EEL 4461C Antennas

EEL 5467 Antennas for Wireless Communication Systems

Chapter 1: Wireless Communications

Dr. Stavros Georgakopoulos

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Classroom Rules
• Turn-off all cell-phones, pagers, etc.
• Pay attention to the lecture
• Participate in the lecture
– Ask questions
– Provide comments and feedback

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Teaching Philosophy
• “The only true wisdom is in knowing you know
nothing“, Socrates
• “I am enough of an artist to draw freely upon my
imagination. Imagination is more important than
knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination
encircles the world.”, Albert Einstein

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Course Website
• canvas.fiu.edu
• E-mail: [email protected]

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Outline
• History
• Mobile radio systems
– Terminology
– Cordless, paging, and cellular systems
• RF Propagation
• Modulation
• Multiple Access Techniques

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Guglielmo Marconi
• On March, 1897, Marconi transmitted
Morse code signals over a distance of 4
miles across the Salisbury Plain.
• On 13 May 1897, Marconi sent the first
wireless communication over water,
which was transmitted over the Bristol
Channel a distance of 8.7 miles. The
transmitted message was "Are you
ready".
• Between 1901-1902, Marconi
experimented with transmitted signals
across the Atlantic

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 History
• In 1960s and 1970s Bell Laboratories implemented the cellular
architecture
• The evolution of reliable, miniaturize solid state hardware in
the 1970s sparked the advancement of wireless
communications
• Number of U.S. mobile users:
– 86,000 in 1948
– 1.4 million in 1962
– 100 million in 1995
• Number of cellular telephone users
– 25,000 in 1984
– 16 million in 1994
– 159 million in 2003

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Major Mobile Radio Standards in North America
Standard Type Year of Multiple Frequency Band Modulation Channel
Introduction Access Bandwidth
AMPS Cellular 1983 FDMA 824-894 MHz FM 30 kHz
NAMPS Cellular 1992 FDMA 824-894 MHz FM 10 kHz
USDC Cellular 1991 TDMA 824-894 MHz /4-DQPSK 30 kHz
CDPD Cellular 1993 FH/Packet 824-894 MHz GMSK 30 kHz
IS-95 Cellular/ 1993 CDMA 824-894 MHz QPSK/BPSK 1.25 MHz
PCS 1.8-2.0 GHz
GSC Paging 1970’s Simplex Several FSK 12.5 kHz
POCSAG Paging 1970’s Simplex Several FSK 12.5 kHz
FLEX Paging 1993 Simplex Several 4-FSK 15 kHz
DCS-1900 PCS 1994 TDMA 1.85-1.99 GHz GMSK 200 kHz
(GSM)
PACS Cordless/PC 1994 TDMA/FD 1.85-1.99 GHz /4-DQPSK 300 kHz
S MA
MIRS SMR/PCS 1994 TDMA Several 16-QAM 25 kHz
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Mobile Radio Systems Examples
• Garage door openers
• Remote controllers
• Cordless phones
• Walkie-Talkies
• Pagers
• Cellular phones
• Wireless Networks

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Terms used in Mobile Radio Systems
• Mobile:
– Depicts a radio terminal that can be moved during
operation (recently used to depict a terminal that is
inside a high-speed mobile platform, e.g., a
cellular phone in a moving vehicle)
• Portable:
– Depicts a radio terminal that is hand-held and is
used by someone at walking speed (e.g., walkie-
talkie)
• Subscriber:
– User who pays for a mobile communications
service
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Terms used in Mobile Radio Systems
• Simplex Systems:
– Communication systems which support only one-
way communication
• Half-Duplex Systems:
– Communication systems which support transmission or
reception using the same radio channel thereby prohibiting
simultaneous transmission and reception

• Full Duplex Systems:

– Communication systems that allow simultaneous
transmission and reception using two different radio
channels (frequency division duplex, FDD) or adjacent
time slots on one radio channel ( time division duplex,
TDD)
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Frequency Division Duplexing
• Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD):
– It supports simultaneous transmission and
reception of data between the subscriber and the
base station using two different channels
• FDD is used only in analog radio systems

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Time Division Duplexing
• Time Division Duplexing (TDD): It supports simultaneous
transmission and reception of data between the subscriber and
the base station using by using one radio channel
• The radio channel is shared in time between the subscriber and
the base station
• The channel data transmission rate must be significantly larger
than the user’s data rate in order to store data bursts and to be
perceived by the user as a full duplex system
• TDD is used in digital transmission formats and digital
modulation
• TDD has only been used to cover communications for indoor
or small areas where the physical distances and therefore the
signal propagation time delays are small
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Paging System
Paging Terminal 1

Paging
Control Paging Terminal 2
Center
•
•
•
•

Paging Terminal N

Simulcasting: Simultaneous transmission of pages

from all base stations
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Cordless Phone Systems
• Full duplex communication system
• Limited range and mobility

Wireless Link
Telephone
Network
Fixed Base Unit Cordless phone
(Base station)

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Cellular Telephone Systems
• Serves a large number of
subscribers over a large
geographical area using a limited
frequency spectrum
• Each mobile station communicates
with one base station
• Hand-off of a mobile station from
Mobile Switching Public Switched Telephone
one to another base station can Center (MSC) Network (PSTN)

occur during the duration of a call

• All base stations connect the
mobile users with the MSC
• A typical MSC can handle 100,000
users and 5,000 concurrent calls at
one time
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Cellular Telephone Systems
• Common Air Interface (CAI) consists of four
channels
– Forward Voice Channel (FVC) is used for voice
transmission from the base station to the mobiles
– Reverse Voice Channel (RVC) is used for voice
transmission from the mobiles to the base station to the
– Forward Control Channel (FCC) and Reverse Control
Channel (RCC) are control channels used to initiate mobile
calls
• Cellular systems depend on the frequency reuse
principle, which requires that the FCCs of
neighboring cells be different

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

Mobile Cellular Call

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Cellular Architecture
• The cellular architecture provides high capacity using
a limited spectrum allocation
• Many low power transmitters (cells) are used to cover
a large service area
• Each low power transmitter covers a small portion of
the entire service area
• The radio channels of the system are split between
neighboring base stations so that they do not
significantly interfere with each other
• Channels can be reused provided that interference
between co-channel stations remains low
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Cell patterns
• A cell is a small geographical area with a
cellular base station and an allocated set
of radio channels
• The real radio coverage of a cell is called
footprint and it is established through
measurements and propagation
simulations
• The actual cell footprint does not have a
canonical shape; however, a geometrical
shape needs to be assumed for system
design and analysis purposes
• Circular cells are not used since they
cannot be set next to each other without
leaving gaps or overlapping
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Cell patterns
• Three are the most appropriate
shapes: a square, a equilateral
triangle, and a hexagon
• Hexagon is the best choice of cell
shape since it has the largest area
for a set distance between the center
of the cell and its farthest perimeter
points
• Therefore, the use of hexagon cells
enables the use of fewer cells to
cover a specific area and also
approximates well the circular
radiation pattern of omni-directional
antennas used by the base stations
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Frequency Reuse
• The radio channels of each cell are
different than all adjacent
neighboring cells
• The radio system including the
antenna is designed to provide the
required area coverage by each cell
• Since the use of set of channels is
restricted to the boundaries of each
cell the same set of channels can be
used in other cells, provided that
the distance between the cell is
such that the interference levels are
acceptable
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
Frequency Reuse

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Frequency Reuse
• Assume that a cellular communications system has:
– S duplex channels
– k channels are assigned to each cell
– N cells with equal number of uniquely assigned channels

S = kN
• The set of N cells that use all available channels S is called a
cluster
• If a cellular system has M clusters then the total number of
duplex channels, C, represents the system capacity:

C = M  kN = M  S
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Clusters
• N is also called cluster size
• Typical N is equal to 4, 7, or 12
• If N is reduced while the cell size is maintained the
same:
– more clusters are needed to cover a specific area thereby
increasing the capacity of the system
• If N is reduced the co-channel cells are closer to each
other
• There is a trade-off between system capacity and
interference levels in regards to the size of N

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Cluster Size
• When hexagonal cells are used, there are only certain
cluster sizes and layouts that can exist
• In order to connect all the neighboring cell without
gaps the cluster size must satisfy the following
equation:
N = i + ij + j
2 2

• Where i, j are positive integers

• To find the nearest co-channel cell:
– Move i cells along any chain of hexagons
– Turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Cluster Size Example
• N=19
• i=3
• j=2

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Example 1
• 33 MHz bandwidth is available to a cellular system
that uses 25 kHz simplex channels to support full
duplex voice and control channels
• Calculate the number of channels available per cell if
a system uses
– 4-cell reuse
– 7-cell reuse
– 12 cell reuse
• If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to
control channels, determine an equitable distribution
of control channels and voice channels in each cell
for each of the three systems

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Example 1
Channel Bandwidth = 25 KHz  2 simplex channels
Channel Bandwidth = 50 KHz / duplex channel
33,000
Total Available Channels = = 660 channels
50
660
For N = 4, Channels per cell = = 165
4
660
For N = 7, Channels per cell =  95
7
660
For N = 12, Channels per cell = = 55
12

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Example 1
1000  640 voice channels
Number of control Channels = = 20  
50 20 control channels

160 voice channels 160 voice channels & 1 control channel per cell
For N = 4   
 5 control channels  only one control channel/cell is required

 92 voice channels 3 cells with 92 voice channels & 1 control channel per cell
For N = 7   
3 control channels 4 cells with 91 voice channels & 1 control channel per cell

 54 voice channels 8 cells with 53 voice channels & 1 control channel per cell
For N = 12   
2 control channels 4 cells with 54 voice channels & 1 control channel per cell

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Channel Assignment
• Fixed: A set of channels has been permanently
assigned to each cell
– If all channels in a cell are used the service request is
blocked
– Borrowing strategy allows to cells to borrow channels from
neighboring cells
• Dynamic: MSC dynamically assigns channels to cells
– Reduces the probability for blocking
– Requires increased storage and computational effort since
real time data of channel occupancy, traffic distribution,
and radio signal strength indications need to be
continuously monitored and processed

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Signal of
Handoff Signal of
Received signal Base station 1 Base station 2

Strength

Handoff occurs

Threshold for handoff

Threshold for terminating call

Time

Cell 1 Cell 2

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Co-Channel Interference
• Co-channel interference cannot be mitigated
by increasing the power of the transmitter
since this would increase the interference to
adjacent cells
• Cells that use the same channels need to be
separated by a sufficient physical distance that
provides the necessary propagation loss and in
turn necessary isolation between the cells

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Co-Channel Reuse Ratio
• Co-channel reuse ratio
for hexagonal geometry
R
D
Q = = 3N D
R
• There is a trade-off between
large capacity (small Q, small
N) and improved transmission
quality (large Q and small co-
channel interference

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 RF Propagation
• Most cellular radio systems that
function in metropolitan areas
cannot establish line-of-sight
communications between the
receiver and the transmitter
• Multiple reflections from
buildings and other objects
cause multi-path fading
• Large-scale propagation models
• Small-scale propagation models

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Free Space Propagation Model

Transmitter (T) Receiver (R)

 Pr is the received power d

Friis Free space Equation  P is the transmitted power
 t
Gr is the receiver antenna gain
t r Gt  
2
PG
Pr (d ) = , Gt is the tramitter antenna gain
( 4 )
2 2
d L  is the wavelength

d is the T-R distance

 L is the system loss factor not related to propagation (L  1)
4 Ae
G= , Ae is the effective aperture of the antenna
2
c 1 c0 c0 is the speed of light in free space
= = , 
f  r  r f f is the frequency of operation

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Free Space Propagation Model
• L represents the hardware losses of the
communication system, such as, transmission
line attenuation, filter losses, and antenna
losses

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Distance Factor
0

-10

1
10 log  2 
r  -20
dB

-30

-40

-50

-60
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
Normalized Distance

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Friis Equation
• The Friis equation is valid only in the far-field
region of the antenna
−1
Pt  Pr   G G 2 
Path Loss: PL = 10log = 10log   = −10log  t r2 2 
Pr  Pt   ( 4 ) d 
 

• The far-field region of an antenna is defined as:

2D2
df = , provided that d f  D and d f  


© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Received Power
• If the received power Pr(d0) is known at a
specific distance d0 then the received power Pr(d)
at a distance d>d0 is given by:
2
 d0 
Pr (d ) = Pr ( d 0 )   , d  d 0  d f
d 
 Pr ( d 0 )   d0 
Pr (d ) dBm = 10 log   + 20 log   , d  d 0  d f
 0.001 Watts  d 

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Example
• A transmitter produces 50 Watts of power. Express the
transmitted power in dBm. If the transmitter’s antenna has
unity gain and a carrier frequency of 900 MHz, calculate
the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100
m and 10Km from the antenna. Assume unity gain for the
receiver’s antenna. The largest dimension of the transmit
and receive antennas is 1 m (assume L=1).

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Example
D =1m
c 3  108 m/s
f = 900 MHz, λ = = = 0.33 m
f 900  10 6 Hz
2D 22 12
df = = m=6m
 0.33
 50  10 3 mWatts 
Pt = 50 Watts  Pt = 10 log   = 48 dBm
 1 mWatt 
d = 100 m which satisfies : d  d f and d  λ and d  D
Pt Gt Gr 2 50 1 1  0.332 −6 −3
Pr = = = 3 . 5  10 W = 3.5  10 mWatts
(4 ) d L (4 ) 100 1
2 2 2 2

 3.5  10 −3 mWatts 
Pr = 10 log   = −24.5 dBm
 1 mWatt 
 100 
Pr (10 Km) = Pr (100 m) + 20 log   = −64.5 dBm
 10000 
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Propagation Mechanisms
• Reflection
• Diffraction
• Scattering

S
D
R

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Reflection
• Reflection happens when a electromagnetic wave
impinges on an object that has large dimensions
compared to the wavelength
• Reflections occur from the surface of the earth, and
from buildings and walls
• When an EM wave traveling through one medium
impinges upon another medium a portion of the wave
is transmitted and a portion of the wave is reflected
• The reflection coefficient depends on the material
properties of the two mediums, the wave polarization,
angle of incidence, and the frequency
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Two Types of Reflection

Ei Er Ei Hr
Hi Hi
Hr Er

θi θr 1 , 1 , 1 θi θr 1 , 1 , 1

 2 , 2 ,  2  2 , 2 ,  2
θt θt
Et Et

E-field parallel to the plane of incidence E-field perpendicular to the plane of incidence

The plane of incidence is defined as the plane formed by the normal vector
to the reflecting interface and the vector in the direction of incidence

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Reflection Coefficient
Er  2 sin  t − 1 sin  i
 = = , E field parallel to the plane of incidence
Ei  2 sin  t + 1 sin  i
Er  2 sin  i − 1 sin  t
⊥ = = , E field perpendicu lar to the plane of incidence
Ei  2 sin  i + 1 sin  t
i
i = , i = 1,2
i

If first medium is free space and µ1=µ2

Er −  r sin  i +  r − cos  i
2

 = = , E field parallel to the plane of incidence

Ei  r sin  i +  r − cos  i
2

Er sin  i −  r − cos  i
2

⊥ = = , E field perpendicu lar to the plane of incidence

Ei sin  i +  r − cos 2  i

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Brewster Angle
• When the E-field is parallel to the plane of incidence
no reflection occurs at an incident angle equal to the
Brewster angle
1
sin ( B ) =
1 +  2
• If first medium is free space and the second medium
has a relative permittivity of r
 r −1
sin ( B ) =
 −1
2
r
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
Reflection from Perfect Conductors
• All energy is reflected back since the wave
cannot pass through a perfect conductor

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Modulation Techniques
• Modulation is the process that defines how a
characteristic of a carrier signal varies in accordance
to an information signal
• Three benefits of modulation in wireless
communications:
– Shifts the frequency content of an information signal to the
operating frequency band of the wireless communication
channel
• Example: Voice signal 300-3100 Hz is shifted to cellular radio
system frequency of operation of 800-900MHz
– Converts the information signal into a form that is less
vulnerable to noise
– Allows the application of multiple access techniques

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Carrier Signal

c(t ) = Ac cos(2f c t +  )

Amplitude Frequency Phase

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Linear and Nonlinear Modulation
Information Modulated
• Modulation is linear if it satisfies
signal, m(t) signal, s(t)
the superposition principle: Modulator, F

s (t ) = F (c(t ), m(t ) ) Sinusoidal

Carrier, c(t)
 N
 N
s (t ) = F  c(t ),  mi (t )  =  F c(t ), mi (t )
 i =1  1
s (t ) = F (c(t ), Am(t ) ) = A  F (c(t ), m(t ) )

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Analog and Digital Modulation
• In analog modulation the information signal
and the modulated signal are analog
(continuous in time)
• In digital modulation the modulated signal can
be continuous or discontinuous in time
depending on the modulation scheme

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the
carrier signal varies according to the amplitude of
the information signal

s AM (t ) = Ac 1 + m(t )cos(2f c t )

• Modulation index k is defined as the ratio of the

peak information signal to the peak carrier amplitude

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
If the information signal is also sinusoidal

cos(2f mt )
Am
m(t ) =
Ac
 A 
s AM (t ) = Ac 1 + m(t )cos(2f c t ) = Ac 1 + m cos(2f mt ) cos(2f c t )
 Ac 
A
Modulation index: k = m
Ac

• The modulation index is often expressed in

percentage

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 50% Modulated Signal
Information Signal
2

-1

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

50% Modulated signal

2

-1

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Spectrum of AM Signal
• The spectrum of an AM signal can be written as:
S AM ( f ) = Ac  ( f − f c ) + M ( f − f c ) +  ( f + f c ) + M ( f + f c )
1
2
where  ( f ) is the delta function and M ( f ) is the spectrum of the informatio n signal

BandwidthAM = 2 f m , where f m is the maximum frequency of the informatio n signal

PAM =
1 2
2

Ac 1 + 2 m(t ) + m 2 (t ) 
if m(t ) = k cos(2f mt ) then
 k2 
= Ac 1 + Pm  = Pc 1 + 
1 2
PAM
2  2
Ac2
where Pc = is the power of the carrier signal and Pm = m 2 (t )
2
is the power in the modulating signal
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
Spectrum of AM Signal
M(f )

-fm fm f

S AM ( f )

-fc -fm -fc -fc +fm fc -fm -fc fc +fm f

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Angle Modulation
• In angle modulation, the angle of the carrier
signal varies according to the amplitude of the
information signal
– Frequency modulation (FM)
– Phase modulation

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Frequency Modulation
• In frequency modulation, the instantaneous
frequency of the carrier signal varies linearly
according to the amplitude of the information
signal
S FM (t ) = Ac cos2f c +  (t ) = Ac cos 2f c + 2k f  m( )d 
 t

 − 

• Where Ac is the amplitude of the carrier, fc is the

carrier frequency, and kf is the frequency
deviation constant

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Frequency Modulation
S FM (t ) = Ac cos2f c +  (t ) = Ac cos 2f c + 2k f  m( )d 
 t

 − 
• If the information signal is:

m(t ) = Am cos(2f mt )
 sin (2f mt ) 
 (t ) = 2k f  m( )d =2k f  Am cos(2f m )d =2k f  Am
t t

− −
 2 f m 
k f Am
 (t ) = sin (2f mt )
fm
 k f Am 
s FM (t ) = Ac cos 2f c t + sin (2f mt )
 fm 

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

Frequency Modulation
Information Signal
2

-1

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

FM Modulated signal
2

-1

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Phase Modulation
• In phase modulation, the angle of the carrier
signal varies linearly with the the amplitude of
the information signal

S FM (t ) = Ac cos2f c + k m(t )

• Where Ac is the amplitude of the carrier, fc is the

carrier frequency, and kθ is the phase deviation
constant

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Phase Modulation
Information Signal
2

-1

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Phase Modulated signal

2

-1

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 PM versus FM
• An FM signal can be produced if the
modulating signal is integrated before
modulation and then fed into a PM modulator
• A PM signal can be produced if the
modulating signal is differentiated before
modulation and then fed into a FM modulator

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Carson’s Rule
• The frequency modulation index is:
k f Am f
f = =
fm fm
where Am is the peak value of the modulating signal, f is the peak frequency
deviation of the transmitt er, and f m is the maximum bandwidth of the modulating signal

• An FM signal has 98% of the total transmitted

power in RF bandwidth BT:
BT = 2( f + 1) f m , upper bound
BT = 2f , lower bound for  f  1

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Digital Modulation Techniques
• Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
• Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
• Phase-shift keying (PSK)

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Amplitude-shift Keying (ASK)
• The two binary values are represented by two
different amplitudes of the carrier frequency:
 A cos(2f ct ) for binary 1
s(t ) = 
0 for binary 0

ASK is not an efficient modulation

technique and is prone to errors when
abrupt changes in the gain occur

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
• Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK)
 A cos(2f1t ) for binary 1
s(t ) = 
 A cos(2f 2t ) for binary 0

BFSK is less prone to errors

compared to ASK

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK)

• MFSK uses more than two frequencies to

represent
• Each frequency corresponds more than one bit
si (t ) = A cos(2f i t ), for 1  i  M
f i = f c + (2i − 1 − M ) f d
f c = the carrier frequency
f d = the difference frequency
M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal element

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
• Two level PSK or binary phase-shift keying BPSK

 A cos(2f ct ) for binary 1

s(t ) = 
 A cos(2f ct +  ) = − A cos(2f ct ) for binary 0

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK)

• Four level PSK or quadrature phase-shift keying QPSK

  
 A cos  2 fct +  for binary 11
  4
  3 
 A cos  2 fct +  for binary 01
  4 
s (t ) = 
 A cos  2 3 
 fct −  for binary 00
  4 

 A cos  2 
 fct −  for binary 10
  4

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Modulation Rate
• Assume digital data rate of R =9600 bps and a
modulation rate D (in baud)
– Use modulation scheme representing 4 bits at a
time using 16 different amplitude and phase
combinations
R
– The modulation rate is: D = = 2400 baud
4
• Modulation schemes can enable us to achieve
higher bit rates over voice grade lines

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Modulation Rate
• In general, the data rate and the modulation
rate are related as follows:
R R
D= =
L log 2 M
D = modulation rate in baud
R = data rate in bps
M = number of different signal states = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal state

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Performance of Modulation Techniques
• Transmission bandwidth
ASK → BT = (1 + r )R
1+ r   1+ r 
MPSK → BT =   R =   R
 L   log 2 M 
 (1 + r )M 
MFSK → BT =   R
 log 2 M 
R is the bit rate and r is a parameter that depends on the
technique used to filter the signal to establish a bandwidth
for transmission
• The ratio of R/BT is called bandwidth efficiency
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 Multiple Access Techniques
• Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
• Time division multiple access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple access (CDMA)
• Packet Radio (PR)
• Space division multiple access (SDMA)

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Frequency Division Duplexing
• Frequency Division Duplexing: It supports
simultaneous transmission and reception of
data between the subscriber and the base
station using two different channels
• FDD is used only in analog radio systems

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Time Division Duplexing
• Time Division Duplexing: It supports simultaneous
transmission and reception of data between the subscriber and
the base station using by using one radio channel
• The radio channel is shared in time between the subscriber and
the base station
• The channel data transmission rate must be significantly larger
than the user’s data rate in order to store data bursts and to be
perceived by the user as a full duplex system
• TDD is used in digital transmission formats and digital
modulation
• TDD has only been used to cover for indoor or small areas
where the physical distances and therefore the signal
propagation time delays are small

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Narrowband Systems
• Narrowband multiple access systems divide
the spectrum into a large number of
narrowband channels
– FDMA assigns a specific channel to each user
– TDMA assigns a specific time slot to each user

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Wideband Systems
• Wideband multiple access systems have much
larger single channel transmission bandwidth
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel
– TDMA can assign time slots to many transmitters
on the same channel and allows one transmitter to
access the channel
– CDMA permits all transmitters to simultaneously
access the channel

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 FDMA
• FDMA assigns a specific channel to
each user
• FDMA characteristics:
– Each channel carrier one user at a time
– An FDMA channel that is not used stays
idle and cannot be used by other users
– The base station and the mobile transmit
at the same time once a channel has been
assigned
– FDMA channels are narrow, e.g., 30 kHz
in AMPS
– Low inter-symbol interference
– FDMA systems are less complex than
TDMA systems

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 FDMA
• FDMA characteristics:
– Less overhead bits for synchronization and
framing are used in FDMA since the
transmission is continuous
– FDMA cell site systems are more
expensive than TDMA systems because
they have to use a single channel per
carrier and expensive bandpass filters to
remove spurious radiation at the base
station
– FDMA mobile units must use duplexers in
order to be able to transmit and receive at
the same time thereby increasing the cost
of the communication system
– FDMA needs firm RF filtering in order to
minimize adjacent channel interference
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 FDMA
• An FDMA base station has an antenna that is used by
a large number of channels
• The power amplifiers and power combiners are
nonlinear devices when they operate close to
saturation for maximum power efficiency
• These nonlinearities produce undesirable harmonics
which are also called intermodulation frequencies
• Intermodulation can cause interference between users
and it is undesirable in wireless communication
systems

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 TDMA
• TDMA assigns a time slot to a
user
• TDMA data transmissions occur
using a buffer-and burst method
providing low battery
consumption
• Digital data and digital
modulation must be used in
TDMA systems
• The handoff process in TDMA
systems is simpler because it can
listen for other base stations
during idle time slots
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 TDMA
• Multiplexers are not required
since transmission and reception
are done during different time
slots
• Large synchronization overhead
is required
• TDMA can dynamically assign a
different number of time slots
per frame to various users
thereby supplying bandwidth on
demand
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 CDMA
• CDMA systems multiply the narrowband
signals by a signal with a very large
bandwidth, which is called spreading signal
• The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code
sequence that has a chip rate which is
orders of magnitude larger than the signal
data rate
• All users can use the same carrier and
transmit simultaneously
• A pseudorandom code is assigned to each
user and it is almost orthogonal to all other
codewords
• By using a time correlation at the receiver
the desired signal corresponding to a
specific codeword is detected and all other
codewords appear as noise due to
decorrelation
© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos
 SDMA
• SDMA uses antennas that can cover a sector of a cell
• Adaptive antennas can be used to steer the antenna
radiation pattern in different directions

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Packet Radio
• Packet radio access methods allows users to attempt
to access the channel in an uncoordinated way
• Transmission happens using data bursts
• Transmitters can potentially transmit information at
the same time, in which case they create a collision
• Collisions are detected by the base station and two
signals ACK and NACK are used to notify the users
if their transmission was successful
• In the case of a collision, the transmitter waits a
random time and retransmits the information

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos

 Summary
• History
• Mobile radio systems
– Terminology
– Cordless, paging, and cellular systems
• RF Propagation
– Friis Equation
– Reflection
• Modulation
– Analog versus digital
– AM, FM, MFSK, MPSK
• Multiple Access Techniques
– CDMA, FDMA, TDMA

© 2007 Dr. S. Georgakopoulos