Angles
An angle as defined in Euclidean (standard) Geometry is a general measure of the space
between two intersecting lines. More explicitly, the larger the angle, the wider the
opening two lines create. Angles are usually measured in° for geometry, but in radians
for trigonometry later on. There are five general classifications of angles, namely:
acute (measure between 0 and 90°),
right (90° exactly),
obtuse (between 90 and 180°),
reflex (greater than 180°).
Two other specific cases for angles are those that form a straight line (180°) and go full
circle (360°).
Moreover, we say that angles are congruent if their measures, or values, are equal to
one another. For example, the angles in a rectangle are all congruent to one another,
each measuring 90° (right angle).
Vertical angle theorem
When two lines intersect (and thereby create 4 regions of
intersection), the states that opposite angles are
congruent. In the figure below, angles a and b have equal
measure.
Retrieved from: https://math.tutorvista.com/geometry/vertical-angles-theorem.html
Definition of an Angle Bisector
An angle bisector is a line originating from the vertex
(intersection of the two lines creating the angle) that cuts
the angle into two equal halves. In the figure below, line
BD is an angle bisector and cuts angle CBA into two
equal parts (angles CBD and DBA) of measure 65°.
Retrieved from: https://www.varsitytutors.com/hotmath/hotmath_help/topics/angle-bisector
Supplementary and Complementary Angles
Finally, we say that angles are supplementary if their sum is 180° and complementary if
their sum is 90°. Note that it has to be strictly two angles only, and therefore the angles
in a triangle are not supplementary, despite summing to 180°. If two supplementary
angles are found adjacent to one another, they are called a linear pair, as a straight line
is indeed formed.
Supplementary Angle: Complementary Angle:
Retrieved from: https://math.tutorvista.com/geometry/supplementary-angles-word-problems.html
Retrieved from: https://www.mathematics-monster.com/lessons/complementary_angles.html
Oftentimes, questions involving supplementary and complementary angles are algebraic
in nature and require one to solve for the value of x.
Angles in Parallel Lines
There are three main properties about angles in parallel lines cut by a transversal, which
is any line intersecting both parallel lines. They are as follows:
Image taken from https://www.shmoop.com/basic-geometry/parallel-lines-transversals.html
Corresponding Angles are Congruent
Corresponding angles are splitting images of one another without rotation or reflection.
In the figure above, angle pairs (1,5), (2,6), (4,8), and (3,7) are corresponding. The
members of each pair are congruent to one another.
Alternate Angles are Congruent
These are the pairs of angles that are “opposite” one another. On the interior above,
these are angle pairs (4,6) and (3,5), while on the exterior, these are angle pairs (2,8) and
(1,7). The members of each pair are congruent to one another.
Consecutive Angles are Supplementary
These are the pair of angles on the same side. On the interior, these are angle pairs (4,5)
and (3,6), while on the exterior, these are angle pairs (2,7) and (1,8). The members of each
pair sum to 180°.
Questions involving parallel lines cut by a transversal usually ask students to determine
the measure of a particular angle given another one.
Polygons
A polygon is defined to be a closed, 2D figure with an integral number of sides. A
polygon with just one side is simply a line, while that with two sides is an angle.
Thereafter, the polygons become more tangible. The one with 3 sides is the infamous
triangle, and that with 4 is known as a quadrilateral. The following table shows the names
of higher polygons up to the one with ten sides.
Number of sides Name
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
9 Nonagon
10 Decagon
A regular polygon is one where all sides and angles are equal to one another. Convex
polygons are those whose angles have measures all less than 180°, and conversely,
concave polygons are those with at least one reflex angle. We now present the following
general formulas on polygons:
Sum of interior angles in a polygon
This is given by the formula 180 * (n − 2)° , where n is the number of sides in a polygon.
By applying this formula, we have that the sum of angles in a triangle is indeed
180 * (3 − 2) = 180° , which most know to be true.
Measure of an interior angle in a regular polygon
As a regular polygon has all angles equal to one another, we can simply divide the sum
by the number of sides. We therefore have this to be 180 * (n − 2) / n . It is for this reason
that an equilateral triangle (a triangle with all sides and angles congruent) has each
angle measuring 60°, while a square (quadrilateral with all sides and angles congruent)
has each angle measuring 90°.
Sum of exterior angles
We define an exterior angle to be the linear pair counterpart of an interior angle. FOr
example, if an angle in a triangle has measure 80°, we can extend one of the lines
subtending this angle and get its corresponding linear pair to have measure 180 - 80 =
100°. We will show now that the sum of exterior angles, regardless of the nature of the
polygon, is always 360°.
This is easy to prove. We simply need to extend all lines of the polygon. Then the sum of
all exterior and interior angles is simply 180 (measure of a line) * n (number of sides) =
180n. Subtracting this by the sum of all interior angles given by 180 * (n − 2) above, we
have 180n − 180n + 360 = 360 degrees as the sum of all exterior angles for any given
polygon. Likewise, in a regular polygon, the measure of each exterior angle is 360/n °.
Triangles
The sum of the interior angles of any triangle in regular geometry is 180°, and triangles
always have 3 sides. The following are special variations of triangles:
Types of Triangles Properties
Right Angle Triangle - As the name implies, one of its
angles is a right angle (90°).
- The legs are the shorter side of the
triangle, while the hypotenuse is
the single longest side.
- The infamous Pythagorean
theorem applies to this triangle,
and this form of triangle only.
- Special right triangles are a more
specific subset of this type, such as
the isosceles right triangle (
45-45-90) where the two legs are
equal.
- A triangle that is not right is called
oblique.
Isosceles Triangle - Has AT LEAST two equal sides. The
angles opposite these two sides
are also equal.
Equilateral Triangle - Is an isoceles triangle.
- Has all three sides equal.
- Hence, has all three angles equal
(60° each.)
Scalene Triangles - Has three unequal sides.
- Hence, three unequal angles.
- The angles may be either right,
obtuse, or acute. It is very much
possible for a right triangle to be a
scalene one.
Quadrilaterals
The sum of interior angles in any quadrilateral is 360°, and quadrilaterals always have 4
sides. The following are special variations of quadrilaterals:
Types of Quadrilaterals Properties
Trapezoid - Trapezoid (US) has exactly one
pair of parallel sides
- Trapezium (US) has no parallel
sides
Parallelogram - Opposite sides are parallel and
equal in length to one another
- Opposite angles have the same
measure (coloured the same in
the figure to the left).
- Diagonals bisect one another.
Rhombus - All properties of the
parallelogram are preserved,
additionally:
- All sides are equal to one
another.
- The diagonals create right
angles at the intersection.
Rectangle - All properties of the
parallelogram are preserved,
additionally:
- All angles are right angles,
diagonals are equal in length
Square - All properties of the rectangle
are preserved, additionally:
- All sides are equal to one
another
Kite - The lengths colored red are
equal to one another, as with
those colored blue.
- Diagonals form a right angle.
- An angle of opposite pairing are
equal to each other, indicated
by the yellow angle.
- If the other pair was equal, then
it can be classed as a rhombus.
Image taken from:
https://www.mathsisfun.com/quadrilaterals.html