THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMANOV DYNASTY

● The historical context, including

- Origins and nature of the Russian Empire
- Relationships with foreign powers
● The nature of the decline and fall of the Romanov dynasty, including:
- The Romanov empire at the time of Nicholas II, including political, economic and social grievances
- The role of Nicholas II as an autocrat
- The development of opposition to the Romanovs
- The role of World War I in the collapse of the Romanov dynasty
- The transfer of power from the Romanov regime to the Provisional Government

Timeline

1896 Coronation of Tsar Nicholas II

1904- Russo-Japanese War

1905 - Russia’s military pride was destroyed because of the humiliating defeat to Japan’s navy

1905 Bloody Sunday Massacre

- A peaceful march resulted in a massacre and loss of faith in the Tsar.
1905 Revolution
- A series of rebellious events
General strikes
- Widespread strikes paralysed the economy forcing the Tsar to react.
October Manifesto
- Submitting to popular demand, the Tsar created the Duma.

1906- Prime Minister Stolypin

1911 - His reforms restored some faith in tsarism by strengthening the economy, limiting the Duma
and eliminating revolutionary opposition.

1906 Fundamental state laws

- Issued by the tsar 4 days before the opening of the first Duma.
First Duma
- The Duma was dismissed after only months for its radical demands.

1907 Second Duma

- Similarly dismissed for its radical demands.
Change in electoral laws
- The electoral system was illegally changed to ensure that those elected to the next Duma were
more conservative.

1907- Third Duma

1912 - Served the full 5-year term but didn’t influence government decisions

1912 Lena Goldfields Massacre

- Revolutionary sentiment was reignited after gold miners were massacred for striking.

1914 Russia enters WW1

- The war devastated the economy through increased unemployment, inflation and material
shortages.

1915 Tsar takes personal command of the army

1915- Influence of Rasputin

 1916 - Contributed to the loss of faith in the government and his own assassination.

1917 February Revolution (23 FEB - 3 MAR)

- The leaderless revolution that resulted in the formation of the Provisional Government and the
Petrograd Soviet and the abdication of the Tsar.
Soviet Order 1
- Decreed that military orders were to be obeyed if approved by the Soviet.
Lenin's April Theses
- Lenin stamped his personal leadership over Russia by delivering a blueprint for revolution. This
included a second revolution and a new Soviet led by the Bolsheviks.
June Offensive
- Kerensky’s failed attack on the Austrians and Germans
July Days
- The failed revolt signalled the end of the Bolshevik leadership and the final victory of Kerensky
and the Provisional Government.
Kornilov Revolt
- This revolt exposed Provisional Government weakness and a lack of military support.
Trotsky becomes chairman of the Petrograd Soviet
- Symbolised the Bolshevik’s majority support in the Soviet for the first time.
The October revolution
- The Bolsheviks captured key organisations in Petrograd belonging to Trotsky’s Red Guard. This
fulfilled the April Theses as the Provisional Government was overthrown in a Bolshevik
takeover.

Glossary

Old regime The revolutionary name given to the period ruled by the tsars, indicating that the
revolutionaries had introduced a new and better society

Romanov The series of rulers beginning with Michael Romanov in 1613

Dynasty

Privileges Economic and social benefits given to the upper social classes due to birth rather than talent or
merit

Peasants The lowest class in the social system who were dependent on working the land, which they
either owned or rented; also called serfs

Autocratic A political system whereby the ruler has complete political power, unlimited by a formal
constitution or parliament

Constitution The set of rules by which a country is governed

Abdication The resignation of a monarch from their political role

Intelligentsia The educated thinkers, writers and artists.

Okhrana The Tsar’s secret police service who dealt with opposition to the royal government

Cossacks Fiercely independent people from the region on the Don River near the Black Sea

Proletariat The name Marx gave to industrial workers

Communism A system in which industry, capital and land are owned by the community.

Bourgeoisie The upper middle class, including factory owners.

 Class struggle The inevitable conflict between the working and ruling classes due to the exploitation of the
former by the latter.

Class The necessary process of the workers developing such a deep discontent with their exploitation
consciousness that they are willing to unite to create a revolution.

Dictatorship A system where a single leader has dominant control over the government and country.

Provisional A temporary committee formed during the February Revolution that became the new
Government government after Tsar Nicholas II abdicated.

Tsarism
- Tsar is the Russain word for ruler and Tsarism is used to refer to this system of one-person rule.
- The Fundamental Laws of the Empire described the Tsar as being ‘autocratic and unlimited monarch’ and
stated that ‘God himself commands his supreme power to be obeyed’.

Coronation of Tsar Nicholas II

- The coronation of the new tsar was held 2 years later in 1896, to allow time to mourn for the previous
Tsar and plan the elaborate coronation ceremony.
- The coronation of a Russia monarch was very religious where the Tsar was blessed by the church.
- The sacred and secular, the church and state, and God and government were linked.

Khodynka Tragedy - 18 May 1896

- Nicholas planned a present to the people of Russia; a free banquet at a park in the Khodynka Field.
- Prior to the celebration, crowds began gathering the day before to try to get closer to the gits. By 5 am
on the actual day, estimates suggest that 500 000 gathered at the park.
- Rumours had spread with there not being enough gifts and there was a catastrophic stampede with 1389
dead and another 1300 injured.

Royal Palaces

Summer Palace Tsar Nicholas II was born there and it was his favourite residence.

Winter Palace This was the official residence of the tsars from 1732 to 1917. It was intentionally built on a
massive scale to symbolise the might and power of the Russian monarchy.

The Difficulty of ruling Russia

- Russia crossed over 2 continents, 11 time zones and 5 vegetation zones.
- As a result of the vast size, the ruling elite and upper-class lived on the European side of Russia ie.
Moscow and St Petersburg.

Tsar Nicholas

Leadership Fully believed in the autocracy and argued that democracy and elections would result in
political collapse.

Strengths He was a devoted family man who preferred his private world to public affairs. He loved Russia
and had a strong sense of duty. He genuinely wanted to bring happiness to his country.

Weaknesses Knowing very little about the reality of Russia, he relied on advisers. His belief in autocracy
resulted in the use of violence to suppress opposition to his regime

Long-term political problems

- There were 4 main pillars that held up tsarist power through their authorisation and implementation of
power.
 The Imperial Council: The Tsar’s personal advisers and answerable only to him.
Government Cabinet of Ministers: Each given responsibility for a specific department
Senate: Transformed the Tsar’s ideas into state laws.
These 3 bodies implemented the tsar’s will, promoting hostility instead of responsibility.

The A system of officials and administrators that had formed into a web of inefficient and
bureaucracy undeserving privilege. There were 14 levels each distinguished by unique uniforms.
Instead of fulfilling its administrative function, the system created a noble upper class.
The arbitrary nature of autocracy meant that the civil service interpreted how the Tsar’s laws were
to be applied, without addressing public grievances because they couldn’t develop official policies

The police Divided into 2 groups, the Okhrana, the Tsar’s secret police that protected the interests of the
state. They were involved in the surveillance of suspected enemies. The second group maintained
law and order among the people. The Tsar used the Cossacks and their savage fighting on
horseback to control crowds during times of unrest.

The church Orthodox Christianity legitimised the Tsar’s autocratic powers claiming it originated directly from
God. The church furthered the power of the Tsar by preaching obedience to the Tsar first then
spirituality. The Orthodox Church, under state control, reinforced conservative values to stifle
revolutionary ideas.

Long-term social and economic problems

- The 1897 census displayed Russian population as the largest in Europe with 122.9 million people with
60 different nationalities (Great Russians to Asian tribesmen) and five social classes.
- The most significant problem, however, was the social structure of privilege because Russian society
was based on privilege by birth, not on utility or merit.

Breakdown of Social Structure

Ruling This was the Tsar and the rest of the royal family
class together with the members of the government

Upper The gentry included hereditary landowning nobles,

class merchants, church leader, leaders in the bureaucracy
and high ranking army members. This class was unified
by their protection from the harsh reality of Russian life.

Middle The middle class began growing at the end of the 1800s
class with the growth of heavy industries. It was made up of
professionals ie. manufacturers, factory managers,
technical specialists and white-collar workers. It also
included educated thinkers ie. writers, artists and the
intelligentsia.

Working Made up of the proletariat.

class

Peasants Agriculture was the foundation of the economy in Russia but lacked capital investment and
technological advancement. The majority of land was located too far north in freezing climates
meaning there was not enough land for the peasant population. Food production rarely met the
nation’s demands and was often scarce. Peasants had high illiteracy rates and were often
conservative, resistant to change. The ruling classes were content with this as they feared
 educating them would be politically dangerous. The difficulty of rural life meant that there was
often social discontent and a push for government reforms.

Capturing Images of Tsarist Russia

The Wanderers
- The Wanderers were a group of Russian Realist artists who originated from the Imperial Academy of Arts.
In 1863, many students found the topic of the Academy’s annual Gold Medal painting irrelevant.
- In disgust, the 14 students left forming an independent Artists’ Cooperative Society in 1870. Their goal
was to make art more accessible and to depict the realities of the Russain population.
- Their art was beautiful displaying village life in all its injustices, poverty and hardship.

Prokudin-Gorskii
- He was given permission and funding by Tsar Nicholas to embark on an adventurous photographic
project throughout Russia using his innovative colour techniques.
- He wanted to capture the diverse people, cultures, history and modernisation of Russia.

What attempts were made to reform Russia’s economic backwardness?

- The large size was compounded by its poor transportation and low available capital for attracting foreign
investors.
- Russia was a backward and outdated agricultural society in comparison to the aggressively growing
Germany, Britain and the US

Sergei Witte’s (Minister of Finance, 1893 - 1903) Industrial Reforms

Aims He aimed to modernise Russia’s industry to improve Russia’s military strength by

- Attracting foreign capital to invest in Russian industry
- Expanding the railway system to improve trade, communication and movement of
troops.

Opposition to - Russian industrial practices and equipment backward

reforms - Suspicion from the royal court and government members resistant to change
- Military often disrupted the building of railways

Key - Stabilised the Russian economy

achievements - The dramatic increase in industrial production
- The building of the Trans-Siberian Railway from Moscow to Vladivostok

Negative - Poor working conditions

impact - Severe overcrowding
- The imposition of heavy taxes with high-interest rates

Results of industrialisation
- Production of iron and steel rose
- Coal output tripled
- Cotton cloth production increased by two-thirds
- Towns and population increased in size

What were the revolutionary ideas?

Defining Ideology
- The set of ideas or beliefs that characterise a particular revolutionary movement.
- Revolutionary leaders often adopt a specific ideology to explain their dreams for the country. Such ideas
need to be attractive by addressing and providing achievable solutions to society’s problems.
 - Revolutionary ideologies often harness mass philosophies, distort the truth and can be a means of social
control.

Background of Marx and Engels

- Despite being born in Germany, the birth of Karl Marx’s revolutionary idea is linked to the French
revolution where he was working as a journalist. It was there in 1844, that he met Friedrich Engels, who
is also from a wealthy family in Germany.

Marx and Engel’s Observations

- Marx and Engels visited factories in northern England. Engels described the life of the industrial worker in
1846 of ‘utter monotony; it is his mission to be bored every day’.

Communist Manifesto (1848)

- In 1847 Marx and Engels drafted a pamphlet criticising the capitalist system and explaining the
communist understanding of human history.
- The pamphlet was only 12 000 words and written hurriedly after the turmoil of the 1848 revolutions.
- This universally recognised document revealed their philosophical answer to society’s problems with a
new political system called communism.
- Marx wrote: ‘‘The theory of communism may be summed up in one sentence: Abolish all private
property’. It promoted the decline of capitalism and the inevitable rise of communism.
- Part 1 was an analysis of how society would develop, while Part 2 described who communists were and
what they should do.

Communism inevitable
- The prediction was that the demise of capitalism and the rise of communism was inevitable.
- They believed that capitalists would continue to exploit workers, that neither government nor workers’
organisations would improve their situation, and that workers would be forced to revolt.

Stages of history
- Marx and Engels considered society to be
continually evolving as efficient labour was produced
and society’s demands would change.
- They defined history as a series of class struggle
between those who controlled (employers) and those
who did not (employees).

Class consciousness
- The proletariat were prisoners of the state
and needed to see themselves as a common
class with common needs, aspirations and
experiences.
- This development of class consciousness would create unity and strength essential to move to the
desired socialist stage.

The dictatorship of the proletariat

- This stage would be the overthrow of capitalism and the abolition of private property or, ‘dictatorship of
the proletariat’.

Classless utopia
- The final stage would be the utopia, a society without the problems of capitalism.
- They argued that if revolution swept away the ruling class then the concept of ‘class’’ would be
abolished.

What is the difference between socialism and communism?

 - Socialism refers to an economic system whereas communism refers to an economic and political system.
- Socialism is managed from a centralised government with each person allocated resources based on
their input, or amount of work.
- In communism, each person is allocated resources based on their needs, property is owned collectively
and all people are considered equal.
- Socialism is the necessary pre-step to reaching such a classless society.

How was revolutionary leadership expressed?

Defining leadership
- Revolutions become synonymous with their leaders, with Lenin symbolising Russia. However, years of
planning were not always successful in inspiring the outbreak of the revolution.
- The model suggests that after the exile, the leader’s role begins in harnessing power from the crowds.
The two most prominent leaders from 1917 onwards were:
○ Lenin: The ideological master who led the Bolshevik Party and overthrew the Provisional
Government in 1917.
○ Trotsky: The tactician who joined Lenin in 1917 to form the new government after the October
Revolution

Revolutionary theories: Marxism vs Leninism

- The communism theory was primarily for industrialised countries ie. Germany and England rather than
the semi-feudal agrarian-based Russia.
- Lenin worked to accelerate the ‘natural’ progress of economic and social evolution, which was inevitable
according to Marx and Engels.
- The Communist Manifesto outlined the flaws in the capitalist system but didn’t explain the process of the
socialist transition or what the utopia would look like. These omissions meant that Lenin needed to fill in
these gaps
- Leninism: Lenin’s suggestions of how Marx and Engels’s theoretical ideas should be interpreted and
implemented.

Vladimir Lenin
- Born into a middle-class family, Lenin excelled throughout high school and graduated as a layer. His
revolutionary impulses developed after his brother was hanged in 1887.
- During the 1890s, he had turned into a committed Marxist revolutionary. He was exiled to Siberia in
1895-99 for subversive activity.
- Released from exile in 1900, he ruled led the Bolshevik faction of Social Democratic Party in 1903.
- In 1917, he returned to St Petersburg after the February Revolution and initiated the Bolshevik takeover
of October 1917.

Revolutionary fortunes: Marx and Lenin

- Both Marx and Lenin studied law which developed their reasoning and logic. Both were exiled from their
birth country and became popular through controversial writings of European society.
- Both considered the capitalist system unfair because it favoured the rich while others remained poor.

What were the main revolutionary political movements?

Marxist Revolutionary Parties

Social Background​ - The spreading of Marxist principles prompted George Plekhanov to found the
Democratic Social Democratic Workers’ Party based on socialist principles. In 1903, the issue of party
Workers’ membership arose, resulting in the two factions being formed.
Party (1898)
Bolsheviks - Vladimir Lenin Mensheviks - Julius Martov
 - Majority - Minority
- Believed they could bypass the capitalist - Believed that the capitalist stage was
stage and move straight to a socialist necessary before the socialist society.
society. - Membership was open to all workers
- Dedicated to workers only and decisions were a majority vote.
- The party planned a revolution in order - The party educated workers to develop
to seize power. class consciousness.
- Relatively small group with not much - Closely monitored by the Okhrana as a
influence as Lenin was also in exile. major revolutionary threat to tsarist
authority.

Socialist Revolutionary Party - Victor Chernov and Alexander Kerensky

Background The SR movement grew out of the economic reforms of Alexander II in the 1860s and was
based on agrarian socialism. It was the most popular Marxist revolutionary party because it
represented the peasants.

Key policies Politically, the SR wanted to introduce representative federal and local governments that
placed emphasis on rural communities. Economically, the SR proposed the plan of socialising all
private land and redistributing it to democratically organised communes.

Support Peasants and industrial workers

Influence The SR’s belief that peasants were crucial to revolution made them a primary political party of
rural Russia.

Liberal reforming parties

- The growing liberal movement argued that the dire need for change did not require an overthrow of the tsarist
system, but reform rather than revolution.
- It was advocated by the progressive middle class of industrialists, lawyers and financiers that emerged from
Witte’s industrial reforms (1890s).

Kadets (1905) - Paul Miliukov Octobrists (1905) - Mikhail Rodzianko

Background The largest of the liberal parties promoting a Entirely loyal to Tsar and embraced the Duma
system of constitutional monarchy. as constitutional reform.

Main policies Strong advocates of a democratically elected They primarily focused on constitutional and
constituent assembly that would limit the legislative reform. They were more
power of the Tsar. This body would be able to conservative than the Kadets.
address problems by introducing reforms.

Support Small entrepreneurs and landlords Industrialists and landowners

Influence A powerful voice in the First Duma and central Their primary influence was in the Duma
in forming the Provisional Government. where they voiced concerns about the
government.

What were the obstacles to revolution?

- Gaining support, influence and power was difficult because of the obstacles to change which had the
effect of strengthening the status quo ie. Tsarism.
 Obstacle 1: Police Censorship, imprisonment, exile, execution and the Okhrana all limited the degree to
Repression which criticism of tsarism was spread. Opponents were removed through stringent
policies of social control.

Obstacle 2: Division Leaders often had disagreements which weakened their overall power.

Obstacle 3: Cohesion Revolutionaries were unable to convince the majority that they were a better
alternative to tsarism. The working and peasant class were sympathetic and the
upper class benefited from the system.

Obstacle 4: Isolation Russia’s size and diversity made it extremely difficult to sabotage. The illiteracy and
isolation of the peasant population and the inefficiency of transportation made it
difficult to disseminate propaganda

Obstacle 5: Concession The Tsar attempted to create reforms in order to diffuse tension and conflict. Hence
opposition weakened while cooperation increased.

External crisis: the Russo-Japanese War 1904-05

Background - The Tsar’s imperialist mindset led to conflicts in Asia around the turn of the twentieth
century. Russia’s authority in Asia was built upon its alliance with France.
- Japan’s victory over China in 1895 resulted in Japan, Russia, Germany, Britain and France
occupying parts of China and negotiating deals with the defeated nation.

War - China’s patience soon wore thin and it attempted to remove the invaders in 1900 through
the Boxer Rebellion. Forces from Russia, Europe, Japan and the US combined but upon
victory, Rusian troops did not withdraw to protect the Trans-Siberian railway.
- Catalysing the Russo-Japanese war, this constant military threat angered the Japanese and
built tension between the two nations.
- Aggression erupted at Port Arthur and lasted for 12 months before Japan finally defeated
the Russians. The Japanese forced the Russians north of Mukden but did not pursue them
because of their inadequate supplies.
- After a six-month voyage sailing from Russia to Japan, the Russian Baltic Fleet was
decisively defeated. In the Battle of Tsushima, 35 Russian ships were sunk.
- This humiliating military disaster became a crucial spark for the revolutionary uprisings of
1905.

Outcome - Facing internal pressure of the 1905 revolution and international pressure for a diplomatic
resolution, the Tsar allowed US President Theodor Roosevelt to mediate between Russia
and Japan.
- The result was Russia’s withdrawal and acknowledgement of Japan’s supremacy.

Internal Crisis: Bloody Sunday, January 1905

Cause of Bloody Sunday: Problems caused by Witte’s reforms

Social - Working conditions were poor with low wages, insecure employment, 12 hour days and an
Problems average of 60 working hours per week.
- There was inadequate rest breaks, unsafe equipment, women and children working
underground, and the threat of arbitrary fines.
- Low wages meant that families were forced to live in severely overcrowded houses
- The development of an industrial labour force was hampered by workers returning to their
peasant villages to help with harvest and haymaking.
 Political - Modernisation resulted in millions of workers moving from the countryside. It created
Problems discontent and a new volatile environment in which mass action became possible.
- Witte favoured the spread of technical education. An educated workforce meant that people
were willing and able to challenge the government.
- Industrialisation created a growing middle class (factory owners). Hence, it created pressure
for political change and desire for an accountable and representative government.

Bloody Sunday march and massacre

Background - The famine, recession, economic impact and rapid migration to the cities of the 1890s
resulted in significant shortages of food and housing.
- The sacking of 5 men from the Putilov Steelworks resulted in the entire factory going on
strike. Massive strikes in sympathy followed throughout the city.
- By 8 January, the city had no electricity and no newspapers, and all public areas were
declared closed.

Petition and - The initial Putilov strikes and Sunday march were organised by Father Gapon.
March - The marchers carried crosses and religious icons, sang the Tsar’s hymn called and carried
portraits of the Tsar and Tsarina.
- The ultimate aim was to present a petition signed by 135 000 workers outlining their
grievances and reverently requesting significant reforms.
- The petition and march to the Winter Palace were regarded as respectful and a traditional
method of bringing problems to the Tsar’s attention.

Outcome - Nine days later the government published an official account of the march claiming that
the petition contained ‘rude demands of a political nature’.
- The fundamental crisis was that the Tsar did not consider the requests of the workers’
petition but instead responded with violence.
- Bloody Sunday changed the popular perception of Nicholas from a benevolent,
trustworthy ‘Little Father’ to the hated ‘Nicholas the Bloody’.

What were the key crises of 1905?

Bloody Sunday (January) A peaceful march to present a petition to Nicholas was crushed by mounted Cossacks.
It began the breakdown of trust between the Tsar and his people.

Battle of Tsushima (May) After 6 months of travel, the Russian navy was demolished in 24 hours. Japan sealed
the military defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05.

Mutiny of Potemkin The rebellion of the battleship in the Black Sea allowed Nicholas to restore order given
(July) the random nature and location of the armed opposition.

Trans-Siberian Railway On return from fighting the Japanese in the east, army troops mutiny and control a
Rebellion (September) section of the Trans-Siberian Railway. This showed opposition to tsarism often too
disorganised and violent.

Establishment of Union Establishment of Union by Miliukov in May, All-Russian Union of Peasants in June and
by Miliukov (May to St Petersburg Soviet by Trotsky in October. Factory workers and peasants were now
October) formally represented so their grievances could be heard.

General strikes (October) The widespread nature of these strikes halted the economy. Still, without coordinated
leadership, the Tsar was forced to act.

What was the Tsar’s Response?

 - The economy was paralysed by general strikes in Moscow and St Petersburg that closed banks, printing
shops, bakeries, railway stations, and post and telegraph offices
- This control over finance forced the Tsar to submit to popular demand for political reform. Sergei Witte
was called upon to negotiate a peace settlement with Japan and then appointed as the chairman of the
Council of Ministers.
- Witte argued for an elected parliament, constitutional monarchy and a Bill of Rights. Hence the Tsar
called on Witte and Alexei Obolensky to implement his reforms and draft the October Manifesto.
- The Tsar reluctantly signed the manifesto, which granted a Duma. He was motivated by the urgent need
to save his regime from collapse.

What were the reactions to the October Manifesto?

Reaction 1: Nicholas was reluctant about the manifesto due to his total belief in the value of autocracy.
Tsar

Reaction 2: Trotsky Lenin

Marxist - Trotsky was critical stating that freedoms - Lenin returned from exile and urged
Opponents were granted, however, censorship and workers to continue the struggle rather
the military remained. than break the strikes and peacefully
return to work.

Reaction 3: - The Octobrist liberal reforming party welcomed the reforms, declaring an end to the
Liberal political and social conflicts that had developed within the country
Opponents - The Kadets complained that the reforms did not go far enough and continued to campaign
against the government.

Why didn’t the Dumas fulfil the nation’s expectations?

Fundamental - The Tsar published the fundamental state laws 4 days before the opening of the First
state laws Duma
- This was a statement that reasserted the Tsar’s autocracy. This removed the sharing of
power in the October Manifesto and nothing was going to impinge on the Tsar’s authority.

Dismissal of - Both these Dumas were dominated by radicals whose demands were considered too
the 1st and extreme. This included universal and free education, equitable distribution of tax and land
2nd Dumas reform.

Electoral law - In order to increase the representation of conservative deputies, the electoral laws were
changes illegally changed by the Tsar.
- Voting power was unequal and the representation of workers and peasants was
decreased.

Minimising - Both Dumas were unrepresentative of the Russian people due to the conservative
influences of majority.
the 3rd and - Exposed to the political system, the Dumas debated national issues. However real laws
4th Duma were unable to be made because the Tsar still held the real power.

How did Stolypin attempt to restore tsarism?

- In July 1906, Peter Stolypin, a traditional statesman for tsarism and a political realist replaced Witte
- Stolypin’s primary motivation driving his reforms was to strengthen the position of the Tsar. He initiated
reforms with the aim of creating a wealthy peasant class.

Land 1. All government land was made available to purchase By 1913, almost two million peasant
reforms for enterprising peasants families had left the village communes
 2. Land was sold at a price consistent with its value and to farm independently, while another
the buying power of the farmer three million accepted government
3. A credit system was initiated so that peasants had offers of land and financial aid if they
the money to buy land and equipment. relocated to Siberia.
4. Peasants could leave the previously compulsory
village to combine their separate strips of land

Social 5. Health aid was offered to peasants. The number of primary schools
reforms 6. Proportional taxation was introduced to exempt doubled between 1906 and 1912, as
peasants from facing the burden of new taxes. did the local council’s expenditure on
7. Religious tolerance and freedom were granted. health, poor relief and agriculture
8. Compulsory primary education was introduced. advice.

Industrial 9. Night and underground labour was banned for The reforms began to meet the
reforms children, teenagers and women demands of the petition from the
10. The maximum working day was shortened for adult Bloody Sunday.
workers.

What was the impact on opponents of tsarism?

- As tsarism regained in strength, opposition to tsarism weakened
- Lenin was forced to return to Finland, Trotsky was serving a life sentence in Siberia, and Stalin was
robbing bank wagons to gain funds for the Bolsheviks.
- To steady tsarism, Stolypin increased Okhrana vigilance to wipe out opponents. The hangman’s noose
was named ‘Stolypin’s Necktie’ because revolutionaries were executed for terrorist activities.

Turning points
- This period sounded the death knell for revolutionary parties, ideologies and movements. Stolypin’s
repression and the growing economy made revolutionary action less likely every year.

Stolypin’s - The royal family attended a gala performance and during the interval, Stolypin was shot twice
assassination Mordka Bogrov. He was a revolutionary acting as a police informer.
(September - After being shot, Stolypin said he was proud to die for the Tsar and made the sign of the cross
1911) towards Nicholas.

Lena Goldfields - In the early 1990s, wealthy investors established mining company in numerous villages along th
massacre (1912) river. Witte invested in the project to promote modernisation.
- Thousands of workers, peasants and outlaws were transported to Lena attracted by the prospec
of wealth. However, the mines were not as profitable as promised.
- The owners increased profits by cutting costs and workers were forced to work 16 hours a day in
unsafe conditions.
- All these grievances erupted in widespread striking among the gold miners with a strike
committee formed and list of demands presented to the company.
- After the company rejected these demands, the strike intensified and the company owners aske
the government to send soldiers.
- The troops arrived, arresting the leaders of the strike causing more unrest. This led to soldiers
commanded to fire on unarmed miners with at least 250 killed.

Reactions to the massacre

Government - The Minister of the Interior defended the massacre stating it was an ‘irrational crowd’
under the influence of ‘evil agitators’ and the armed forces ‘can do nothing but shoot’.

Workers - The workers believed there were many other options than direct violence.
 - Many industrial factories formed committees to write resolutions to formally condemn the
massacre.
- The Duma investigated the massacre reporting the working conditions as ‘slums’ and
‘incompatible with human dignity’. They blamed the company management

Ending - The strike continued for 5 months as the workers rejected the company’s offers.
- In 1912, 80% of workers left the area and the gold mine was forced to close down.

Analysis of the Lena Goldfields massacre

1. - The massacre was a microcosm of the economic divide - the owners lived comfortably in comparison to
the harsh conditions of the workers.

2. - The impact was immediate and reignited revolutionary sentiment. It quickly gripped consciousness and
was debated in news reports and across public discussions.

3. - It was a critical turning point because it highlighted the government’s willingness to resort to violence
like Bloody Sunday in St Petersburg in 1905.

4. - It signified the end of Stolypin’s stage of peace and stability and began a period of Soviet revolutionary
upsurge.

5. - Opposition to the Tsar was revived throughout the country with mass economic and political striking.

6. - The Bolshevik and Menshevik Part formally separated. The main hope of Marxist revolutionaries was
that Stolypin’s reforms would create division between the poor and rich.

How stable was Russia by 1913?

Politically - Nicholas’s position was more stable in 1913 than in 1905, but it was not secure.
- Political protests had re-emerged after the Lena Goldfields massacre, but, for the first
time, the Tsar ruled with the Duma.

Economically The key achievements of this period between 1906 and 1913 were:
- The national debt was reduced
- Exports doubled.
- Government expenditure and income both doubled.

Socially With the growing production figures, there were new groups of peasant landowners, a larger
industrial workforce and a wealthy commercial class.

What was the response in Russia to the outbreak of war?

1. Public Support - Political and economic discontent was forgotten amid the fervour of embarking on
such a serious campaign.
- People carried flags and bowed in reverence when the Tsar made public appearances.
After 1905 and suppression under Stolypin, the war initially repaired the growing
division between the Tsar and his people.

2. Durnovo’s - Pyotr Durnovo a member of the upper class provided the Tsar with warnings of the
warnings dangers when involved in a war.
- He argued that Russia would be irreparably damaged whether it won or lost.
- His main concern was the implications on the rise of popular discontent.

3. Lenin’s - Lenin declared the war to be another example of the upper classes manipulating the
 condemnation toiling masses for their gain.
- He called for socialist groups to go to the front, not to fight, but win over their fellow
German workers. Lenin’s approach received little support.

Why did the massive Russian army suffer so many defeats?

Key military defeats in 1914

- The Russian generals began immediate offensives in Eastern Prussia in the north and Galicia in the south. The 2
armies in the north, however, had the most damaging defeats.
❖ The first was at the Battle of Tannenberg casualties numbered 130 000
❖ The second was at the Battle of Masurian Lakes where one whole army unit was forced to surrender.

Lack of ammunition
- Russia lacked rifles and ammunition. The Minister of War favoured using bayonets and encouraged generals to
storm enemy trenches and engage in hand-to-hand combat.
- This was farcical against the modern machine guns and barbed wire of the Germans.

Poor internal organisation

- The poor organisation of the trains meant that troops often went hungry. There were adequate meat and grain
supplies in Ukraine and Siberia, but they were not delivered on time.
- This was compounded by skilled men being sent to fight, leaving locomotives without drivers or mechanics.

Demoralisation within the army

- By 1916, Russia had witnessed four and a half times more men captured than killed and by 1917, Russian war
prisoners outnumbered the dead by a ratio of 16:1.
- The high ratio reveals the soldier’s preference to be captured rather than fight to the death for the fatherland.

Why was the war so damaging politically?

Nicholas becomes - He abandoned Petrograd to command the troops and symbolically abandoned the
commander of the Russian people in their time of need.
army (1915) - The military defeats resulted in a lack of confidence in the Tsar, who was now responsible
these losses in the eyes of the people.

Nicholas leaves - His departure for war left the Tsarina responsible for political affairs. Encouraged by
Alexandra in Rasputin, she grew in confidence and enjoyed autocratic rule.
charge - However, she was politically inexperienced, from Germany and implemented
Rasputin’s decisions through the government.
- Due to her Germany descent, theories implicated her as pro-Germany.

What was the internal economic and social impact of war?

Economic impact - Food shortages

❖ Poor organisation meant that supplies were not efficiently transported to the towns
and cities. This increasing occurrence resulted in riots to obtain food.
- Fuel shortages
❖ The transport crisis meant businesses had to operate for limited periods or close
down. This also impacted housing in the freezing winter.
- Inflation and price increases
❖ Wage increases were surpassed by rising prices. In 1916 wages had risen 50%, but
goods between 100% and 500%
- Unemployment
❖ The fuel shortages led to growing unemployment. This with the low supply of food
meant that industrial workers became increasingly desperate.
Social impact - Military defeats, distant leadership and economic disaster resulted in significant social
depression and tension.
- The government became increasingly concerned about socialist agitation among the
industrial workers. Their message was not just anti-German, but anti-war.

Rasputin
- Grigorii Rasputin represented everything that the ruling elite was not, which contributed both to his fame and
unpopularity. He was semi-literate, a peasant from Siberia and a mystic not grounded in scientific logic.
- As a teenager, he was a monk in an Orthodox monastery and at the age of 21, he married a peasant girl.

Rasputin and Alexandra

- Tsarevich Alexei was born in 1904, providing the Tsar with an heir to his throne. However, the doctors predicted
a short lifespan due to Alexi’s haemophilia, a bleeding condition.
- Rasputin entered into the confidence of the royal family in 1905 through his mysterious ability to heal Alexei
- This began a decade of influence over the royal family especially Alexandra. Rasputin’s popularity grew due to
the clash of his image as a holy healer and a womaniser.

Political influence
- In 1915 and 1916 he exerted considerable influence through Alexandra, who was in control of the government in
Nicholas’s absence.
- Men were promoted to high positions if they respected Rasputin and his advice rather than their expertise
- Political favouritism also grew due to being a ‘friend of Rasputin’.
- Many have criticised Rasputin as being the symbol of the decay evident in the tsarist regime.
- Rasputin contributed directly to the perception that the royal family were in political shambles.

Rasputin’s murder (16 December 1916)

Central figure Prince Felix Yusupov, a 29-year-old Oxford graduate who was the son of the richest woman in
Russia. Although he was publicly homosexual, he had recently been married to Grand Duchess
Irina Alexandrovna, daughter of the Tsar’s favourite sister

Co- Grand Duke Dmitry Pavlovich, a favourite nephew of the Tsar, and Grand Duke Nikolai
conspirators Mikailovich. Also involved were VM Purishkevich, a right-wing Duma leader and outspoken
critic of Rasputin, and Dr Lazavert who prepared the poison.

Motives Figes argues that it was a ‘homosexual vendetta’ after Rasputin had tried to seduce Yusupov
after his wedding. It was also argued that Yusupov was outraged by Rasputin’s influence over
the Tsar.

Location The cellar of Yusupov’s palace by the River Neva.

Context Rasputin was lured to the palace with the promise of sleeping with Yusupov’s beautiful wife
Irina.

The - Rasputin was fed two glasses of wine and two cakes, each laced with sufficient cyanide to
Murder kill several men instantly. He survived.
- Two-and-a-half hours later, in desperation, Yusupov shot him. He survived.
- After finding Rasputin running towards the palace gate they shot him in the head and back,
then beat him.
- The conspirators then tied him in a rug and threw him in a hole in the ice. The official cause
of death – drowning.

Reaction For several days after the murder, crowds of women gathered at the spot to collect ‘holy
water’ from the river that had been purified by Rasputin’s flesh.
 Funeral He was buried in the grounds of the royal palace at Tsarskoye Selo. After the 1917 Revolution,
a group of soldiers dug up Rasputin’s embalmed corpse, hid it in a piano case and burnt it in a
nearby forest.

What were the causes of tensions and conflicts in the old regime?

Economic and - Full of economic and social inequalities, wealth was transferred to the ruling classes through
social taxation, peasant serfdom and exploitation of urban labour.
inequality - The hierarchy was based on privilege by birth rather than merit. There were strict boundaries
that divided society into the upper and lower classes.
- Attempts to change this inequality through strikes in 1905 were suppressed by the Tsar and
only on occasion were their voices heard.

Rising and - The hopes of an improved social situation were unmet with no circumstances changing
unmet class - Witte’s reforms promised work and stability for poor peasants, yet conditions in the urban
expectations centres were appalling.
- The Tsar’s limitations on the Dumas disillusioned the educated middle-class who had been
advocating the strength of this system.
- The demoralising nature of the war disappointed the ruling classes and military who were
hoping for increased unity and morale at the onset of the war.

Fluctuations in - Stolypin’s agricultural reforms increased the size of peasants’ landholdings and made
economic industrial workers’ conditions more bearable.
activity - The First World War reversed these relatively favourable circumstances.

Failed - Witte’s industrial reforms significantly improved the output of the nation, but at an incredible
attempts at human cost.
reform - The Tsar’s reinstatement of autocracy after the October Manifesto meant that the political
intentions for creating a Duma failed.

Why was Nicholas’s government unwilling or unable to adjust to changing circumstances?

Unwilling to - The Tsar was never convinced that he should abandon autocracy.
change the - The October Manifesto signified the end of autocratic government and raised political
system of expectations that were dashed through the Fundamental State Laws and electoral changes.
autocracy

Unwilling to - Nicholas’s rule was characterised by isolation from economic reality

support - The Tsar’s inflexibility demonstrates that he perceived the world as one of the extremes, void
radical reform of compromise. Unable to seek the middle ground between reform and reaction, this led the
Tsar to believe any reform was an attack on autocracy.

Unable to - Several events created tension between the Tsar and his people: Bloody Sunday, broken
restore the promises of the October Manifesto etc.
link with his - The Tsar’s unsuitability was demonstrated by his inability to recognise the extent of his
people damaged reputation within the popular psyche.

Unwilling to - The Tsar’s mistake was not recognising the extent to which he and his government were
recognise losing their traditional support base.
isolation - Nicholas demonstrated his misguided beliefs by assuming that his personal control of the
army would unite the nation and that Rasputin was harmless.

Unable to - The traditional system of autocracy authorised by God no longer automatically gained the
create a new support of the privileged classes.
support base - The Tsar’s downfall was his inability to create a new ruling elite from cleverly manipulated
 coalitions of groups within the ruling and educated middle classes.

What impact did WW1 have on the revolutionary situation?

- The Tsar lost the loyalty of most sections of the population. Military failures resulted in many members of the
army and the families of the conscripted losing faith in the Tsar.
- Allowing the Tsarina and Rasputin to control internal political affairs from 1915 disillusioned the ruling elite and
middle-class intelligentsia.
- The current system did not offer any hope for improvement. It created a revolutionary situation, with discontent
in the old order now targeted at autocratic tsarism itself.

What impact did the key feature of Petrograd have on the revolution?
- Petrograd is built along the wide Neva River. Numerous canals branch off the Neva and this provides waterways
for water transport and the raising of bridges as protection.
- The geographical location of Petrograd means that the city experiences sub-zero winter when the canals and
rivers freeze. This limited any outdoor protest for months of the year.

What advice did the Tsar receive about the revolutionary situation?

The Okhrana The secret police constantly sent the Tsar reports informing him of the atmosphere in
Petrograd. This included details of:
- An exceptional heightening of opposition and bitterness
- Frequent complaints about the administration
- Relentless criticism of government policies

Chairman of The Chairman of the Duma visited the Tsar on January 1917 to share his concerns:
Duma - “state of the country to be more critical and menacing than ever”
(Rodzianko) - “Indignation against and hatred of the Empress are growing throughout the country”

British Sir Buchanan the British Ambassador sent a respectful warning to the Tsar in February
ambassador 1917.

How did economic unrest result in social revolution? (1917)

Putilov steelworks - ​20,000 workers at the Putilov factory were locked out after a disagreement over pay.
(18​th​ February) - The striking had no significant response from the Tsar

International - Thousands of women marched through the Petrograd protesting against the lack of
Women's Day food and the futility of war
(23rd February) - No significant response from the Tsar

Nevsky Strikes - 200,000 workers involved and there was minor violence.
(24​th​ February) - The Cossacks patrolled the city and refused to fire as bread was their only demand.

Continued striking - The city came to a standstill with public transport and newspapers ceased.
(25​th​ February) - The Tsar asked the Chief of Petrograd to suppress all disorders on the streets.
- Alexandra sent a message to Nicholas: This is a hooligan movement.

Soldiers join the - Soldiers began to join protests, turning the strikes into dangerous revolts.
protest (26​th - Rodzianko immediately telegrammed the Tsar urging the formation of a new
February) government.
- The Tsar dismissed his message, directing agitation towards the Duma rather than
popular disturbances.

Workers control - Workers controlled the entire city with prisons, police stations and government records
 the city (27​TH burnt in bonfires.
February) - The Tsar telegrammed Alexandra suggesting that soldier rebellion was minor, and the
Duma must work harder to resolve these issues
- The Duma decided to form a Provisional Committee

Fighting escalates - Violence emerged with the police handling with rifles and trucks full of rebel soldiers.
to extreme - Alexandra sent a telegram to Tar stating concession is inevitable
violence (28​th - Nicholas did not act. Failing to act decisively or promise reform led to deadly protests.
February) - The Provisional Government publicly declared itself
- Soldiers and workers formed the Petrograd Soviet

Soldiers and - Wearing red ribbons and carrying red flags, these two groups demonstrated their
Cossacks join (1​st allegiance to the revolution.
March) - The Tsar responded by approving of the Provisional Government and returned to
Petrograd to solve these problems.
- The military revolution was complete and the Petrograd Soviet asserted control by
issuing Soviet Order No.1

Train track capture - Due to the capture of the train tracks by armed soldiers, the Tsar’s train journey was
(2​nd​ March) halted.
- Here, the Tsar abdicated and requested that his brother Mikhail become the new Tsar.
- The Provisional Government now took official control of Russia

Peace (3​rd​ March) - Mikhail abdicated. The Romanov Dynasty ended in a dismal blaze of helplessness and
resignation

Abdication of the Tsar

- The Tsar had lost all political and popular authority before his abdication. Due to the immediate crisis, generals
recommended that his voluntary abdication would be the only way to ensure a peaceful transition.
- Mikhail refused to become the new Tsar and this second abdication ended the 304-year Romanov Dynasty. The
autocratic system in Russia was now over.
- Official power was transferred to the Provisional Government. The protests of fuel and food crisis resulted in the
political defeat of one of the most powerful leaders in Europe.

Why did the February Revolution occur?

Failure to modernise - The pace of industrialisation could have been pushed further
without producing the adverse social consequences.

Failure to overcome the agrarian - The revolution came at the moment when prospects for the
system development of Russian agriculture never looked more hopeful.

The failure of autocracy to introduce - The granting of the Duma came far too late and in the wrong way.
a representative parliament

The personality and weak leadership - The Tsar was inadequate to the demands of his position because of
of the Tsar his uneducated, narrow and isolated mindset.

Why did the Provisional Government have authority without power?

- Rodzianko formed the Provisional Government with other noble and wealthy members.

Provisional Government policies

- The key policies were published on the same day and immediately implemented over the next few days.
- Policies included:
● Freedom to strike and assemble in unions
 ● Abolition of all class, religious and national restrictions
● Immediate preparations for an election of a Constituent Assembly of representatives from the whole nation

Why did the Petrograd Soviet have power without authority?

- The soviet’s considerable influence derived from its control of the army, railways, communications,
employers and employees.
- Since the soviet represented ordinary Russians, it must assume total control.

Soviet Order 1
- A day after the formation of the Petrograd Soviet, the demands limited the power of the Provisional
Government.
- The Soviet Order No. 1, was to be read to all and included:
● Every military unit, from army battalions to navy vessels, must elect representatives immediately
to attend the Soviet.
● All political activity of the military units ‘is subordinated to the Soviet’.
● Any military orders given by the Provisional Government ‘shall be executed only in such cases as
they do not conflict with the orders and resolutions of the Soviet’.

Why did the Provisional Government fail to win support?

Weak political - The new government had formed from a rebellious committee and were only able to
foundation gain power after the abdications (Michael and Nicholas)
- They were not elected by mass vote and did not have widespread support
- As privileged members of the Fourth Duma, they did not have a popular mandate for
their new-found authority in a time of crisis.

Continued - Russian forces were disorganised and the war bankrupted the nation.
fighting WW1 - The Russian population desired peace and relief yet, the new government remained
because it would have forfeited loans from Russia’s Western allies.

June Offensive - Kerensky planned a proactive attack to boost the morale of the soldiers and urged them
to view the battle as a revolutionary crusade leading to freedom.
- The troops attacked the Austrian line with immediate success. However, German forces
inflicted massive casualties on the Russia forces after.

Lack of focus on - Only focusing on the war led to the internal problems of food and fuel shortages,
economic inflation and instability.
problems - They had to keep Russia in the war, but it destroyed their chances of survival.

Alienation of - Attempting to please the entire Russian population contributed to the alienation of both
upper-class and these sections in society.
working-class - Kerensky attempted an impossible middle road where some policies were aimed at the
supporters upper-class while others sought to aim the working-class.