Instruction Manual

FL 200 Transmitted Light

Polariscope
 08/2004

FL 200 TRANSMITTED LIGHT POLARISCOPE

All Rights Reserved G.U.N.T. Gerätebau GmbH, Barsbüttel, Germany 06/2004

Instruction Manual

Please read and follow the safety regulations before the first installation!

Publication-no.: 912.000 00 B 200 13 (A) Projekt_3

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Table of Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.1 Structure of individual components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

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2.1.1 Light source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1.2 Load frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.3 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.4 Load spindle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.4.1 Generation of tensile forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.4.2 Generation of pressure forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.5 Photoelastic sensitive material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Commissioning and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Available models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Fitting the models in the load frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.1 FL 200.01 Models with mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.2 FL 200.02 Model arch with mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.3 FL 200.03 Model crane hook with mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.4 FL 200.04 Mechanism for comparison of notches . . . . . . . 10
2.3.5 FL 200.05 Model notches with mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.6 FL 200.06 Model weld seam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Maintenance and Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.1 Health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.2 Hazards for Equipment and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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4 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.1 General principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.2 Normal and polarised light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3 Isochromates and isoclines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5 Experimental method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
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5.1 Example of FL 200.05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

6 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

6.1 Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

6.2 Symbols and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.4 Items supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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1 Introduction

The FL200 transmitted light polariscope en-

ables you to perform basic experiments in
photoelasticity. The unit has a modular structure
and is designed as a table top unit. It can be used
easily and at low cost at a variety of locations. All
that is required to operate the unit is a mains elec-
tricity connection.
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Light (polarised and monochromatic) is used to

make mechanical diffusion of stress visible in
photoelastic sensitive material. The shape and de-
sign of the test pieces correspond to technical
components e.g. spanners or crane hooks etc.
The influence of notches, which often occur in
components, can also be shown.
The material can be subjected to a variety of loads,
e.g. bending, tension or pressure.
The FL200 transmitted light polariscope is ideally
suited for demonstrations in front of a large audi-
ence. Thanks to its modular structure and the as-
sociated clear arrangement of the components, it
can also be used very successfully for laboratory
experiments as part of practical training.

1 Introduction 1
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2 Description

1 Light source
2 1. Polarisation filter
4 5
2 3 3 1. Quarter wave filter
270°
4 Model
5 Load frame
6 6 2. Quarter wave filter
7 2. Polarisation filter
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270° 7

Fig. 2.1 Schematic illustration of experimental system

2.1 Structure of individual components

The FL200 transmitted light polariscope is made

up of independent components, which allows very
flexible experimental layouts to be achieved. The
structure is divided into the following four areas:
– Light source (1)
– Polariser (2,3)
– Load frame (5) with model (4)
– Analyser (6,7)
The individual test pieces are clamped in the load
frame.

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2.1.1 Light source

The light source for the unit consists of a lamp box

with white diffuser. Two different types of light can
be produced:
a

b 1. White light from a fluorescent tube (a), which

is supported by two bulbs (b) to achieve uni-
form light diffusion.
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2. Monochromatic light produced by a sodium

c vapour lamp (c).
NOTE: The sodium vapour lamp requires a
Fig. 2.2 Light source warm-up time of approx. 7 minutes before it
reaches its full brightness.

2.1.2 Load frame

The frame consists of four individual sections (two

1 side supports with base plates (1) and two cross
6 arms (2)).
The side supports and cross arms have holes for
4 3 mounting the models or model holder. The cross
5 arms can be screwed onto the side supports at dif-
ferent heights. This means that the frame can be
2 individually adapted to the experimental models
and load mechanism.
To assemble, the clips for the cross arms (3) are
Fig. 2.3 Structure of frame
pushed into the gaps in the side supports (4) and
secured using through bolts (5) and nuts (6).

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2.1.3 Filters

The FL200 has four filters. The filters consist of two

glass plates with the actual filter film between
3 them. The edges of the filters are stuck together
1 and fitted with edge protection.
The polariser is located between the light source
and model, while the analyser is between the
model and the viewer. The polariser and the
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6 analyser each consist of a linear polarisation filter

(dark olive in colour) and a quarter wave filter (al-
7
most colourless).
5 They are arranged with a particular offset angle
4 between their filter axes. From the light source to
2
the viewer (see Fig. 2.5):
Fig. 2.4 Filter with filter mounting 1. Polarisation filter: 0°
2. Quarter wave filter: 45°
3. Quarter wave filter: 315°
4. Polarisation filter: 270°

1
2

3
4

Fig. 2.5 Position of filter axes

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The filters (1) are mounted in a rotating filter

holder (2). The filter holder has a pointer (3) on the
side, which can be used to read the relative angle.
The filter frame should fit into all three rollers (4)
evenly and with no clearance. The height of the
two side rollers may need to be adjusted. To do
this, loosen the side screw (5) at the base and ad-
just the height of the retaining bar (6). The height of
the pointer (3) for the angle setting can also be ad-
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justed (7). The pointer should be level with the cen-

tre of the filter plate.

2.1.4 Load spindle

The load mechanism can be fitted at any point on

3 the load frame. Installation on the upper cross arm
2 is preferable. However, it depends on the type of
model used. For detailed instructions, refer to sec-
4
tion 2.2.
The load mechanism consists of a threaded spin-
dle (1) and an adjusting nut (2) with inserted
1 pins (3). The pins allow sensitive adjustment of the
nut and setting of the load. The adjusting nut has a
thrust ball bearing (4) to minimise the friction and
Fig. 2.6 Structure of load spindle
(tension experiment left and to rule out a transmission of moments onto the
pressure experiment right) model.

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2.1.4.1 Generation of tensile forces

– First of all, insert the flattened pressure piece

(1) into the frame slot (2) from above.
4 – Insert the threaded spindle (3) into the pres-
sure piece from above, flat side first.
3
– Screw the adjusting nut (4) onto the threaded
5 spindle with the ball bearing pointing down-
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wards.
1
– The model can now be fastened to the lower
2 end of the spindle with the hole (5).

Fig. 2.7 Load mechanism for

traction forces

2.1.4.2 Generation of pressure forces

– Insert the threaded spindle (1) into the frame

slot (2) from below with the flat side and se-
3 cure it from above and below with two lock
nuts (3). The lock nuts should be located in
2 the flattened part of the spindle.

1
– Screw the adjusting nut (4) onto the threaded
spindle from below with the ball bearing
3 pointing downwards.
4 – Insert the pressure piece (5) into the adjust-
5 ing nut from below. Note! The pressure piece
is loose and remains in the adjusting nut with-
Fig. 2.8 Load mechanism for out being secured. It is held in position by the
pressure forces
model.
– Depending on the model and the type of load
(concentrated or linear load), different pres-
sure pieces are available.

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2.1.5 Photoelastic sensitive material

Essentially, any double refractive material is suit-

able for the photoelastic experiment. This includes
glass, various transparent plastics and even gela-
tine. However, plastic models made of acrylic and
epoxy resin are predominantly used. The acrylic is
generally known as “Plexiglass”â. Its main advan-
tages are that it is easy to obtain and has a low
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price, it can be processed using standard metal

tools and it can be stored for practically an unlim-
ited period. Its disadvantage is the low photo-
elastic sensitivity. It is therefore less well suited for
qualitative experiments. The models for the FL 200
are thus made from polycarbonate, which is avail-
able in plate form under the trade name
“MAKROLON”â.
A carefully manufactured model plate can be used
practically an unlimited number of times for quali-
tative demonstration purposes if handled properly.

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2.2 Commissioning and Operation

2.2.1 General

The instruction manual is to be read carefully and

every participant in the experiment instructed on
correct handling prior to commissioning.
– Set up the unit on a level and stable surface
– Connect unit to the mains electricity (connec-
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tor on the side of the unit)

The light source is turned on and off using two

switches (one for the monochromatic light and the
other for the white light) on the side of the housing.
Both light sources can be operated simulta-
neously.

2.2.2 Available models

The basic FL 200 module can be used to perform a

variety of experiments in conjunction with the
add-on modules. The following add-on modules
are available for the transmitted light polariscope:
Fl 200.01 - Models with mounting
Fl 200.02 - Model arch with mounting
Fl 200.03 - Model crane hooks with mounting
Fl 200.04 - Mechanism for comparison of notches
Fl 200.05 - Model notches with mounting
Fl 200.06 - Model weld seam
Fl 200.07 - Model spanner

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2.3 Fitting the models in the load frame

2.3.1 FL 200.01 Models with mounting

First of all, the model mounting (1) must be in-

serted into the gap in the lower cross arm of the
load frame. One of the models is then placed on
the mounting. In order to apply a load, the load
bridge (2) must be placed on the model. The load
spindle is then inserted. It must be fitted as a pres-
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sure screw for this experiment (Fig. 2.8).

1 2

Fig. 2.9 Models and mounting

2.3.2 FL 200.02 Model arch with mounting

The model arch simulates the diffusion of stress

that occurs in arches.
When fitting the model (2) in the frame, the mount-
ing (1) is first placed in the gap in the lower cross
arm of the frame. The model is then inserted and
the load bridge (3) with the two pressure points is
1 2 3
then placed onto it.
The load spindle (pressure forces) can then be fit-
Fig. 2.10 Arch
ted and the pressure point can be used to exert a
force on the model.

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2.3.3 FL 200.03 Model crane hook with mounting

For the model crane hook, a tensile load must be

applied (ensure correct fitting of load spindle). The
load spindle is attached to the upper end of the
crane hook using a clip and two screws.
The lower end of the hook is secured with a retain-
ing ring (Fig. 2.12), which is screwed into the lower
cross arm.
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Fig. 2.11 Crane hook

Fig. 2.12 Retaining ring for crane hook Fig. 2.13 Tensile test fixing

2.3.4 FL 200.04 Mechanism for comparison of notches

The FL 200.04 is a mechanism for the simulta-

neous comparison of different notches. The mod-
2 els (1) are fixed in the side supports with screws.
The load comes from a tension unit (2), which is at-
5
0

1
10
20

15

tached to the front end of the models. The tension

3
unit is equipped with a measuring instrument (3)
that allows the force applied to be measured.

Fig. 2.14 Models with load mechanism

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2.3.5 FL 200.05 Model notches with mounting

The models in FL 200.05 are placed under tension

and clamped at both ends with screws.
The upper end of the model (6) is screwed onto the
1
flattened spindle (3) using two clips (5) and two
screws (4, 6) (Fig. 2.13).
2 At the lower end, the model is attached to the lower
cross arm (10) by the holder (8) and the two
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3 screws (7,9).
The load spindle (1), which is fitted in the upper
4
cross arm (2) can now be used to apply the load to
5
the model.
6

7
8

9
10

Fig. 2.15 Fixing for tensile tests Fig. 2.16 Notch models

2.3.6 FL 200.06 Model weld seam

The model weld seam is fixed to the side support of

the load frame by three screws. The load is applied
by the load spindle, which is fitted in such a way
that it exerts pressure forces (Fig. 2.8) on the free
end of the model.

Fig. 2.17 Model weld seam

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2.4 Maintenance and Care

The filters and diffuser are sensitive to scratches.

Clean with a soft, clean cloth. Caution! Never use
solvents or alcohol for cleaning.
When changing the illuminant, ensure that the dif-
fuser is not scratched.
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3 Safety

3.1 Health hazards

RISK of electric shock!

Always disconnect the mains connector before
opening the light box.
The light box is only to be opened by specialist
personnel.
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3.2 Hazards for Equipment and Function

The unit may only be operated in a dry environ-

ment and must be protected from moisture,
especially splashed water.

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4 Theory

The photoelastic method has been used since

1930 and remains one of the most interesting me-
thods in optical tension analysis, not least because
of its great clarity and the relatively simple exper-
imental layout. The photoelastic principle is parti-
cularly suited for the analysis of the distribution of
stresses in flat models. However, three-dimensio-
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nal models can also be analysed at additional cost.

This manual is limited to the flat state of stresses.
The fundamental physical relationships and wor-
king principles of the photoelastic method are des-
cribed in brief below.

4.1 General principles

The photoelastic method utilises the physical pro-

perty of particular transparent materials to demon-
strate double refraction under stress. Double re-
fraction, which is also familiar from natural aniso-
tropic crystals (e.g. calcite) results from the fact
that some materials that are isotropic in an un-
stressed state act as anisotropic if their molecular
structure changes due to mechanical load. The re-
fraction index depends on the effective stresses in
the material. Anisotropy can be explained as fol-
A K1
D lows: If, for example, a compressive strain is acting
in x direction the molecular structure is compres-
sed in that direction. The medium becomes “opti-
C cally more dense” and the refraction index increa-
B
ses. At the same time, however, in the y direction,
perpendicular to x, the material undergoes a positi-
a
ve lateral strain, i.e. the molecular structure is un-
K2 o
compressed. In y direction, the material thus
becomes “optically thinner” and the refraction
Fig. 4.1 index falls. The process is reversed for tensile
Brewster’s law
strain and lateral contraction.

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In a flat state of stresses, for each point there are two

principal sections (see Fig. 4.2) lying perpendicular
to one another, in which the normal stresses σx and
σy have their extreme values: the principal stresses
σ1 and σ2. This assumes that σ1 is always algebra-
ically greater. At the same time, a section below 45°
to the principal section has the maximum shearing
strain: the principal shearing strain τH.
With the variables σ1 and σ2 and the principal di-
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rection a, we can use “Mohr’s circle” to graphically

and mathematically determine all stresses σx, σy
and τxy as well as their magnitude and direction.
The method is particularly simple for edge
stresses, because one of the stresses always acts
perpendicular to the edge and is therefore zero. In
this case, a photoelastic experiment allows edge
stresses, which are crucial for assessment in most
cases, to be read directly.

4.2 Normal and polarised light

In photoelasticity, light is viewed as an electromag-

netic wave process, which describes transversal
wave movements. In a beam of light, there are var-
ious directions of oscillation perpendicular to its
propagation direction. For a photoelastic experi-
ment, however, we require light whose vector only
oscillates in a perfect direction. This result is
achieved by transmitting light through a
polarisation filter.
Nowadays, the polarisation filters used are plastic
sheets whose long-chain molecules have been
parallel oriented by mechanical extension and
thus have a predominant direction.
After emerging from the polarisation filter, the light
is “linear polarised”. The second polarisation filter,
whose direction of polarisation is exactly perpen-

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L Light source
P Polariser
1.V 1. Quarter wave filter
2.V 2. Quarter wave filter
M Model
A Analyser
F Model load

Fig. 4.2 Thermoelastic beam path

a) Linear polarised light b) Circular polarised

dicular to that of the first, can be used to verify this

process: A dark field is obtained, i.e. all oscillations
are extinguished (apart from slight stray light). For
this reason, the second filter is referred to as the
“analyser”. The propagation velocity of the light (c)
in a vacuum is as follows:
m m
c = 299792458 ≈ 3 ⋅ 10 8 .
s s

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In other transparent materials, the velocity (v) is

lower.

Electromagnetic radiation in the frequency range

between approx. ν = 3.8 ·1014 Hz to ν = 7.7 ·1014
Hz is referred to as visible light and corresponds to
a vacuum wavelength range of λ= 390 nm to λ=
790 nm (conversion λ = c/ν).
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We refer to monochromatic (‘single coloured’)

light, when all wave trains in a beam cluster are os-
cillating with the same frequency (or have the
same wavelength in a medium). In the light from a
sodium vapour lamp, only the two very close wave-
lengths of λ= 589 nm and λ= 589.6 nm occur in
practical terms. It can therefore be approximately
interpreted as monochromatic and is used accord-
ingly in the experiment.
c
The ratio is the refraction index (n). The refrac-
ν
tion index is constant in homogeneous transparent
bodies. In bodies that behave inhomogeneously in
the presence of stresses or strain, the refraction in-
dex is a function of the principal stress or strain:

n 1 = f ( σ 1) ; n 2 = f ( σ 2 )

If a linear polarised light vector A meets a transpar-

ent body at a point P, and 1-1 and 2-2 are the main
stress directions (Fig. 4.2), the oscillation vector
splits into two polarised vectors A1 and A2, which
oscillate in the planes 1-1 and 2-2. Depending on
σ1 and σ2, the velocities of the two light vectors are
then ν1 and ν2. The time that the two vectors re-
quire to pass through the body of thickness d is
d d
then: or . This results in a relative delay or
ν1 ν2
path difference between one beam and the of:

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cd cd
δ = − = d (n1 − n 2 )
ν1 ν 2

According to Brewster’s law: “The relative change

in the refraction index is proportional to the differ-
S ence in the principal stresses”.
S
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α α
( n1 - n2 ) = K ( σ1 − σ 2 )
90°
β
K is a proportionality factor that depends on the
S physical properties of the material and the wave-
length of the light used. The constant is non-di-
mensional. It is obtained from a calibration experi-
Fig. 4.3 Brewster's law ment on a model with constant moment. In princi-
ple, it is used to express the photoelastic sensitivity
of the material. If we combine the equations, we
obtain the main equation in photoelasticity:

δ = d ⋅ K ( λ) (σ 1 − σ 2 )

δ
= (σ 1 − σ 2 )
d ⋅ K ( λ)

δ Path difference in number of

wavelengths (1,2,3 ...) or orders,
therefore also
ordinal number
d Model thickness [cm]
K ( λ) Constants
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) Difference in principal stresses

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Between the model and the analyser, the two vec-

tors A1 and A2 (see Fig. 4.2) now oscillate with the
path difference δ. Superposition allows us to com-
bine them into a single vector. The resulting vector
is referred to as “elliptically polarised” because the
apex of the vector moves in an elliptical spiral.
However, the same result is obtained if we con-
tinue to observe the two components A1 and A2
separately. The analyser only lets through those
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fractions of the components A1 and A2 that lie in its

plane of polarisation H1 and H2 (Fig. 4.2). H1 and
H2 leave the analyser with the path difference δ
and interfere. They are the result of the photo-
elastic experiment.

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4.3 Isochromates and isoclines

If the model is free of stress, there is no double re-

fraction. The angle α and the path difference δ are
zero - the model appears black. If a load is now ap-
plied and increased, a path difference results,
which increases proportionally to the magnitude of
the difference in the principal stresses. According
to the parallelogram rule, the amplitudes of the
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components H1 and H2 depend on the gradient of

the sub-components A1 and A2 but are always
equal. The optical phenomenon now visible after
the analyser depends on the composition of the
fractions H1 und H2 or on the extent to which the
oscillation caused by the onset of the path
difference allows a resultant (see Fig. 4.2).
Initially, two extremes can be observed:
1. H1 and H2 have no path difference. They os-
cillate in opposite phases! This case occurs if
the principal stresses are slightly higher than
zero and are equal. The principal stress dif-
ference σ1-σ2 then equals zero. As the two H
fractions oscillate with the same amplitude
but opposite signs, complete extinguishing is
obtained for this point, i.e. darkness in the
model. The same effect occurs if the path dif-
ference is the equivalent of one or multiple
whole wavelengths.
2. H1 and H2 have a path difference of half a
wavelength. They oscillate in the same
phase.

Superposition of the wave trains involved results in

the oscillations intensifying at every point. After the
analyser, the highest possible brightness is ob-
tained at this point. This process is repeated in line
with the accretion of the principal stress difference
and thus the path difference. As the model is con-

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sidered not only point by point but
two-dimensionally, depending on the distribution
of stresses, i.e. accretion or decay of the stress
gradients, we can observe continuous lines alter-
nating between light and dark: the isochromates.

Isochromates are therefore lines of equal principal

stress difference. Starting from the case σ1- σ2 = 0
(path difference δ = 0; total extinguishing) we can
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identify the isochromates by orders. Starting from

the “zero-th” order (δ = 0), we count the number of
phase displacements of whole wavelengths (1st,
2nd, 3rd order isochromates etc.).
The arch shown is loaded with the single force like
a vault. The high isochromate density can once
again be identified inside the arch. This is where
the highest stresses occur. In monochromatic
light, the individual lines have better resolution; in
Fig. 4.4 Dark field of arch in Fig. 4.4 the “onion like” course of the lines below
monochromatic light
the application of the force can be discerned much
more clearly.
It must also be noted that these light and dark val-
ues can only be achieved with monochromatic
polarised light (normally yellow or green). White
light is composed of spectral colours of different
wavelengths. In a photoelastic experiment, the
short-wave colours (blue) achieve phase displace-
ment a whole wavelength earlier than the
long-wave colours (red). After the analyser, the
relevant complementary colours then remain visi-
ble as “lines of the same colour” (isochromates).
Only the zero order isochromate is dark here.

Fig. 4.3 Dark field of arch in When observing the model in white light, however,
white light other dark lines can be made out that are not
isochromates. They can be explained as follows: If
one of the two principal stress directions coincides
with the plane of polarisation, there is no double re-

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fraction at that point. The light beam therefore
passes unhindered through the model and is then
extinguished by the analyser. Of course, it is not
only individual dark points that can be identified
here, but contiguous continuous lines for all points
with equal principal stress direction: the isoclines.

Of course, there is a different isocline line for each

change in the plane of polarisation compared to
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the model. If the two filters are simultaneously ro-

tated gradually by 90° (e.g. in 10° increments) from
the initial position, a new isocline line is obtained
for each filter position, which result in an isocline
family when plotted together. With a degree of
graphic skill, this isocline family can be used to
construct a trajectory diagram for the principal
stresses σ1 and σ2 . However, this aspect is too
complex for practical tuition in vocational school
classes and analysis is too time consuming. By
contrast: The isoclines interfere with analysis of
the isochromate diagram.
To eliminate the interfering isoclines, we use the
quarter wave plate. The first quarter wave plate
breaks down the polarised light vector A into two
orthogonal components, similar to the behaviour
of the photoelastic model. The difference is that
the phase displacement of the two vertical frac-
tions is exactly λ of the wavelength of the light
4
used. As its amplitude is the same, superposition
of the oscillation of the two components results in a
circuit, in which the vectors move. We therefore re-
fer to circular polarised light. The photoelastic lay-
out is referred to as a light or dark field circular
polariscope depending on the position of the
analyser. The second quarter wave plate, rotated
by 90°, raises the defined phase displacement ap-

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plied from λ again, so that linear polarised light
4
again exits the analyser.
Compared to the stresses in the model, the circu-
lar polarised light arising due to the 1st quarter
wave plate does not have a perfect direction,
which means that two uniform orthogonal compo-
nents always meet the photoelastic model. If these
should be acting in the same direction as the prin-
All Rights Reserved G.U.N.T. Gerätebau GmbH, Barsbüttel, Germany 06/2004

cipal normal stress, they are not broken down fur-

ther, but are subjected to the phase displacement δ
caused by the internal stresses, which is responsi-
ble for occurrence of isochromates. The interfering
effect of the isoclines when observing
isochromates is thus eliminated. The light intensity
therefore no longer depends on the direction of the
main axis and can be described in the following
form for a dark field arrangement:

l (n) = l1 + l 2 sin 2 (πn)

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5 Experimental method

Before commencing the experiment, all compo-

nents must be inspected for damage and a check
must be made as to whether the filters are in the
specified angle position.
Note:As the sodium vapour lamp requires up to 7
minutes to warm up, it should be turned on in good
time.
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5.1 Example of FL 200.05

To start the experiment, the desired model (3) can

be fitted as described in section 2.2 and a force
exerted on it using the load spindle (1).
1
The model is fixed to the spindle by a double clip (2)
and to the lower cross arm by the mounting (4).
By slowly and carefully rotating the load spindle, the
formation of the isochromates can be observed.

This Figures 5.2 to 5.5 show possible arrangements

of the isochromates in monochromatic and white
2
light.makes it clear that the individual isochromate
orders can be distinguished and enumerated
better in monochromatic light. Enumeration al-
ways begins at the outer edge of the model and
3 moves inwards (Fig. 5.6). The model in this exam-
ple therefore has isochromates of the order 0 to 5.

Fig. 5.1 Installation for FL 200.05

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Fig. 5.2 Overall view of FL 200.05 Fig. 5.3 Detail view of FL 200.05
in monochromatic light in monochromatic light

Fig. 5.4 Overall view of FL 200.05 Fig. 5.5 Detailed view of FL 200.05
in white light in white light

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All Rights Reserved G.U.N.T. Gerätebau GmbH, Barsbüttel, Germany 06/2004

3.
2.
1.
0

5.
4.

Fig. 5.6 Enumeration of isochromate orders

Note: The appearance of dark strips does not nec-

essarily mean that there is a neutral fibre or undis-
torted zones.
There is another possibility that can cause dark-
ness to appear even in extended test pieces: For
example, if the polarisation direction of the incident
light is rotated parallel to one of the main directions
of extension (e1 or e2), there is no component of
polarisation on the other main direction of exten-
sion and therefore no 2nd partial wave that would
allow a phase shift to be detected. The wave thus
remains in its original linear polarised form and is
extinguished by the crossed analyser, i.e. the
method fails in this case.

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6 Appendix

6.1 Technical data

Lamp box
LxWxH 450 x 200 x 450 mm
Load frame:
HxW 750 x 600 mm
Total weight: approx. 28 kg
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Electrical supply: 230 V ; ~50 Hz

Optional alternatives, see rating plate
Fuses:
Type 19 201, semi time lag 4A

Filter , mounted in glass Ø425 mm

Spare lamps:
Na vapour lamp SOX 35 35 W
Fluorescent type TL-E 32W/33 32 W
Light colour 33

Incandescent lamp
Candle lamp, pearl type E14 235 V
25 W

Model material Makrolon (PC)

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6.2 Symbols and units

m
c Light velocity
s
N
σx,σy Direct stress
mm 2
N
σ1,σ2 Principal stress
mm 2
N
τH Principal transverse stress
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mm 2
λ Wavelength nm
ν Frequency Hz
n Refraction index
δ Path difference
d Model thickness mm
K ( λ) Constants
l Light intensity lm

6.3 Bibliography

(1) Patzelt, W. J.: Polarisation Microscopy:

Principles, Instruments and Applications. LEITZ Wetzlar (1974)
(2) Wolf H.: Photoelasticity Volume 1 Principles,
SPRINGER-Verlag Zweite Auflage (1976)
(3) Becker G.W. / Braun D.: Plastics Handbook 1, The Plastics - Chemistry,
Physics and Technology HANSER Verlag (1990)
(4) Helfberend, A.: Development and practical educational testing of a
thermoelastic experiment to illustrate stress problems in structural ele-
ments and components for vocational college classes in grade education
for the construction industry

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6.4 Items supplied

1 Light box
1 Load frame
2 Polarisation filter (dark olive)
2 Quarter wave filter (colourless)
2 Filter holders
1 Load spindle
All Rights Reserved G.U.N.T. Gerätebau GmbH, Barsbüttel, Germany 06/2004

1 Operating instructions

6 Appendix 29