Journal of Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Islamic architecture
Dr Uday Dokras
Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It
encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day.
Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian and all
other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. Further east, it was also
influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it
developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces with
Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The principal Islamic
architectural types for large or public buildings are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the
Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other
buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.Dome of the Rock,
JerusalemInside the Prophet's Mosque, Medina, Hejaz, Saudi ArabiaInside the Jame Mosque of
Yazd, IranShah Mosque, IsfahanThe Mosque of Rome, ItalyEast London Mosque, EnglandA
view of intricate tile-work on the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa in Bukhara, Uzbekistan (Persian style)A
view of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan, which was commissioned by the Mughal
Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671 CE (Mughal architecture)Makkah Masjid in Hyderabad is one of
the largest and oldest mosques in India (Indo-Islamic architecture)Dome of the mihrab (9th
century) in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, TunisiaThe large Hypostyle prayer hall in the Great
Mosque of Kairouan, dating in its present form from the 9th century, in Kairouan, TunisiaThe
Great Mosque of Djenné in the west African country of MaliOne of the hallmarks of Persian
gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that intersect at the garden's centre. This
highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar bagh, became a powerful metaphor for
the organization and domestication of the landscape, itself a symbol of political territory.Arcades
of the Mosque–Cathedral of CórdobaArcades of the Aljafería of ZaragozaDome of the Fire
temple of Harpak in AbyanehNon-radial rib vault in the Jameh Mosque of IsfahanDome of the
tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in MervUpper dome of Ālī Qāpū, IsfahanAdina Mosque, West Bengal,
IndiaSchematic drawing of a pendentive domeCentral domes of the Hagia SophiaDome of the
Kalenderhane MosqueSelimiye MosqueDesign of a muqarnas quarter vault from the Topkapı
ScrollMuqarnas in the necropolis of Shah-i-Zinda, SamarqandMuqarnas in the AlhambraThe
muqarna of a mosque in Bukhara, UzbekistanGeometrical tile ornament (Zellij), Ben Youssef
Madrasa, MarocCalligraphic inscription on the dome of the Mevlana mausoleumDome of the
Shah Mosque in Isfahan with calligraphic inscriptionBengali Islamic terracotta on a 17th-century
mosque in Tangail, BangladeshThe interior of the Mezquita in Córdoba, SpainA sample of
modern Islamic architecture - The mosque of international conferences center - IsfahanMedina
quarter of Fez, MoroccoFigure-ground diagram of AlgiersFigure-ground diagram of a European
town (1819)Qutub Minar built at the start of the Delhi Sultanate, a massive statement of
conquest.The Taj Mahal, the most famous building of Mughal architecture.Gol Gumbaz built by
the Bijapur Sultanate in Deccani style, the world's 2nd largest pre-modern dome.Adina Mosque,
the largest mosque of Bengali Muslim architecture.Charminar at Old City in Hyderabad,
India.The Asfi mosque, located near the Bara Imambara in Lucknow, India.The Grand Mosque
of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, features multi-layered roof typical of Indonesian

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mosque architecture.Baiturrahman Grand Mosque, Indonesia, with Mughal and Dutch Colonial
influences.Masjid Agung Palembang, Indonesia, with Chinese influence.Kampung Kling
Mosque, Malaysia, with a cross between Sumatran, Chinese, Hindu, and the Malacca Malay
influences.Masjid Kampung Laut, Malaysia, which is a typical traditional Malay mosque
architecture in Malaysia.Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, are 88-floor towers
constructed largely of reinforced concrete, with a steel and glass facade designed to resemble
motifs found in Islamic art, a reflection of Malaysia's Muslim religion.Chowmahalla Palace in
Hyderabad. Intricate pattern on the Window of Syedna Hatim Rauza Islamic architecture
comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular
and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day.

Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian and all
other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. Further east, it was also
influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it
developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces with
Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The principal Islamic
architectural types for large or public buildings are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the
Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other
buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. Many of the buildings which
are mentioned in this article are listed as World Heritage Sites. Some of them, like the Citadel of
Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the ongoing Syrian Civil War.

The Dome of the Rock ( Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhrah) in Jerusalem (691) is one of the most important
buildings in all of Islamic architecture. It is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy
Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a
golden background. The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian
style. The Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of
stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for
example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters,
reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury.

The horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. Some suggest the Muslims
acquired this from the Visigoths in Spain but they may have obtained it from Syria and Persia
where the horseshoe arch had been in use by the Byzantines. In Moorish architecture, the
curvature of the horseshoe arch is much more accentuated. Furthermore, alternating colours were
added to accentuate the effect of its shape. This can be seen at a large scale in their major work,
the Great Mosque of Córdoba. The Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-
Walid I), built on the site of the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of
Damascus, still bore great resemblance to 6th and 7th century Christian basilicas. Certain
modifications were implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis
which better fit with the Islamic style of prayer. The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD- 1258) witnessed
the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra.
The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once
the largest in the world, was built for the new capital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid
Dynasty include the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis.
Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir (c.775-6)

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demonstrated the 'despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty' in its grand size but
cramped living quarters.

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in
the western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman
workmanship brought in from Carthage and other elements resemble Roman form. It is one of
the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD and
dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). The Great Mosque of
Kairouan is constituted of a massive square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos
and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two cupolas. The Great Mosque of
Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns
supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed. The Hagia Sophia
in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the
Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque (now a museum) and incorporated Byzantine
architectural elements into their own work (e.g. domes).

The Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade
Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a major structural
feature of Islamic architecture. The dome first appeared in Islamic architecture in 691 with the
construction of the Dome of the Rock, a near replica of the existing Church of the Holy
Sepulchre and other Christian domed basilicas situated nearby.

Domes remain in use, being a significant feature of many mosques and of the Taj Mahal in the
17th century. The distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture have remained a
distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century. Influenced by Byzantine and Persian
architecture, the pointed arch as an architectonic principle was first clearly established in Islamic
architecture; as an architectonic principle, the pointed arch was entirely alien to the pre-Islamic
world. Especially in the Persianate world, the slightly 'depressed' four-centred arch or 'Persian
arch', has been the most common style used. Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have
always been the mathematical themes of ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic,
metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques
and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches,
organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.

Grand arches of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba/Lotfollah Mosque on Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Isfahan/The interior side view of

the main dome of Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey built in the Ottoman style

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The Courtyard of Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, this Mosque was built in Umayyad style
Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It
encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day.
Early Islamic architecture was influenced
by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early
Muslim conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries. Further east, it was also
influenced by Chinese and Mughal architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it
developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces
with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. New architectural
elements like cylindrical minarets, muqarnas, arabesque, multifoil were invented. The principal
Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the mosque, the tomb, the palace,
and the fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for
other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.[3][4]
Many of the buildings which are mentioned in this article are listed as World Heritage Sites.
Some of them, like the Citadel of Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the
ongoing Syrian Civil War and other wars in the Middle East.

The Court of the Lions, a Moorish masterpiece, at the Alhambra palace (Granada, Spain)

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From the eighth to the 11th century, Islamic architectural styles were influenced by two different
ancient traditions:

Greco-Roman tradition: In particular, the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine

Empire (Southwestern Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and the Maghreb) supplied architects, masons,
mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers. These artisans were trained
in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, and continued building and decorating in
Byzantine style, which had developed out of Hellenistic and ancient Roman architecture.

Eastern tradition: Mesopotamia and Persia, despite adopting elements of Hellenistic and

Roman representative style, retained their independent architectural traditions, which derived
from Sasanian architecture and its predecessors.[6]
The transition process between late Antiquity, or post-classical, and Islamic architecture is
exemplified by archaeologic findings in North Syria and Palestine, the Bilad al-Sham of the
Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. In this region, late antique, or Christian, architectural traditions
merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors. Recent research on the history
of Islamic art and architecture has revised a number of colonialistic ideas. Specifically, the
following questions are currently subject to renewed discussions in the light of recent findings
and new concepts of cultural history:

1. the existence of a linear development within the Islamic

architecture;
2. the existence of an inter- and intracultural hierarchy of styles;
3. questions of cultural authenticity and its delineation.
Compared to earlier research, the assimilation and transformation of pre-existing architectural
traditions is investigated under the aspect of mutual intra- and intercultural exchange of ideas,
technologies and styles as well as artists, architects, and materials. In the area of art and
architecture, the Rise of Islam is seen as a continuous transformation process leading from late
Antiquity to the Islamic period. Early research into the area regarded early Islamic architecture
merely as a break with the past, from which apparently rose a distorted and less expressive form
of art,[8] or a degenerate imitation of the post-classical architectural forms. [9] Modern concepts
tend to regard the transition between the cultures rather as a selective process of informed
appropriation and transformation. The Umayyads played a crucial role in this process of
transforming and thereby enriching the existing architectural traditions, or, in a more general
sense, of the visual culture of the nascent Islamic society.
The Dome of the Rock ( Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhrah) in Jerusalem (691) is one of the most important
buildings in all of Islamic architecture. It is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy
Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a
golden background.[1][12] The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-
Islamic Syrian style.[13] The Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome,
and the use of stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces
in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs
as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal
luxury.

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Courtyard of Mustansiriya Medical College (in Iraq) is an example of Abbasid Islamic

architecture

A mosaic covered dome from the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba

The horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. Some suggest the Muslims
acquired this from the Visigoths in Spain but they may have obtained it from Syria and Persia
where the horseshoe arch had been in use by the Byzantines. In Moorish architecture, the
curvature of the horseshoe arch is much more accentuated. Furthermore, alternating colours were
added to accentuate the effect of its shape. This can be seen at a large scale in their major work,
the Great Mosque of Córdoba.[14]
The Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I),[15] built on the site of
the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, still bore great
resemblance to sixth and seventh century Christian basilicas. Certain modifications were
implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit with
the Islamic style of prayer.
The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD- 1258[16]) witnessed the movement of the capital
from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad
influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world,
was built for the new capital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include
the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid
architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir (c.775 –76) demonstrated the
"despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" in its grand size but cramped living
quarters.[17]
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in the
western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman workmanship
brought in from Carthage and other elements resemble Roman form.[18][19] It is one of the best
preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD and dating
in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (ninth century).[20] The Great Mosque of
Kairouan is constituted of a massive square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded
by porticos and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two cupolas. The Great
Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, combined the hypostyle architecture of rows
of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed.
The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured
the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque (now a museum) and
incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work (e.g., domes). The Hagia
Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque,

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 Journal of Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a major structural feature of
Islamic architecture. The dome first appeared in Islamic architecture in 691 with the construction
of the Dome of the Rock, a near replica of the existing Church of the Holy Sepulchre and
other Christian domed basilicas situated nearby. Domes remain in use, being a significant feature
of many mosques and of the Taj Mahal in the 17th century. The distinctive pointed domes of
Islamic architecture have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century.
Influenced by Byzantine and Persian architecture, the pointed arch as an architectonic principle
was first clearly established in Islamic architecture; as an architectonic principle, the pointed arch
was entirely alien to the pre-Islamic world.[25] Especially in the Persianate world, the slightly
"depressed" four-centred arch or "Persian arch", has been the most common style used.
Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been the mathematical themes of
ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal
geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant features
employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with
alternating sequences of niches and colonettes.

Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem the Prophet's mosque, Medina, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia///Inside

the Jame Mosque of Yazd, Iran/Shah Mosque, Isfahan/ he Mosque of Rome, Italy/East London
Mosque, England
 

view of intricate tile-work on the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa in Bukhara, Uzbekistan (Persian style)

 

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A view of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan, which was commissioned by the Mughal

Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671 CE ( architecture/Makkah Masjid in Hyderabad is one of the largest
and oldest mosques in India (Indo-Islamic architecture)Dome of the mihrab (ninth century) in
the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia
 

The large Hypostyle prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, dating in its present form from
the ninth century, in Kairouan, Tunisia//The Great Mosque of Djenné in the west African country
of Mali
Some characteristics of Islamic architecture were inherited from pre-Islamic architecture of that
region while some characteristics like minarets, muqarnas, arabesque, Islamic geometric pattern,
pointed arch, multifoil arch, onion dome and pointed dome developed later.
Paradise garden

Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are
often compared to the garden of Paradise. The comparison originates from the Achaemenid
Empire. In his dialogue "Oeconomicus", Xenophon has Socrates relate the story of the Spartan
general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger, who shows the Greek his
"Paradise at Sardis".The classical form of the Persian Paradise garden, or the Charbagh,
comprises a rectangular irrigated space with elevated pathways, which divide the garden into
four sections of equal size:
One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that
intersect at the garden's centre. This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar
bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape,
itself a symbol of political territory.

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A Charbagh from Achaemenid time has been identified in the archaeological excavations
at Pasargadae. The gardens of Chehel Sotoun (Isfahan), Fin Garden (Kashan), Eram
Garden (Shiraz), Shazdeh Garden (Mahan), Dowlatabad Garden (Yazd), Abbasabad
Garden(Abbasabad), Akbarieh Garden (South Khorasan Province), Pahlevanpour Garden, all
in Iran, form part of the UNESCO World Heritage.[29] Large Paradise gardens are also found at
the Taj Mahal (Agra), and at Humayun's Tomb (New Delhi), in India; the Shalimar
Gardens (Lahore, Pakistan) or at the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada, Spain.
Courtyard (Sehan)

The Great Mosque of Kairouan, with a large courtyard (sehan) surrounded by arcades, Kairouan,

Tunisia.
The traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan (Arabic: ‫)ص[[حن‬, is found in secular and religious
structures.

1. When within a residence or other secular building is a private

courtyard and walled garden. It is used for the aesthetics of
plants, water, architectural elements, and natural light; for
cooler space with fountains and shade, and source of breezes
into the structure, during summer heat; and a protected and
proscribed place where the women of the house need not be
covered in the hijab clothing traditionally necessary in public.
2. A sehan – courtyard is in within almost every mosque in
Islamic architecture. The courtyards are open to the sky and
surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and rooms,
and often a shaded semi-open arcade. Sehans usually feature
a centrally positioned ritual cleansing pool under an open
domed pavilion called a howz. A mosque courtyard is used
for performing ablutions, and a patio for rest or gathering.
Hypostyle hall
A hypostyle, i.e., an open hall supported by columns combined with a reception hall set at right
angle to the main hall, is considered to be derived from architectural traditions of Achaemenid
period Persian assembly halls (apadana). This type of building originated from the Roman-
style basilica with an adjacent courtyard surrounded by colonnades, like Trajan's Forum in
Rome. The Roman type of building has developed out of the Greek agora. In Islamic
architecture, the hypostyle hall is the main feature of the hypostyle mosque. One of the earliest
hypostyle mosques is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Iran, dating back to the eighth century.

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Vaulting
In Islamic buildings, vaulting follows two distinct architectural styles: While Umayyad
architecture continues Syrian traditions of the sixth and seventh century, Eastern Islamic
architecture was mainly influenced by Sasanian styles and forms.
Umayyad diaphragm arches and barrel vaults[

Qusair 'Amra
In their vaulting structures, Umayyad period buildings show a mixture of ancient Roman and
Persian architectural traditions. Diaphragm arches with lintelled ceilings made of wood or stone
beams, or, alternatively, with barrel vaults, were known in the Levant since the classical
and Nabatean period. They were mainly used to cover houses and cisterns. The architectural
form of covering diaphragm arches with barrel vaults, however, was likely newly introduced
from Iranian architecture, as similar vaulting was not known in Bilad al-Sham before the arrival
of the Umayyads. However, this form was well known in Iran from early Parthian times, as
exemplified in the Parthian buildings of Aššur. The earliest known example for barrel vaults
resting on diaphragm arches from Umayyad architecture is known from Qasr Harane in Syria.
During the early period, the diaphragm arches are built from coarsely cut limestone slabs,
without using supporting falsework, which were connected by gypsum mortar. Later-period
vaults were erected using pre-formed lateral ribs modelled from gypsum, which served as a
temporal formwork to guide and center the vault. These ribs, which were left in the structure
afterwards, do not carry any load. The ribs were cast in advance on strips of cloth, the impression
of which can still be seen in the ribs today. Similar structures are known from Sasanian
architecture, for example from the palace of Firuzabad. Umayyad-period vaults of this type were
found in Amman Citadel and in Qasr Amra.
Spain (al-Andalus)
The double-arched system of arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba is generally
considered to be derived from Roman aqueducts like the nearby aqueduct of Los Milagros.
Columns are connected by horseshoe arches, and support pillars of brickwork, which are in turn
interconnected by semicircular arches supporting the flat timberwork ceiling.

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Arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba/Arcades of the Aljafería of Zaragoza

In later-period additions to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba, the basic architectural design was
changed: horseshoe arches were now used for the upper row of arcades, which were now
supported by five-pass arches. In sections which now supported domes, additional supporting
structures were needed to bear the thrust of the cupolas. The architects solved this problem by
the construction of intersecting three- or five-pass arches. The three domes spanning the vaults
above the mihrab wall are constructed as ribbed vaults. Rather than meeting in the centre of the
dome, the ribs intersect one another off-center, forming an eight-pointed star in the centre, which
is superseded by a pendentive dome.
The ribbed vaults of the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba served as models for later mosque
buildings in the Islamic West of al-Andalus and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the Mezquita
de Bab al Mardum (today Mosque of Cristo de la Luz) in Toledo was constructed with a similar,
eight-ribbed dome. Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of
the Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in
the Maghreb: the central dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a masterpiece of
the Almoravids built in 1082, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with
filigree stucco work.
Iran (Persia)
Because of its long history of building and re-building, spanning the time from the Abbasids to
the Qajar dynasty, and its excellent state of conservation, the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan provides
an overview over the experiments Islamic architects conducted with complicated vaulting
structures.
The system of squinches, which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a square room so
as to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome, was already known in Sasanian
architecture.[32] The spherical triangles of the squinches were split up into further subdivisions or
systems of niches, resulting in a complex interplay of supporting structures forming an
ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure.
The "non-radial rib vault", an architectural form of ribbed vaults with a superimposed spherical
dome, is the characteristic architectural vault form of the Islamic East. From its beginnings in the
Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, this form of vault was used in a sequence of important buildings up to
the period of Safavid architecture. Its main characteristics are:

 four intersecting ribs, at times redoubled and intersected to form an eight-pointed star;
 the omission of a transition zone between the vault and the supporting structure;
 a central dome or roof lantern on top of the ribbed vault.

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While intersecting pairs of ribs from the main decorative feature of Seljuk architecture, the ribs
were hidden behind additional architectural elements in later periods, as exemplified in the dome
of the Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv, until they finally disappeared completely behind the
double shell of a stucco dome, as seen in the dome of Ālī Qāpū in Isfahan.

Dome of the Fire temple of Harpak in Abyaneh/Non-radial rib vault in the Jameh Mosque of
Isfahan/Dome of the tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv
 

Upper dome of Ālī Qāpū, Isfahan/Adina Mosque, West Bengal, India

Domes
Interior of the Palace of Ardashir of pre-Islamic Persia. The use of squinches to position the
dome on top of a square structure is considered the most significant Sasanian contribution to the
Islamic architecture.
Based on the model of pre-existing Byzantine domes, the Ottoman architecture developed a
specific form of monumental, representative building: wide central domes with huge diameters
were erected on top of a centre-plan building. Despite their enormous weight, the domes appear
virtually weightless. Some of the most elaborate domed buildings have been constructed by
the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.
When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they found a variety of Byzantine Christian
churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was the Hagia Sophia. The brickwork-
and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia were built
simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden centring. In the early

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Byzantine church of Hagia Irene, the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into the shell,
similar to Western Roman domes, and thus are not visible from within the building. [35] In the
dome of the Hagia Sophia, the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central medallion at the apex
of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell; shell and ribs form one
single structural entity. In later Byzantine buildings, like the Kalenderhane Mosque, the Eski
Imaret Mosque (formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes) or the Pantokrator Monastery
(today Zeyrek Mosque), the central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became
separate structural elements: the ribs are more pronounced and connect to the central medallion,
which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire construction gives the impression as
if ribs and medallion are separate from, and underpin, the proper shell of the dome.
[36]
 Elaborately decorated ceilings and dome interiors draw influence from Near Eastern and
Mediterranean architectural decoration while also serving as explicit and symbolic
representations of the heavens. These dome shaped architectural features could be seen at the
early Islamic palaces such as Qusayr ῾amra (c.712–15) and Khirbat al-mafjar (c.724–43).
Mimar Sinan solved the structural issues of the Hagia Sophia dome by constructing a system of
centrally symmetric pillars with flanking semi-domes, as exemplified by the design of
the Süleymaniye Mosque (four pillars with two flanking shield walls and two semi-domes,
1550–1557), the Rüstem Pasha Mosque (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1561–
1563), and the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1567/8–
1574/5). In the history of architecture, the structure of the Selimiye Mosque has no precedent.
All elements of the building subordinate to its great dome.

Schematic drawing of a pendentive dome/Central domes of the Hagia Sophia/Dome of

the Kalenderhane Mosque  Selimiye Mosque, Edirne

Muqarnas
The architectural element of muqarnas developed in northeastern Iran and the Maghreb around
the middle of the 10th century. The ornament is created by the geometric subdivision of a
vaulting structure into miniature, superimposed pointed-arch substructures, also known as
"honeycomb", or "stalactite" vaults. Made from different materials like stone, brick, wood or
stucco, its use in architecture spread over the entire Islamic world. In the Islamic West, muqarnas

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are also used to adorn the outside of a dome, cupola, or similar structure, while in the East is
more limited to the interior face of a vault.

Design of a muqarnas quarter vault from the Topkapı Scroll/Muqarnas in the necropolis of Shah-
i-Zinda, Samarqand/Muqarnas in the Alhambra/ The muqarna of a mosque
in Bukhara, Uzbekistan

Ornaments
As a common feature, Islamic architecture makes use of specific ornamental forms, including
mathematically complicated, elaborate geometric and interlace patterns, floral motifs like
the arabesque, and elaborate calligraphic inscriptions, which serve to decorate a building, specify
the intention of the building by the selection of the textual program of the inscriptions. For
example, the calligraphic inscriptions adorning the Dome of the Rock include quotations from
the Quran (e.g., Quran 19:33–35) which reference the miracle of Jesus and his human nature.
The geometric or floral, interlaced forms, taken together, constitute an infinitely repeated pattern
that extends beyond the visible material world.[41] To many in the Islamic world, they symbolize
the concept of infinite proves of existence of one eternal God. Furthermore, the Islamic artist
conveys a definite spirituality without the iconography of Christian art. Non-figural ornaments
are used in mosques and buildings around the Muslim world, and it is a way of decorating using
beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic art instead of using pictures of humans and
animals (which some Muslims believe is forbidden (Haram) in Islam).
Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the spoken word, calligraphy for the
Muslim is a visible expression of spiritual concepts. Calligraphy has arguably become the most
venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims
with the religion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'ān, has played a vital role in the
development of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic
alphabet. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an are still active sources for Islamic
calligraphy. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use
calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.

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Geometrical tile ornament (Zellij), Ben Youssef Madrasa, Maroc///Calligraphic inscription on

the dome of the Mevlana mausoleum/Dome of the Shah Mosque in Isfahan with calligraphic
/Bengali Islamic terracotta on a 17th-century mosque in Tangail, Bangladesh
Architectural forms
Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world.
Notable Islamic architectural types include the early Abbasid buildings, T-Type mosques, and
the central-dome mosques of Anatolia. The oil-wealth of the 20th century drove a great deal of
mosque construction using designs from leading modern architects.
Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad
Dynasty. These mosques are square or rectangular in plan with an enclosed courtyard and a
covered prayer hall. Historically, because of the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eastern
climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday
prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques have flat roofs on top of prayer halls, necessitating the
use of numerous columns and supports. One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is
the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain, as the building is supported by over 850 columns.
[43]
 Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades so that visitors can enjoy some shade.
Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties;
subsequently, however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further
development, and as a result, these mosques gradually fell out of popularity.
The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century and have a large dome
centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the center, there are often
smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque,
where prayer is not performed.[44] This style was heavily influenced by the Byzantine church
architecture with its use of large central domes.

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Prayer Hall of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain

 
Specific architectural elements

 Located close to one of Cairo's main modern traffic

arteries, al-Azhar Street, the Bab al-Barqiyya is a fortified gate of unusual design; it was constructed with
interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide greater security and control
than typical city wall gates. This gate was one of several design innovations imported from Syria and speaks
to the ingenuity of the Ayyubid military engineers of that time.

Bab al-Barqiyya was a gate in the city walls of Cairo, Egypt. This design was intended to impede direct
assaults and force any attackers to slow down as they entered the gate.It was originally an eastern gate in
the Fatimid walls built by the vizier Badr al-Gamali. It was rebuilt in the 12th to 13th centuries under an
ambitious fortification project begun in 1176 by Salah ad-Din (Saladin) and continued by
his Ayyubid successors. This project included the construction of the Citadel of Cairo and of a 20
kilometer-long wall to defend both Cairo (originally the royal city of the Fatimid caliphs) and Fustat (the
earlier capital of Egypt to the southwest). [2]:96 The entirety of the envisioned course of the wall was never
quite completed, but long stretches of the wall, especially north of the Citadel, were built. Bab al-
Barqiyya was one of the gates in this completed northern section, along with the gates identified as Bab
al-Mahruq and Bab al-Jadid.
The gate was one of the main eastern gates of the city. Outside it was a desert area which was initially by
the Mamluks used for equestrian games, a tradition started by Baybars and ended in 1320 by al-Nasir
Muhammad.Later on, during the Burji Mamluk period, this area was the site of new Mamluk mausoleum
complexes, now known as the Northern Cemetery. In the meantime, however, the city's growth and the
relative security of the region made Bab al-Barqiyya's function as defensive gate less and less important.
The gate, and the Ayyubid walls around it, fell into disuse and the inhabitants of the city built new houses
and structures into them or on top of them. Over time, the eastern edge of the city, where the walls once
stood, became a dumping ground for the city's detritus. The walls and gates disappeared under a growing
mound of debris (though they remained largely intact).
The Aga Khan Trust for Culturetransformed this into al-Azhar Park, opened in 2005. In the process, the
eastern Ayyubid city walls were excavated and restored between 2000 and 2008, including Bab al-
Barqiyya. The gate is now visible on the western edge of the park. Another nearby gate further south, Bab
al-Mahruq, was also transformed into the western entrance to the park from the  Darb al-
Ahmar neighbourhood.
The gate, built in stone, had a complex design typical of Middle-Eastern medieval fortified gates known
as a "bent entrance". Rather than a simple opening in the walls where traffic goes straight through, the
gate forces traffic to pass sideways through the gate by effecting two 90-degree turns in and out of the
gate.

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Plan view of Bab al-Barqiyya along Ayyubid Wall. Located close to one of Cairo's main modern
traffic arteries, al-Azhar Street, the Fatimid-era Bab al-Barqiyya fortified gate was constructed
with interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide greater
security and control than typical city wall gates. Laser scan data from an Aga Khan
Foundation/CyArk research partnership.
Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited
from the first mosque buildings (originally a feature of the Masjid al-Nabawi).

 Minarets or towers (these were originally used as torch-lit

watchtowers, as seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus; hence
the derivation of the word from the Arabic nur, meaning "light").
The minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is
considered as the oldest surviving minaret in the world.[45] It has
the shape of a square massive tower of three superimposed
sections.
 A four-iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal
one that faces toward Mecca
 Mihrab or prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the direction
to Mecca.
 Domes and cupolas. In South East Asia
(Indonesia and Malaysia), these are very recent additions.
 Pishtaq is the formal gateway to the iwan, usually the main
prayer hall of a mosque, a vaulted hall or space, walled on three
sides, with one end entirely open; a Persian term for a portal
projecting from the facade of a building, usually decorated with
calligraphy bands, glazed tilework, and geometric designs.[46][47]
 Iwans to intermediate between different pavilions.
 Balconies are a common feature of Islamic domestic architecture
due to the warm climates in most countries.[48] Balconies also
became an architectural element of some mosques, such as the
Turkish royal boxes hünkâr mahfili, or "that in the Bara Gunbad
complex at Delhi (1494)".
 Capitals are the upper part or crowing feature of a column or
pilaster. They serve as a transition piece between the shaft of the
structure and the element it supports. Capitals range greatly in
design and shape in Islamic Architecture. Early Islamic buildings
in Iran featured “Persian” type capitals which included designs of
bulls heads, while Mediterranean structures displayed a more
classical influence
Qibla
The Qiblah is the direction in which Mecca is from any given location, and within Islamic
architecture it is a major component of both the features and the orientation of the building itself.
[50]
 Ancient Islamic cities and the Mihrab in mosques were meant to be built facing in this

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direction, yet when actually observing the layout of such areas they do not all point to the same
place. This is due to discrepancies in the calculations of the Islamic scientists in the past who
determined where Mecca was from their individual locations. Scholars note that these
differences come about for a multitude of reasons, such as some misunderstanding the meaning
of Qibla itself, the fact that the geographic coordinates of the past do not line up with the
coordinates of today, and that the determination of this direction was more an astronomical
calculation, rather than a mathematical one. Early mosques were constructed according to either
the calculations of what direction Qibla was approximately, or with the Mihrab facing south, as
that was the direction that Muhammad was facing when he prayed in Medina, which is a city
directly north of Mecca.
Urban morphology of the Medina
The architecture of the "oriental"-Islamic town is based on cultural and sociological concepts
which differ from those of European cities. In both cultures, a distinction is made between the
areas used by the rulers and their government and administration, public places of everyday
common life, and the areas of private life. While the structures and concepts of European towns
originated from a sociological struggle to gain basic rights of freedom—or town privileges—
from political or religious authorities during the Middle Ages, an Islamic town or city is
fundamentally influenced by the preservation of the unity of secular and religious life throughout
time.
The fundamental principle of the Islamic society is the ummah, or ummat al-Islamiyah , the
community of Muslims of whom each individual is equally submitted to Allah under the
common law of sharia, which also subjected the respective ruler, at least nominally.
In Abbasid times, some cities like the Round city of Baghdad were constructed from scratch, set
up to a plan which focused on the caliph's residence, located in the very centre of the city, with
main roads leading radially from the city gates to the central palace, dividing individual tribal
sections with no interconnection, and separated from each other by radial walls. However, these
efforts were of short duration only, and the original plan soon disappeared and gave way to
succeeding buildings and architectural structures.
In a medina, palaces and residences as well as public places like mosque-madrasa-
hospital complexes and private living spaces rather coexist alongside each other. The buildings
tend to be more inwardly oriented, and are separated from the surrounding "outside" either by
walls or by the hierarchical ordering of the streets, or both. Streets tend to lead from public main
roads to cul-de-sac byroads and onwards into more private plots, and then end there. There are
no, or very few, internal connections between different quarters of the city. In order to move
from one quarter to the next, one has to go back to the main road again.
Within a city quarter, byroads lead towards individual building complexes or clusters of houses.
The individual house is frequently also oriented towards an inner atrium, and enclosed by walls,
which mostly are unadorned, unlike European outward-oriented, representative facades. Thus,
the spatial structure of a medina essentially reflects the ancient nomadic tradition of living in a
family group or tribe, held together by asabiyya, strictly separated from the "outside". In general,
the morphology of an Islamic medina is granting—or denying—access according to the basic
concept of hierarchical degrees of privacy. The inhabitants move from public space to the living
quarters of their tribe, and onwards to their family home. Within a family house, there are again
to be found common and separate spaces, the latter, and most private, usually reserved for

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women and children. In the end, only the family heads have free and unlimited access to all
rooms and areas of their private home, as opposed to the more European concept of
interconnecting different spaces for free and easy access. The hierarchy of privacy thus guides
and structurizes the entire social life in a medina, from the caliph down to his most humble
subject, from the town to the house.

Persian

Iranian architecture or Persian architecture (Memāri e Irāni) is the architecture of Iran and

parts of the rest of West Asia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Its history dates back to at least
5,000 BC with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area
from Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. Persian
buildings vary from peasant huts to tea houses, and garden pavilions to "some of the most
majestic structures the world has ever seen". ] In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques,
the rapid growth of cities such as the capital Tehran has brought about a wave of demolition and
new construction.
Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, from a variety of
traditions and experience. Without sudden innovations, and despite the repeated trauma of
invasions and cultural shocks, it has achieved "an individuality distinct from that of other
Muslim countries".[3] Its paramount virtues are: "a marked feeling for form and scale; structural
inventiveness, especially in vault and dome construction; a genius for decoration with a freedom
and success not rivaled in any other architecture".
Traditionally, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its
cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the
powers of heaven". This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of
Persia, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well.
According to American historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope, the supreme Iranian art, in the
proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture
applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods.

Si-o-se Pol, one of the bridges of Isfahan.

Traditional Persian architecture has maintained a continuity that, although temporarily distracted
by internal political conflicts or foreign invasion, nonetheless has achieved an unmistakable
style.

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In this architecture, "there are no trivial buildings; even garden pavilions have nobility and
dignity, and the humblest caravanserais generally have charm. In expressiveness and
communicativity, most Persian buildings are lucid, even eloquent. The combination of intensity
and simplicity of form provides immediacy, while ornament and, often, subtle proportions
reward sustained observation.
Categorization of styles

The Eram Garden in Shiraz is an 18th-century building and a legacy of the Zand Dynasty./Congregational

prayer before the arched entrance to Imamzadeh Saleh Shrine interior, Tehran, 2017. Extreme right the design
elements of Persian-style column as seen in Persepolis.

Overall, the traditional architecture of the Iranian lands throughout the ages can be categorized
into the six following classes or styles ("sabk"):[8]

 Zoroastrian:
o The Parsian style (up until the third century BCE) including:
 Pre-Parsian style (up until the eighth century BCE) e.g. Chogha Zanbil,
 Median style (from the eighth to the sixth century BCE),
 Achaemenid style (from the sixth to the fourth century BCE) manifesting
in construction of spectacular cities used for governance and inhabitation (such
as Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana), temples made for worship and social gatherings (such
as Zoroastrian temples), and mausoleums erected in honor of fallen kings (such as
the Tomb of Cyrus the Great),
o The Parthian style includes designs from the following eras:
 Seleucid era e.g. Anahita Temple, Khorheh,
 Parthian era e.g. Hatra, the royal compounds at Nysa,
 Sassanid era e.g. Ghal'eh Dokhtar, the Taq-i
Kisra, Bishapur, Darband (Derbent).
 Islamic:
o The Khorasani style (from the late 7th until the end of the 10th century CE),
e.g. Jameh Mosque of Nain and Jameh Mosque of Isfahan,

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o The Razi style (from the 11th century to the Mongol invasion period) which
includes the methods and devices of the following periods:
 Samanid period, e.g. Samanid Mausoleum,
 Ziyarid period, e.g. Gonbad-e Qabus,
 Seljukid period, e.g. Kharraqan towers,
o The Azari style (from the late 13th century to the appearance of the Safavid
Dynasty in the 16th century), e.g. Soltaniyeh, Arg-i Alishah, Jameh Mosque of
Varamin, Goharshad Mosque, Bibi Khanum mosque in Samarqand, tomb of Abdas-
Samad, Gur-e Amir, Jameh mosque of Yazd
o The Isfahani style spanning through the Safavid, Afsharid, Zand,
and Qajarid dynasties starting from the 16th century onward, e.g. Chehelsotoon, Ali
Qapu, Agha Bozorg Mosque, Kashan, Shah Mosque, Sheikh Lotf Allah
Mosque in Naqsh-i Jahan Square.
Materials
Available building materials dictate major forms in traditional Iranian architecture. Heavy clays,
readily available at various places throughout the plateau, have encouraged the development of
the most primitive of all building techniques, molded mud, compressed as solidly as possible,
and allowed to dry. This technique, used in Iran from ancient times, has never been completely
abandoned. The abundance of heavy plastic earth, in conjunction with a tenacious lime mortar,
also facilitated the development and use of brick.[9]
Geometry
Iranian architecture makes use of abundant symbolic geometry, using pure forms such as circles
and squares, and plans are based on often symmetrical layouts featuring rectangular courtyards
and halls.
Design
Certain design elements of Persian architecture have persisted throughout the history of Iran. The
most striking are a marked feeling for scale and a discerning use of simple and massive forms.
The consistency of decorative preferences, the high-arched portal set within
a recess, columns with bracket capitals, and recurrent types of plan and elevation can also be
mentioned. Through the ages these elements have recurred in completely different types of
buildings, constructed for various programs and under the patronage of a long succession of
rulers.
The columned porch, or talar, seen in the rock-cut tombs near Persepolis, reappear
in Sassanid temples, and in late Islamic times it was used as the portico of a palace or mosque,
and adapted even to the architecture of roadside tea-houses. Similarly, the dome on four arches,
so characteristic of Sassanid times, is a still to be found in many cemeteries
and Imamzadehs across Iran today. The notion of earthly towers reaching up toward the sky to
mingle with the divine towers of heaven lasted into the 19th century, while the interior court and
pool, the angled entrance and extensive decoration are ancient, but still common, features of
Iranian architecture.
Achaemenid architecture and Sasanian architecture

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Hatra in Iraq. In the 3rd to 1st century BCE, during the Parthian Empire, Hatra was a
religious and trading center. Today it is a World heritage site, protected by UNESCO./Dej-e
Shapour-Khast
 

Sassanid Rayen Castle/Pasargad/Arg-e Bam

The pre-Islamic styles draw on 3000 to 4000 years of architectural development from various
civilizations of the Iranian plateau. The post-Islamic architecture of Iran in turn, draws ideas
from its pre-Islamic predecessor, and has geometrical and repetitive forms, as well as surfaces
that are richly decorated with glazed tiles, carved stucco, patterned brickwork, floral motifs,
and calligraphy.
Iran is recognized by UNESCO as being one of the cradles of civilization.
Each of the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids were creators of great
architecture that, over the ages, spread far and wide far to other cultures. Although Iran has
suffered its share of destruction, including Alexander The Great's decision to burn Persepolis,
there are sufficient remains to form a picture of its classical architecture.
The Achaemenids built on a grand scale. The artists and materials they used were brought in
from practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. Pasargadae set the
standard: its city was laid out in an extensive park with bridges, gardens, colonnaded palaces and
open column pavilions. Pasargadae along with Susa and Persepolis expressed the authority of
'The King of Kings', the staircases of the latter recording in relief sculpture the vast extent of the
imperial frontier.
With the emergence of the Parthians and Sassanids new forms appeared. Parthian innovations
fully flowered during the Sassanid period with massive barrel-vaulted chambers, solid masonry
domes and tall columns. This influence was to remain for years to come.
For example, the roundness of the city of Baghdad in the Abbasid era, points to its Persian
precedents, such as Firouzabad in Fars.[12] Al-Mansur hired two designers to plan the city's

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design: Naubakht, a former Persian Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the

foundation of the city should be astrologically significant, and Mashallah ibn Athari, a former
Jew from Khorasan.
The ruins of Persepolis, Ctesiphon, Sialk, Pasargadae, Firouzabad, and Arg-é Bam give us a
distant glimpse of what contributions Persians made to the art of building. The imposing
Sassanid castle built at Derbent, Dagestan (now a part of Russia) is one of the most extant and
living examples of splendid Sassanid Iranian architecture. Since 2003, the Sassanid castle has
been listed on Russia's UNESCO World Heritage list.

Panoramic view of the Naqsh-e Rustam. This site contains the tombs of four Achaemenid kings,
including those of Darius I and Xerxes.
Persian Shia Architecture

The Kharāghān twin towers, 1067 and 1093

The fall of the Sassanian dynasty to the invading Muslim Arabs led to the adaptation of Persian
architectural forms for Islamic religious buildings in Iran. Arts such as calligraphy, stucco work,
mirror work and mosaics became closely tied with the architecture of mosques in Persia (Iran).
An example is the round-domed rooftops which originate in the Parthian (Ashkanid) dynasty of
Iran. Archaeological excavations have provided extensive evidence supporting the impact of
Sassanid architecture on the architecture of the Islamic world at large.
The Razi style is a term for the used between the 11th century and the Mongol conquest of Iran,
reflecting influences from Samanid, Ghaznavid, and Seljuk architecture. Examples of the style
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include the Tomb of Isma'il of Samanid, Gonbad-e Qabus, the older parts of the Jameh Mosque
of Isfahan and the Kharaqan towers.
Many experts believe the period of Persian architecture from the 15th through 17th centuries CE
to be the pinnacle of the post-Islamic era. Various structures such as mosques,
mausoleums, bazaars, bridges and palaces have survived from this period.
Safavid Isfahan tried to achieve grandeur in scale (Isfahan's Naghsh-i Jahan Square is the
sixth largest square worldwide), by constructing tall buildings with vast inner spaces. However,
the quality of ornaments was less compared to those of the 14th and 15th centuries.
Another aspect of this architecture was the harmony with the people, their environment, and the
beliefs that it represented. At the same time no strict rules were applied to govern this form of
Islamic architecture.
The great mosques of Khorasan, Isfahan and Tabriz each used local geometry, local materials
and local building methods to express, each in their own way, the order, harmony, and unity of
Islamic architecture. When the major monuments of Islamic Persian architecture are examined,
they reveal complex geometrical relationships, a studied hierarchy of form and ornament and
great depths of symbolic meaning.
In the words of Arthur U. Pope, who carried out extensive studies in ancient Persian and Islamic
buildings:
The meaningful impact of Persian architecture is versatile. Not overwhelming but dignified,
magnificent and impressive.
However, Pope's approach toward Qajar art and architecture is quite negative.

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Naqshe Jahan square in Isfahan is the epitome of 16th century Iranian architecture. See

360°view[

The ancient Palace of Ardashir, constructed in 224 during the Sassanid Dynasty. The building
has three large domes, among the oldest examples of such large-scale domes in the world.
The Sassanid Empire initiated the construction of the first large-scale domes in Persia (Iran),
with such royal buildings as the Palace of Ardashir and Dezh Dokhtar. After the Muslim
conquest of the Sassanid Empire, the Persian architectural style became a major influence on
Islamic societies and the dome also became a feature of Muslim architecture (see gonbad).
The Il-Khanate period provided several innovations to dome-building that eventually enabled the
Persians to construct much taller structures. These changes later paved the way for Safavid
architecture. The pinnacle of Il-Khanate architecture was reached with the construction of
the Soltaniyeh Dome (1302–1312) in Zanjan, Iran, which measures 50 m in height and 25 m in
diameter, making it the 3rd largest and the tallest masonry dome ever erected. The thin, double-
shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers.
The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the Safavid dynasty,
when Shah Abbas, in 1598, initiated the reconstruction of Isfahan, with the Naqsh-e Jahan
Square as the centerpiece of his new capital. Architecturally they borrowed heavily from Il-
Khanate designs, but artistically they elevated the designs to a new level.
The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates them from those domes created in the
Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal empires, was the use of colourful tiles, with which
the exterior of domes are covered much like the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in
Isfahan and the distinct blue shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light of
the sun, these domes appeared like glittering turquoise gems and could be seen from miles away
by travelers following the Silk road through Persia.
This very distinct style of architecture was inherited from the Seljuq dynasty, who for centuries
had used it in their mosque building, but it was perfected during the Safavids when they invented
the haft- rangi, or seven colour style of tile burning, a process that enabled them to apply more
colours to each tile, creating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye. The colours that the Persians
favoured were gold, white and turquoise patterns on a dark-blue background. The extensive
inscription bands of calligraphy and arabesque on most of the major buildings where carefully
planned and executed by Ali Reza Abbasi, who was appointed head of the royal library and
Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598,] while Shaykh Bahai oversaw the construction
projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, the dome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would
become the tallest in the city when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double-shelled dome,
spanning 14 m between the two layers and resting on an octagonal dome chamber.

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Tarikhaneh Temple, a pre-Islamic monument built in Sassanid Persia which was later turned into
a mosque, showing elements of Iranian architecture before the spread of Islam// Shah Mosque
in Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Isfahan, Iran

The Islamic conquest of Persia in the seventh century availed the Muslims with the vast wealth
of architectural innovation developed over the centuries, from the great
roads, aqueducts and arches of the Roman Empire, to the Byzantine basilicas and Persian arches,
and the Sassanian and Byzantine mosaics. The Islamic architects first utilized these native
architects to build mosques, and eventually developed their own adaptations. Islamic architecture
thus is directly related to Persian and Byzantine architecture.
In Persia and Central Asia, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids struggled for power
in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such
as Nishapur and Ghazni (Afghanistan), and the construction of the Great Mosque
of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated.
Funerary architecture was also cultivated.
Under the Seljuqs the "Iranian plan" of mosque construction appears for the first time. Lodging
places called khans, or caravanserai, for travellers and their animals, or caravansarais, generally
displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong
fortifications, and minimal comfort. Seljuq architecture synthesized various styles, both Iranian
and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. Another important architectural
trend to arise in the Seljuk era is the development of mausolea including the tomb tower such as
the Gunbad-i-qabus (circa 1006-7) (showcasing a Zoroastrian motif) and the domed square, an
example of which is the tomb of the Samanids in the city of Bukhara (circa 943).[72]

The Il-Khanate period provided several innovations to dome-building that eventually enabled the

Persians to construct much taller structures. These changes later paved the way for Safavid
architecture. The pinnacle of Il-Khanate architecture was reached with the construction of
the Soltaniyeh Dome (1302–1312) in Zanjan, Iran, which measures 50 m in height and 25 m in
diameter, making it the 3rd largest and the tallest masonry dome ever erected.[73] The thin,
double-shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers. [74] The tomb
of Öljeitü in Soltaniyeh is one of the greatest and most impressive monuments in Iran, despite
many later depredations.

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Iranian architecture and city planning also reached an apogee under the Timurids, in particular
with the monuments of Samarkand, marked by extensive use of exterior ceramic tiles
and muqarnas vaulting within.
The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the Safavid dynasty,
when Shah Abbas, in 1598 initiated the reconstruction of Isfahan, with the Naqsh-e Jahan
Square as the centerpiece of his new capital.[75] The distinct feature of Persian domes, which
separates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal
empires, was the colorful tiles, with which they covered the exterior of their domes, as they
would on the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in Isfahan, and the distinct, blue-
colored shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light of the sun, these domes
appeared like glittering turquoise gem and could be seen from miles away by travelers following
the Silk road through Persia. This very distinct style of architecture was inherited to them from
the Seljuq dynasty, who for centuries had used it in their mosque building, but it was perfected
during the Safavids when they invented the haft- rangi, or seven- colour style of tile burning, a
process that enabled them to apply more colours to each tile, creating richer patterns, sweeter to
the eye.[76] The colours that the Persians favoured were golden, white and turquoise patterns on a
dark- blue background. The extensive inscription bands of calligraphy and arabesque on most of
the major buildings where carefully planned and executed by Ali Reza Abbasi, who was
appointed head of the royal library and Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598,
[78]
 while Shaykh Bahai oversaw the construction projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, the
dome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would become the tallest in the city when it was finished
in 1629. It was built as a double- shelled dome, with 14 m spanning between the two layers, and
resting on an octagonal dome chamber.

The Bibi-Heybat Mosque in Baku, Azerbaijan/Sultan Ahmed Mosque, built in

1616, Istanbul, Turkey
Persian-style mosques are also characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades and
arches each supported by several pillars. In South Asia, such art was also used as was a
technique throughout the region.
The Islamic conquest of Persia in the seventh century also helped Islamic architecture to flourish
in Azerbaijan. The country became home of Nakchivan and Shirvan-Absheron architecture
schools. An example of the first direction in the Azerbaijani Islamic architecture is the
mausoleum of Yusuf, built in 1162.
The Shirvan-Absheron school unlike Nakchivan style used stones instead of the bricks in the
construction. At the same characteristics of this trend were the asymmetry and stone carving,
which includes famous landmarks like Palace of the Shirvanshahs

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The standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by the example of Hagia
Sophia in Constantinople/Istanbul, Ilkhanid works like Oljeitu Tomb and earlier Seljuk and
Anatolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innovations. The most famous of
Ottoman architects was (and remains) Mimar Sinan, who lived for approximately one hundred
years and designed several hundreds of buildings, of which two of the most important
are Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul and Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. Apprentices of Sinan later
built the famous Blue Mosque in Istanbul.
The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in Turkey, which obtained influence from
Byzantine, Persian and Syrian-Arab designs. Turkish architects implemented their own style
of cupola domes.[80] For almost 500 years Byzantine architecture such as the church of Hagia
Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the
Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.
The Ottomans mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seemingly
weightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces,
as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious architecture which until then consisted of simple
buildings with extensive decorations, was transformed by the Ottomans through a dynamic
architectural vocabulary of vaults, domes, semidomes and columns. The mosque was
transformed from being a cramped and dark chamber with arabesque-covered walls into a
sanctuary of esthetic and technical balance, refined elegance and a hint of heavenly
transcendence.
Turkistani (Timurid)

The Registan is the ensemble of three madrasas, in Samarkand, modern day Uzbekistan

Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of Islamic art in Central Asia. Spectacular and stately
edifices erected by Timur and his successors in Samarkand and Herat helped to disseminate the
influence of the Ilkhanid school of art in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated Mughal school
of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi in present-
day Kazakhstan and culminated in Timur's mausoleum Gur-e Amir in Samarkand. The style is
largely derived from Persian architecture. Axial symmetry is a characteristic of all major Timurid
structures, notably the Shah-i-Zinda in Samarkand and the mosque of Gawhar Shad in Mashhad.
Double domes of various shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors.
Moroccan

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El Hedim Square in Meknes, Morocco with the "Bab Mansour Gate" in the Old city of Meknes/Humayun's Tomb, Delhi,

the first fully developed Mughal imperial tomb, 1569-70 CE/

Moroccan architecture dates from 110 BCE with the Berber's massive pisé (mud brick)
buildings. The architecture has been influenced by Islamization during the Idrisid
dynasty, Moorish exiles from Spain, and also by France who occupied Morocco in
1912. Morocco is in Northwest Africa bordering the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The
country's diverse geography and the land's long history marked by successive waves of settlers
and military encroachments are all reflected in Morocco's architecture. Moroccan Islamic
architecture is also present outside the country. For example, Sheikha Salama Mosque in
the UAE city of Al Ain has two minarets which partly look Moroccan.
Yemeni
Yemeni Architecture can be characterized as “conservative”, as the Yemeni people combine
their pre-Islamic and Islamic past. This philosophy is demonstrated in the construction of the
mosque of Solomon in Marib, which was built directly on top of an old temple. [84] Yemeni
architecture Is the architecture that characterizes houses built on several floors, some of the
floors used as a line A storage room with removable stairs. The houses are made of mud bricks
mixed with Gypsum.
Russian
Russian -Islamic architecture is a feature of the architecture of the Tatars, formed under the
influence of a sedentary and nomadic way of life in ancient times, developing in the epochs of
the Golden Horde, the Tatar khanates and under the rule of the Russian Empire. The architecture
was formed in the modern form for many centuries and depended on the culture, aesthetics and
religion of the population, therefore combines a unique combination of Eastern, Russian,
Bulgarian, Golden Horde architecture, European styles dominating in Russia at one time or
another, especially this Is clearly reflected in the Tatar mosques.
 Indo-Islamic architecture and Mughal architecture
The best known style of Indo-Islamic architecture is Mughal architecture, mostly built between
about 1560 and 1720, but there are many other earlier and regional styles. Mughal architecture's
most prominent examples are the series of imperial mausolea, which started with the
pivotal Tomb of Humayun, but is best known for the Taj Mahal, completed in 1648 by

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emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal who died while giving birth to their
14th child. The Taj Mahal is completely symmetrical except for Shah Jahan's sarcophagus,
which is placed off center in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the
building of an entire mirror mosque in black marble to complement the Mecca-facing mosque
place to the west of the main structure.
A famous example of the charbagh style of Mughal garden is the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore,
where the domeless Tomb of Jahangir is also located. Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad which
was commissioned by sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in memory of his wife. The Red
Fort in Delhi and Agra Fort are huge castle-like fortified palaces, and the abandoned city
of Fatehpur Sikri, 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, was built for Akbar in the late 16th century.
[85]
 While the Deccan sultanates in the Southern regions of the Indian subcontinent developed the
Indo-Islamic Deccani architectural styles like Charminar and Gol Gumbaz.
Within the Indian subcontinent, the Bengali region developed a distinct regional style under the
independent Bengal Sultanate. It incorporated influences from Persia, Byzantium and North
India,[87] which were with blended indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner
towers and complex terracotta ornamentation. One feature in the sultanate was the relative
absence of minarets.[88] Many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes
and artistic niche mihrabs, were constructed throughout the region.[88] The grand mosque of
Bengal was the 14th century Adina Mosque, the largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent. Built
of stone demolished from temples, it featured a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central
nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the subcontinent. The mosque was modeled on
the imperial Sasanian style of Persia.[89] The Sultanate style flourished between the 14th and 16th
centuries. A provincial style influenced by North India evolved in Mughal Bengal during the
17th and 18th centuries. The Mughals also copied the Bengali do-chala roof tradition for
mausoleums in North India.

Qutub Minar built at the start of the Delhi Sultanate, a massive statement of conquest./

Charminar at Old City in Hyderabad, India. The Asfi mosque, located near the Bara
Imambara in Lucknow, India.

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The Taj Mahal, the most famous building of Mughal architecture./Gol Gumbaz built by

the Bijapur Sultanate in Deccani style, the world's 2nd largest pre-modern dome.Adina Mosque,
the largest mosque of Bengali Muslim architecture.
Chinese

The Great Mosque of Xi'an, China/ Minaret is not an original architecture of Indonesian mosque,
instead the Menara Kudus Mosque employs a Hindu-Buddhist temple-like structure for
a drum used to call prayer///Hui people who have also migrated to the south such as
this Darunaman Mosque, located in Chiang Rai province, Thailand shows a mixture between
Chinese and Islamic architecture
The first Chinese mosque was established in the seventh century during the Tang
Dynasty in Xi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current buildings date from the Ming
Dynasty, does not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques.
Instead, it follows traditional Chinese architecture. Some Chinese mosques in parts of western
China were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were
more likely to look like pagodas.

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As in other regions, Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style; some
Chinese mosques resemble temples. In western China, mosques resemble those of the Arab
World, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China
where the Chinese Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of eastern and western
styles. The mosques have flared Buddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through
archways with miniature domes and minarets.

Indonesian-Malaysian

Southeast Asia was slow to adopt Middle Eastern architectural styles. Islam entered Indonesia in
the 15th-century via Java island, during which period the dominant religion in Southeast Asia
included a variety of pagan groups. Introduction of Islam was peaceful. Existing architectural
features in Indonesia such as the candi bentar gate, paduraksa (normally marks entrance to the
most sacred precincts), and the sacred pyramidal roof was used for Islamic architecture. For
centuries, Indonesian mosques lacked domes or minarets, both considered a Middle Eastern
origin. Indonesian original mosques feature multi-layered pyramidal roofs and no minaret.
Prayer are called by striking a prayer's drum known as beduk. The minaret of the Menara Kudus
Mosque is a great example of Indonesian architecture. Indonesian mosque architecture also
features strong influence from the Middle Eastern architecture styles.
The architecture of Javanese Indonesian mosques had a strong influence on the design of other
mosques in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines.
Today, with increasing Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, Indonesian-Malaysian mosques are
developing a more standard, international style, with a dome and minaret.

The Grand Mosque of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, features multi-layered roof typical of Indonesian mosque
architecture./Baiturrahman Grand Mosque, Indonesia, with Mughal and Dutch Colonial influences./Masjid Agung
Palembang, Indonesia, Palembang Malay Architecture with Javanese influence.
 
 

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Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, are 88-floor towers constructed largely of reinforced
concrete, with a steel and glass facade designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art, a reflection of
Malaysia's Muslim religion. On right Masjid Kampung Laut, Malaysia, which is a typical
traditional Malay mosque architecture in Malaysia.

Kampung Kling Mosque, Malaysia, with a cross between Sumatran, Hindu, and the Malacca
Malay influences.
 
Sahelian
In West Africa, Muslim merchants played a vital role in the Western Sahel region since
the Kingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's
section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section
which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by al-bakri), one centered on Friday prayer.
The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was 66 feet long, 42 feet wide,
contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers
filled with sculpture and painting. Sahelian architecture initially grew from the two cities
of Djenné and Timbuktu. The Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber,
was similar in style to the Great Mosque of Djenné.
Somali

Almnara Tower Somalia/The 13th century Fakr ad-Din Mosque in Mogadishu

The spread of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic architectural
influences from Arabia and Persia, which stimulated a shift from drystone and other related

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materials in construction to coral stone, sundried bricks, and the widespread use of limestone in
Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs such as mosques were built on the
ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughout the
following centuries.  Concordant with the ancient presence of Islam in the Horn of Africa region,
mosques in Somalia are some of the oldest on the entire continent. One architectural feature that
made Somali mosques distinct from other mosques in Africa were minarets.
For centuries, Arba Rukun (1269), the Friday mosque of Merca (1609) and Fakr ad-Din (1269)
were, in fact, the only mosques in East Africa to have minarets. Fakr ad-Din, which dates back to
the Mogadishan Golden Age, was built with marble and coral stone and included a compact
rectangular plan with a domed mihrab axis. Glazed tiles were also used in the decoration of the
mihrab, one of which bears a dated inscription. The 13th century Al Gami University consisted of
a rectangular base with a large cylindrical tower architecturally unique in the Islamic world.
Shrines to honor Somali patriarchs and matriarchs evolved from ancient Somali burial customs.
In Southern Somalia the preferred medieval shrine architecture was the Pillar tomb style while
the North predominantly built structures consisting of domes and square plans.
Interpretation
Common interpretations of Islamic architecture include the following: The concept
of God or Allah's infinite power is evoked by designs with repeating themes which suggest
infinity. Human and animal forms are rarely depicted in decorative art as God's work
is considered to be matchless. Foliage is a frequent motif but typically stylized or simplified for
the same reason. Arabic Calligraphy is used to enhance the interior of a building by providing
quotations from the Qur'an. Islamic architecture has been called the "architecture of the veil"
because the beauty lies in the inner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are not visible from the
outside (street view). Furthermore, the use of grandiose forms such as large domes, towering
minarets, and large courtyards are intended to convey power.

Faisal Mosque  at  Islamabad, Pakistan designed by  Vedat Dalokay./Museum of Islamic

Art  at  Doha,  Qatar designed by  I. M. Pei.
In modern times, the architecture of Islamic buildings, not just religious ones, has gone through
some changes. The new architectural style doesn't stick with the same fundamental aspects that
were seen in the past, but mosques for the most part still feature the same parts—the Miḥrāb, the
minarets, four-iwan plan, and the pishtaq. A difference to note is the appearance of mosques
without domes, as in the past mosques for the most part all had them, but these new dome-less
mosques seem to follow a function over form design, and are created by those not of the Islamic
faith, in most cases. The influence of Islam still pervades the style of creation itself, and provides

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a 'conceptual framework', for the making of a building that exemplifies the styles and beliefs of
Islam. It has also been influenced by the now meeting of many different cultures, such as
European styles meeting Islamic styles, leading to Islamic architects incorporating features of
other architectural and cultural styles.
Urban design and Islam
Urban design and the tradition of Islamic styled architecture have begun to combine to form a
new 'neo-Islamic' style, where the efficiency of the urban style meshes with the spirituality and
aesthetic characteristics of Islamic styles. Islamic Architecture in itself is a style that showcases
the values, and the culture of Islam, but in modern times sticking to tradition is falling out of
practice, so a combination style formed. Examples showing this are places such as the Marrakesh
Menara Airport, the Islamic Cultural Center and Museum of Tolerance, Masjid Permata Qolbu,
the concept for The Vanishing Mosque, and the Mazar-e-Quaid. All of these buildings show the
influence of Islam over them, but also the movements of things like minimalism which are rising
to popularity in the architectural field. Designers that use the aspects of both modern styles and
the Islamic styles found a way to have the Western-inspired modernism with the classical
cultural aspects of Islamic architecture. This concept though brings up the controversy of the
identity of the Islamic community, of the traditional Islamic community, within a space that
doesn't follow the way they knew it.
Debates on status as a style of architecture
There are some who also debate whether Islamic Architecture can truly be called a style, as the
religious aspect is seen as separate and having no bearing on the architectural style, while on the
other side people also argue that the newfound trend and divergence from the style of old Islamic
Architecture is what is causing the style to lose it status. There are scholars that also believe that
the distinguishing features of the Islamic Architecture style were not necessarily found within the
architecture, but were rather environmental markers, such as the sounds of prayer, the city
around it, the events that occurred there. The example given is that we know that a building is a
mosque based on what happens there, rather than any visual cues. Specific features that are
notably related to Islamic Architecture—the Mihrab, the Minaret, and the Gate are seen in
multiple locations and do not always serve the same use, and symbolism for being Islamic in
nature is seen to be demonstrated more culturally than it is architecturally. Islamic Architecture
is also sometimes referred to as a 'hidden architecture', one that doesn't necessarily show the
physical traits of the style, rather it is something that is experienced.
Connections and deeper meanings: Islamic architecture displays intricate patterns, colors, and
details embodying the Islamic culture. Such widespread religious displays typically have deeper
meanings and connections. Islamic architecture is unique in this case because interior designs
often lack or have unknown religious connections. This is due to the Islamic concept
of Shirk (compare Jewish Shituf) which promotes iconoclasm, unlike in Christian art, as making
images of humans and animals is seen as an element of idolatry. Due to this, symbolism in
Islamic architecture is not as easily accessible compared to that of Western religious architecture.
Difficulty forming connections
Islamic architecture is a neglected subject within historical studies. Many scholars that study
historical architecture often gloss over, if not completely ignore Islamic structures. This is caused
by multiple elements, one being that there is little historic literary works that express an Islamic

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architect's motives with their structures. Due to the massively spanning Islamic religion, there is
a large variation between thousands of existing mosques with little consistency between them.
Lastly, since it is against Islamic faith to idolize earthly beings, any depictions of earthly beings
lack religious connection. These characteristics combine to make it difficult for historians to
form symbolic connections from architecture in Islamic places of worship.
Religious and societal connections
Islamic architecture is unique compared to other vast religions that encompass much of the West.
Unlike Christianity, Islam does not sensationalize living beings because they view it as a conflict
with the Qur'an. Anything created by Allah is under his order and thus should not be
idolized. This leaves typical religious Western symbols out of the picture, and replaces them with
an emphasis on complex geometrical shapes and patterns. There are several aspects of Islamic
architecture that to modern knowledge lack a symbolic religious meaning, but there are
connections that do exist. A repeated and significant motif in mosques is calligraphy.
Calligraphy plays a huge role in delivering religious connections through artistic design.
Calligraphy, in a mosque setting, is specifically used to reference holy excerpts from both the
Qur’an and Muhammad's teachings. These references are one of the few religious connections
architects include within their work
Status and hierarchy
Islamic architecture varies vastly across the scope of the world. Specifically, some mosques have
different goals and intentions than others. These intentions often highlighted religious and social
hierarchies within the mosque. Mosques are designed to have the least significant portions of the
layout closest to the entrance, as people move deeper into the building more significant religious
areas are revealed. Hierarchy is also present because certain Islamic architects are tasked to
design specifically for the presence of royalty, although in Islamic belief Muslims in the mosque
are equal. Designated locations had been carefully chosen in the mosque to highlight an
individual's position in society. This emphasis could be made through being within view to all
attendees, placed in the focal point of artistry, and a maqsurah.
Maintaining a sociological hierarchy within a mosque would typically represent a recognition by
a higher being aware of a delegation of power. This hierarchy does exist but not with any sort of
religious message as Hillenbrand points out, “in neither case is this hierarchy employed for
especially portentous ends.” Hierarchy exist in the church in different forms, but is meant for
purely functional purposes.
Structural intentions
Deeper meanings in Islamic architecture often can take form as functional purposes. For
example, mosques are built around the ideal that it should not just be a place of mesmerizing
aesthetics, but a place where the aesthetics’ fluidity guide the person into proper worship.
A key feature of the mosque is the Mihrab, a universal part of any Islamic place of worship.
The Mihrab is easily identifiable through a receding wall and a gable over head often consisting
of intricate patterns. Upon entering, the most crucial religious function the architecture of the
mosque serves to deliver is the Qibla. The Qibla is necessary for proper Islamic worship, and is
revealed through architectural means.

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Journal of Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Aga Khan Museum

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