework.
●​ Women are also a substitute when men cannot work, they argue that women experience both
gender and social stratification because of where they are placed in the economy
●​ Eichler – master-servant relationships between males and females. She disagrees with Millett
(Women’s status, lack of social mobility/ caste like), some women are better off than some men in
occupational status.

- Radical Feminists – Patriarchy is the most important factor in exploring gender inequalities
●​ Gender stratification existed long before social stratification
●​ Men hold power and benefit from women’s subordination, women’s oppression brings about a union
between women regardless of social class background.
●​ Walby – public and private patriarchy; restrictions are placed on women not men in the home but also in
the wider society; they are only being controlled at home, not there is a shift to public spaces – work.

- Black Feminists – They feel that radical feminist do not focus on the inequalities suffered by those who
are ethnically stratified.
●​ Hacker – stratification is based on black women’s gender, race, class and are treated differently from white
women.

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Caribbean Theories on Social Stratification- Plantation and plural societies were divided based on race and
ethnicity, with the various racial and ethnic groups existing in the Caribbean. (Blacks, browns, whites, Indians,
Chinese, indigenous people, etc).
•Creole societies were stratified based on other factors, such as colour, class, status, religion, etc.

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Evolution of Stratification using the Caribbean Society

- Plantation Society – Rigid racial and economic divisions during slavery.
- Post-Emancipation Society – Introduction of immigrants (Indians, Chinese, Syrians).
- Indians came to escape the Caste system
-Chinese the chinese revolution
-Syrians religious persecution
 White population declined slightly. Coloured groups used education to elevate themselves into professional
occupations. Few blacks achieved high positions and practiced pigmentocracy to further elevate their status.
Most blacks and Indians remained at the lower end with few finding middle income.

- Post-WWII – Opening up of education – more primary and secondary schools

•Schools were ethnically divided
•Religious groups provided opportunities for many to gain an education
•Many Blacks and Indentured immigrants used education to elevate themselves during this period
•Political agitation in Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad etc. seeking change and an end to colonialism and racism

- Post-Independence – Basic contours of colonialism remained

•Politics, education and employment were responsible for changes in the stratification system
•Power was now held by blacks
•Education expanded
•Blacks were incorporated into industry and commercial employment

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Social Mobility(Moving Up or Down the Social Ladder) -This only takes place in open systems of
stratification, where there is emphasis on achievement rather than ascription. There are some groups who will never
experience upward social mobility. e.g. the poor who are not given an equal chance for upward mobility. (Derek
Gordon 1987)

1.​ Vertical Mobility – Moving up or down (e.g., poor to rich, rich to poor).
2.​ Horizontal Mobility – Changing jobs within the same social class.
3.​ Intergenerational Mobility – A change in status between generations (e.g., parents are laborers, child
becomes a doctor). Usually short ranged.
4.​ Intragenerational/Career Mobility – A person’s status changes within their lifetime (e.g., starting poor,
becoming wealthy).

Marxist View on Mobility

- Proletarianization – Middle-class workers become like the working class due to low wages and job instability.
- Embourgeoisement – Some working-class people adopt middle-class lifestyles.

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Social Constructs relating to social mobility

 ●​ Caste: Based on ascribed factors (background); social stability exists; no mobility
●​ Class: Based on both ascribed (background) and achieved (ability); less stability; limited movement
●​ Meritocracy: idealized… Based only on achievement and ability not background; extreme social
mobility, greater movement, least stable

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Impact of Social Stratification

1. Social Impact
- Race & Beauty Standards – European features (light skin, straight hair) are often seen as superior.
- Marginalization – Some groups are left out of decision-making and economic opportunities.
- Crime – Often higher in poor areas due to lack of opportunities.
- Education – Unequal access affects social mobility.

2. Economic Impact
- Unemployment – Many educated people struggle to find jobs.
- Migration – "Brain drain" happens when skilled workers leave for better opportunities.
- Gender Pay Gap – Women are often paid less and work in lower-status jobs.

3. Political Impact
- Use of Power – Political leaders may help or ignore certain groups.
- Corruption – Some use politics to gain wealth.
- Ethnic Divisions – Politicians may favor their own racial or social group.

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