MODULE-III

Construction Technology:

Masonry

Masonry may be defined as construction of building units bonded together with mortar.

The selection of type of material for construction (i.e. brick or stone) for masonry depends upon
the requirements of strength, waterproofing, thermal insulation, fire resistance, durability and
economy. Local available material is also used for masonry for economy. Masonry is basically
wall material.

Masonry walls can be classified into following the categories

(i) Load bearing walls.

(ii) Non Load bearing walls.
(iii) Retaining walls.
(i) Load bearing wall - Load bearing wall is a wall designed to carry superimposed
from floors and roofs. Such walls will have continuous foundation to the entire
superimposed load including their self-weight.
(ii) Non Load bearing wall - This type of wall is also known as panel wall, curtain wall
or filler wall which carries no super imposed load. It is provided to serve as screen for
privacy and keep out wind and weather. The panel walls are constructed in between
R.C.C. or steel beam column frames. The load from floors and roof is carried by
R.C.C. columns and beams.
(iii) Retaining wall - This is a type of wall to resist the pressure of earth granular material
or liquid filled behind it after it is built.

Depending upon the type of material classified into the following categories:

(i) Stone Masonry

(ii) Brick Masonry
(iv) Laterite Masonry Composite Masonry
(i) Composite Masonry

STONE MASONRY:

 Stone masonry is the art and science of building structure in stones.

 It may be adopted for the construction of foundations, columns, walls, beams, lintels,
arches floors etc. of a building dams, retaining walls and other structures are also built
with stone.
  Stones are available in nature and after properly cutting to the proper shapes, they
provide strong, durable and economical material for construction. But stones are not
available everywhere.
 Its transporting and handling costs is considerably high which restricts its use.

Materials used in stone masonry:-

The following materials are used in the stone masonry.

(1) Stones
(2) Cement or lime mortar.

Stones: The stones must be hard, tough, durable and free from any defect. Its selection for
particular work is governed by its availability and the importance of the structure. The common
types of stones employed for stone masonry are:

(ii) Granite
(iii) Marble
(iv) Lime stone
(v) Sand stone.

Mortar: Mortar is binding material used in the construction of stone masonry. Cement or lime is
mixed with sand and water in suitable proportions to form a uniform paste. The selection of
suitable mortar depends upon the load coming on the structure strength desired and the colour of
stone used to obtain good combination of colour on the face work. It is general practice to use 1 :
3 cement mortar in stone masonry. If about 10 to 15% of lime is replaced by cement in mortar, it
is known as lime – cement mortar. This increases the strength of the mortar and makes it more
plastic.

Some Important Terms used in Masonry:

(i) Natural bed:

The stones are obtained from rocks and have a clear plane of cleavage along which
stones can be split with little effort. This plane is known as natural bed. In stone
masonry the natural bed of stone is kept perpendicular to the direction of expected
pressure.
(ii) Corbel :
It is a stone piece projecting beyond wall to support a structural member such as truss,
beam etc.
(iii) Cornice:
It is moulded course of stone placed at the top of wall. Sometimes ornamental
treatment is also given to it.
(iv) Weathering
A slope is provided to the top surface of stones used for coping, cornice and sill to
drain of water immediately. This is known as weathering. The term weathering is also
used to indicate the wearing of stones due to action of weather.
(v) Throating
A small groove is cut on the underside of sill Coping, Cornice and projected Chajja to
discharge the rain water without trickling down to the walls.
(vi) String Course:
The horizontal projections provided at suitable levels between plinth and the cornice
to break the monotony of a place appearance are known as string courses.
(vii) Lacing Course :
A wall of irregular small stones is strengthened by placing horizontal courses of big.,
regular and uniform size stones at suitable intervals. This course is known as lacing
course.

(viii) Through stones or Bond stones:

They are stones extending through the entire thickness of wall and they are used at
certain intervals to act as bonding stones to increase the stability of the wall.
(ix) Reveals :
 The exposed vertical surfaces perpendicular to the door or window frames are called
as reveals.
(x) Frieze :
It is a course of stone provided immediately below a Cornice. This may be flushed
with the wall or may be moulded. It is intended to add to the appearance of wall.
(xi) Blocking Course:
It is a course of stone masonry provided immediately above the Cornice to check the
tendency of the cornice to overturn and incidentally it adds to its appearance.
(xii) Coping
Coping is a covering placed on the exposed top of an external wall. It is essentially
provided to prevent the seepage of water through the joints of the top most course of
wall. It may be of concrete, stone, brick or terracotta.
(xiii) Parapet:
It is a term applied to a low wall built around a flat roof to act as a protective solid
wall for the users of terrace (flat roof)
(xiv) Buttress:
It is similar to a pier built on the exterior of a wall and properly bonded to it.
Buttresses are placed at intervals along the wall to make stable for resisting outward
thrust.
(xv) Thresholds:
The arrangement of steps provided from ground level to reach plinth level on external
doors and verandah is termed threshold.

Classification of Stone Masonry:

Depending upon the refinement used in shaping the stone, the finishing adopted and the
arrangement of the stone in construction, stone masonry can be broadly classified in the
following types:

(1) Rubble masonry.

a. Uncoursed rubble Masonry
b. Coursed rubble Masonry
c. Random Rubble Masonry
d. Dry rubble Masonry

(2) Ashlar masonry

Uncoursed Rubble Masonry

The salient features of uncoursed rubble masonry are

a) This is purest form of stone masonry

b) The stones to be used for the work are directly obtained from the quarry, after merely
knocking of weak corners and edges with the mason's hammer.
c) There is no proper course. But as far as possible continuous vertical joints are avoided.
d) Through stones are provided at suitable intervals extending from face to back. If the
thickness of wall is too much say more than 60 cms. Bond stones overlapping each other
at suitable intervals are provided.
e) Roughly dressed stones are used at quoins. Alternate header and stretchers are laid at
quoins in alternate courses.
f) All the cavities around the undressed stones are filled up with mortar and spells.
g) The thickness of mortar joint shall generally not exceed 12 mm.
h) This type of masonry is used for ordinary work such as compound walls, low cost houses
etc.

Random Rubble Masonry (Coursed):

The salient features of random rubble masonry are:

a) This is slightly superior type of masonry than the uncoursed rubble masonry.
b) Stones roughly dressed by chisel and hammer are used in this masonry duly
removing weak comers.
c) The course height is more or less uniform. But the size of stones are not uniform.
d) Through stones are provided at frequent intervals to afford strength.
e) Quoin consists alternate courses of headers and stretchers.
f) The joints though not uniform should not exceed 12 mm in thickness.
g) This type of masonry is used for low cost housing.
Coursed Rubble Masonry:

The salient features of course rubble masonry are

a) This is the superior type of masonry among other types of rubble masonry.
b) This type of masonry consists of stones dressed properly Depending upon the quality of
dressing it is further divided as I class, II class and III class coursed rubble masonry.
c) This masonry consists of uniform height of courses. The joints are uniform in thickness
throughout.
d) The bed and sides of stones are dressed with chisel hammer and all sharp arises are
removed.
e) In good quality coursed rubble masonry all stones are so arranged that they are uniform
in size and colour.
f) Bond stones or through stones are provided at frequent intervals usually 1.5 to 1.8 m
centre to centre to give strength.
g) Atleast 30% of face stones tail back into the hurting for a distance equal to two times
their height normally and three times their height for thicker walls.
h) The thickness of joints are uniform and should not exceed 10 mm
i) This type of masonry is used for construction of residential buildings and public
buildings.
Dry Rubble Masonry:

This is similar to coursed or random rubble masonry except that no mortar is used to bond the
stones together. It may be either coursed or uncoursed. This type of masonry is not suitable for
load bearing purposes and hence it is used for compound walls and temporary retaining walls etc.

Ashlar Masonry:

Ashlar masonry is built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and very fine joints of about
3 mm thickness. This is the best quality of masonry work and expensive. Different types of
appearance can be obtained by placing the stone blocks in the desired patterns. The backing of
thick walls may be constructed either in ashlar masonry or rubble masonry. The size of stone
blocks to be used are selected in conformity with the size of the wall to be constructed.

Ashlar Fine Masonry:

The salient features of this masonry are

(a) This type of masonry consists of stones dressed true and square on all sides.
(b) The courses are of equal height and height of each course is about 300 mm.
(c) The joints are very fine and never exceeds 3 mm in thickness.
(d) Proper bond is maintained throughout and the stones are arranged in alternate header and
stretcher pattern.
(e) The height of stones is never less than their breadth and length of stones is never less than
twice their height.
(f) Bond stones are provided at 1.5 m intervals extending from face to back. For walls above 75
cms in thickness overlapping bond stone, are provided in alternate layers.
(g) This type of masonry gives good appearance but at the same time it is very costly.
Ashlar Rough Tooled:

The salient features of this type of masonry are

(a) This type of masonry consists of stones dressed true and square on all sides and the
edges of exposed face are finely dressed with chisels. The portion of face stone
enclosed within these chisel drafted margins remain rough tooled.
(b) The other features like size of stones courses and bond are similar to ashlar fine
masonry.
(c) The thickness of joint is not more than 6 mm.

Ashlar Rock or Quarry Faced Masonry:

This type of masonry consists of stones dressed true and square and the edges of exposed faces
are chisel drafted a width of 25 mm similar to ashlar rough tooled masonry. But the enclosed
space between these chisel drafted margins are left rough. However the projections more than 8
mm are broken by hammer other specifications are similar to the ashlar rough tooled masonry.
Ashlar Chamfered Masonry:

This type of masonry consists of stones chamfered at 45° on the exposed face to a width of 25
mm. A fine chisel drafting of 10 to 12 mm width is also made inside the chamfered edges on the
exposed face and the enclosed space between these chisel drafting is left rough only projections
beyond 8 mm. are removed and other features like bond courses are similar to ashlar fine
masonry.

ASHLAR FACING MASONRY

The salient features of this masonry are

(i) This is also called as ashlar block in course masonry.

(ii) This type of masonry consists of ashlar facing and either rubble masonry or brick
masonry backing.
(iii) The facing stones are dressed fine, true and square. Sometimes the edges of stones are
either chamfered or finely drafted with chisels.
(iv) The backing may be either of rubble masonry, brick masonry or concrete block
masonry but it should be perfectly bonded together by providing bond stones at
frequent intervals.
 (v) The height of each course is generally kept as 20 cms. The width of stone is generally
1.5 times its height. The thickness of joint on facing does not exceed 6 mm in
thickness.
(vi) This is an economical type of masonry compared to other ashlar types of masonry.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF STONE MASONRY:

(1) Stones should have homogeneous structure and they should be hard and durable. It should be
of close grained and should be of uniform texture.

(2) All stones should be placed on their natural bed such that the pressure should act normal to
the bedding plane.

(3) The stones shall be immersed in water before they are used. This avoids absorption of
moisture from the mortar by the stones

(4) Stones should be free from defects, flaws, soft patches, cavities and cracks. They should be
well dressed as per the requirement.

(5) The bed joints should be as thin as possible.

(6) Cement mortar, lime mortar, cement and lime mortar, lime surkhi mortar may be used for
stone masonry construction. Stone masonry in foundations may be constructed with 1:3 cement
sand mortar and in case if the soil has sulphate content. In other cases 1:1:6 cement lime sand
mortar can be used.

(7) The construction of stone masonry should be carried out, proper bond with sufficient number
of through stones.

(8) Stone masonry is least resistant to tensile stresses. Hence it should be ensured that no tensile
stresses are allowed develop to anywhere in the masonry.
(9) Heavy and flat stones should be put under the ends of girders or roof trusses to transmit the
loads uniformly.

(10) Double scaffolding is adopted for working at higher levels.

(11) As far as practicable the construction of stone masonry work should be raised uniformly.
Otherwise stepping should be provided in masonry

(12) The verticality of the wall constructed should be checked by a plumb bob. The battered
sides are to be checked by a suitable wooden template.

(13) Quoins used at corners and at doors and windows should be of full height of the course.
Length and breadth of stones used at quoins should be atleast twice or 1½ times their depth.

(14) Very small size stones should not be used in the masonry. All the cavities in the masonry
must be filled up with spalls and mortar mixture.

(15) All the exposed joints should be raked to a depth of 25 mm and pointing with rich cement
mortar should be done.

(16) After completion of work, it should be cured with water for a period of two to three weeks.

(17) The hearting of the masonry should be properly packed with mortar and chippings to avoid
any hollows or very thick mortar joints. Defective bedding stones should be avoided.

(18) When masonry work is to be started over dry and old masonry surface the old stone
masonry should be cleaned with wire brushes and watered sufficiently.

(19) Suitable lifting devices should be used to lift large size stones.

(20) The entire work should be carried out under good supervision and good workmanship.
BONDS AT JUNCTIONS:

Junctions are formed when two walls meet or intersect each other. The following factors are considered
at the time of building junctions.

(i) The header course of the cross wall goes inside the stretcher course of the main wall.

(ii) Alternate courses of the cross wall are only for abutting the main wall.

A right angled junction may be (a) T- Junction or (b) Cross Junction.

(a) T- Junction: This type of junction forms the shape of letter T in plan. T - Junction can be
constructed in various bonds, and the connecting walls may be of same or different thickness. T
- Junction in English bond and double flemish bond are shown in Fig.
(b) Cross Junction: A cross junction is formed when two continuos walls intersect each other as
shown in figure.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BRICK MASONRY CONSTRUCTION:

The quality of materials, the workmanship and proper supervision play an important role. The
strength of the work depends upon the above three factors. The following are the general principles
which should be adhered to for a good brick masonry

(i) The bricks selected for brick masonry should be hard, well burnt, sound with uniform colour
shape and size. They should be free from cracks, flaws, holes, grit or lumps of lime. When
two bricks are struck against each other. Clear metallic sound should be produced. They
should not break when dropped from a height of 1 metre. The brick should not absorb
water more than one fifth of its own weight when immersed in water for twenty four hours.
(ii) The bricks should be properly soaked in water for atleast two hours, before they are used in
the construction work. The reasons for wetting the bricks are as given below:
 a. Brick will become clean from kiln dust generally clean bricks produce better joint and
bond with mortar.
b. Dry bricks quickly absorb water from the mortar. Sufficient water is required to
complete the chemical action for setting cement mortar. The absorption of water from
mortar by dry bricks will make brick masonry weaker.
c. Wet bricks tend to spread the mortar under them more uniformly.
(iii) The bricks should be laid on their beds with the frogs pointing upward unless stated
otherwise.
(iv) The use of brick bats should be avoided unless it is required for specific bond.
(v) All the courses should be laid truly horizontal and all vertical joints should be truly vertical.
(vi) Good quality of specific mortar should be used. The mortar should cover the bed and sides
of the bricks. Proper care should be taken to obtain uniform mortar joint throughout the
construction and thickness of joints should be always less than 12.5 mm.
(vii) The walls should be raised uniformly in proper bond. No part of the wall should preferably
rise more than one metre than rest of it.
(viii) In one day the height of construction of brick masonry should not exceed 1.5 metres.
(ix) The joints at the face side should be raked to a depth 12 to 20 mm. While the mortar is
green. This provides proper key for the plastering or pointing.
(x) Hold fasts of doors and windows etc. are embedded in cement mortar or cement concrete.
(xi) The finished brick work should be kept wet for a period of atleast two to three weeks in case
of lime mortar is used and for one or two weeks in case of cement mortar is used.
(xii) If it is planned to increase the length of the wall under construction at a future date the wall
is stopped with a toothed end.
(xiii) Single scaffolding is used to carry out the brick work at higher level. Some headers are
removed to create supports for the scaffolding and they are inserted when the scaffolding is
removed.
(xiv) In construction of a wall, first of all two end corners are carefully laid, then in between
portion of wall is built.

Comparison between Brick Masonry and Stone Masonry:

(1) Stone masonry has got high strength durability and excellent weather resisting qualities where is
brick masonry has got much less strength, durability and weather resisting qualities.

(2) On account of high crushing strength, stone is used in the construction of dams, docks and harbours
and other marine structures but brick on the hand is not used in such places.

(3) Stone masonry is more water tight than brick masonry.

(4) Good textured masonry of stone requires no treatment to enhance its appearance whereas
plastering is necessary to conceal the defects in brick masonry.
(5) Generally stone masonry is not damaged by chemicals present in the environment and salts present
in water or sewage but brick masonry reacts and gets disintegrated.

(6) The use of stone masonry is restricted where the stone is available where as brick masonry is
cheaper as bricks can be locally manufactured.

(7) Lifting appliances are required to handle the stone blocks where as bricks can be conveniently
handled by manual labour.

(8) Construction of brick masonry is quick as the uniform size and regular shape of bricks can be used in
maintaining proper bond. But dressing and handling of stones need more time and extra labour in the
construction of stone masonry.

(9) The brick masonry is more fire resisting than stone mason

(10) More skilled labours are required in the construction of stone masonry then in the brick masonry.
(11) Brick masonry being used more frequently than stone masonry in residential buildings due to the
availability of first class brick
 PARTITION WALLS

Building Materials & Construction

Civil Engineering Department
S.V.N.I.T,Surat.
Introduction
A partition wall may be defined as a wall or
division made up of bricks, studding, glass or
other such material and provided for the
purpose of dividing one room or portion of a
room from another.
Partition walls are designed as non-load
bearing walls. It may be of folding,
collapsible or fixed type.
If partition walls are load bearing then they
are called as ‘internal wall’.
Advantages of partition walls
Divide the whole area into a number of
rooms.
Provide privacy to the inmates from sight
and sound.
Are light in weight and cheaper in cost of
construction.
Occupy lesser area
Easily constructed in any position.
Requirements of a Good Partition Wall:
 Thin in cross-section so that maximum floor area can
be utilized.
 Provide adequate privacy in rooms both in respect of
sight and sound.
 Constructed from light, sound, uniform,
homogeneous, durable and sound insulated materials.
 Simple in nature, easy and economical in
construction having proper coherence with the type
of building structure.
 Offer sufficient resistance against fire, heat,
dampness, white ant or fungus, etc.
 Rigid enough to take the vibrations caused due to
loads.
 Strong enough to support sanitary fittings and heavy
fixtures.
 Types of partition walls:
Brick partitions,
Hollow block partitions,
Clay block partitions,
Concrete partitions,
Glass block partitions,
Wooden partitions,
Straw board partitions,
Plaster slab partitions,
Metal partitions,
Asbestos cement partitions, and
Double glazed window.
Brick partition
Constructed with plain bricks, Reinforced
bricks, bricks-nogged or hollow bricks.
Plain brick partition of half brick thickness is
not more than 2m in height.
In reinforced brick partition of half brick
thickness, reinforcement in the form of wire
mesh or hoop iron or steel bars is provided.
Brick nogging partition wall consists of
brickwork built up within a framework of
wooden members.
Brick partition is fire-resistant and sound-
proof.
 Hollow Block and Clay Block Partitions

Hollow concrete block partitions are built of

individual units of concrete.
Clay blocks used are well prepared from clay
or terra-cotta, and they are either solids or
hollow.
Hollow clay blocks of section 30*20 cm with
thickness varying from 5 cm to 15 cm can also
be used.
The blocks are provided with grooves on top,
bottom and sides, surfaces are kept glazed in
different colures.
They do not change their volume and are in
lighter in weight.

Hollow clay blocks

Acoustic Clay Hollow Partition
Wall
Concrete partition
Itcan be either precast or cast in-situ.
Special concrete posts are used for the
construction of precast concrete partition
walls.

Concrete block
Glass partition
Are made from sheet glass or hollow glass
blocks.
Provides good aesthetics and allow light
Are damp, sound and heat proof.
Easy to clean and maintain.
Sheets of glass are fixed in the frame work of
wooden or metal.
Hollow blocks doesn’t need timber
framework.
Wooden partition
Lighter in weight and easy to construct.
Neither sound-proof nor fire-proof.
Not suitable for damp locations.
Head

Stud

Sill
Wooden partition wall
Strawboard partitions
Useful where removal of partitions is
frequent.
Made of compressed straw covered thick
paper or hardboard.
Easy to construct.
Heat and sound proof partitions.
Strawboard Partition( with glass also used)
Plaster slab partitions
Are made of burnt gypsum or plaster of paris
mixed with sawdust.
5cm to 10cm thick slabs are prepared in iron
or timber moulds.
To form rigid joints suitable grooves are
provided in the plaster slabs.
Nails and screws can be easily driven into
these slabs.
Incomplete Partition wall of Plaster and expandable metal
Metal partitions
Are light in weight, fireproof and strong.
Are easy to construct and shift.
Insulated material is filled into hollow
spaces.
Used for office and industrial buildings.
Are also formed of metal lathes supported
and fixed by wires.
Skeleton metal partition
Asbestos Cement partitions
Light in weight, impervious, durable, water
tight and fire-proof.
Asbestos cement sheets are made of asbestos
cement sheets and fixed into timber
framework.
Sheets are placed in position and joined by
cement mortar.
Are mostly adopted in works of temporary
character.
Double Glazed window
Used for acoustic insulation.
Air space between two panes is kept 50mm
or more.
Air contained within narrow cavity is quite
‘stiff’
Transmits vibration at low frequencies.
Double glazed window
Movable partitions
Movable partitions are used where the walls
of a room are frequently opened to form one
large floor area.
Foldable partition wall
Portable Partitions
Rolling mobile folding partitions which
provide temporary walls
The portable wall partition has two full panel
end members which provide support,
rigidity, privacy, and noise reduction.
They fold and are on wheels enabling
mobility and ease of storage.
Three common uses are:
To divide space quickly where non-mobile
permanent room dividers may be unavailable
or unpractical.
As a cost effective way to create a classroom
or meeting room in existing space.
Convenient sight divider to conceal door
openings to restrooms, commercial kitchens,
and other backroom areas.
Portable Partitions are commonly used in:
Arena’s
Churches/Houses of Worship/Funeral Homes
Conference/Convention Centres
Government/Corporate offices
Hotels/Restaurants
Residences
Salons and Spas
Schools of all levels
 References:
Dr B.C.Punamia, Building Construction
S.P.Arora and S.P.Bindra, Building
Construction
Robert Jantschek, Portable wall partition with
full panel end members.
www.niceduniya.com,Principles of design of
partitions walls.
Images are taken from google image search
 MODULE III
MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION FRAMED-PREFABRICATED-
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
Precast concrete construction which is also called prefabrication is an advanced method of
reinforced concrete construction. In this method of construction the members of a structure
are precast in a plant built and provided with equipment particularly for this purpose.

Various precast units such as door and window frames, lintels sills, Sunshades, Jallies, Shelf
slabs etc., are being built and used.

The member of a structure are also fabricated in the factories are transported to the place
where they are used. They are then hoisted in their final positions and assembled to form the
complete structure.

FRAMED STRUCTURE:

Load bearing walls are very common for low rise buildings (i.e. upto 2 to 3 storeys).

The vertical load of walls, slab beam if any is transferred on wall and then to the foundations.

The building is not supposed to resist horizontal forces being the height is less than 2 to 3
storeys. Beyond four storeys, the vertical load becomes more affecting the wall thickness
considerably and usable space is lost. Hence this system is uneconomical beyond four storeys.
Hence framed structure is used.
Framed Structure Design:

Framed structure also called frame structural system. In this system a grid of columns, beams
provided to resist vertical as well horizontal forces. This rigid structure can be designed to resist
wind forces as well as earthquake forces.

This system is prevailing in construction till today and very efficient for vertical loads. Buildings
upto 12 to 16 storeys can be constructed adopting this structural system. The design of
columns and beams is done in R.C. structures. Beyond 16 storeys horizontal forces either due to
wind or earthquake becomes predominant and if the columns are designed for these forces,
their size becomes large and consequently reducing the usable space and also becomes
uneconomical

TYPES OF PREFABRICATION :

Site prefabrication- for large prefabricates

Plant prefabrication - large scale production

Site prefabrication:

 The RC members are produced at the site in the open air chiefly in the open air
or in the temporary sheds
 The difficulties in construction in general are felt in this mechanization can case.
 Mechanization can not be of such high degree as site PF is done for smaller
duration of time.
 When the pre fabricates are of large size it is difficult to transport the pre
fabricates to the site.
 In comparison with plant prefabrication transportation of the members are not
needed. As large members are not transported the design and weight of the
prefabricates are not limited.

Plant prefabrication

 The members produced are to be transported to the place of construction this

accounts for about 10-15% of the cost of production and assembling.
 Certain restriction is made in the dimension of prefabrication leading to
restrainst in the design and development of prefabrication.
 Prefabrication is appropriate for mass production for manufacture of
standaridized members.
 Needs costly materials for batching and production.
  This method is most suited in the case of small prefabricates which are to be
prefabricated in very large number.

Plant prefabrication is done under permanent plant or factories. It is done under the covered
roof so the effect of weather does not affect the work. So the quality and strength of the
members can be improved considerably. Plant prefabrication reduces the cost of prefabrication
if the number of prefabricate needed is more.

Plant prefabrication is carried out in permanent plants factories established for this purpose. All
the machinery and equipment required can be placed in a workshop building and
prefabrication be carried out. Prefabrication can be done in the plant as requirement. Constant
team of workers will be there in the work or to take up the work. Laboratory can also be
established to have continuous quality control.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PREFABRICATED AND MONOLITHIC CONSTRUCTION

METHODS :
Prefabricated method of construction has the following advantages over monolithic method of
construction:

 There will be saving in scaffolding.

 There is saving in shuttering as they can be removed following day and reused.
 As the members are cast in factory, more accurate and better workmanship can
be achieved.
 Due to better quality control, higher permissible stresses are allowed resulting in
reduced sections and consequent reduction in self weight.
 Standardised members can be precast in large number repetitively there by
speeding up the construction work.
 High degree of mechanization can be achieved.
 Prefabrication is less time consuming and cheaper for repeated operations.
 Lesser expansion joints are required for prefabricated construction
 Skilled man power required is less.
 Weather conditions does not hamper the progress of work
 For prestressed concrete construction prefabrication is well suited.
 MODULE III
MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION FRAMED-PREFABRICATED-
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
Precast concrete construction which is also called prefabrication is an advanced method of
reinforced concrete construction. In this method of construction the members of a structure
are precast in a plant built and provided with equipment particularly for this purpose.

Various precast units such as door and window frames, lintels sills, Sunshades, Jallies, Shelf
slabs etc., are being built and used.

The member of a structure are also fabricated in the factories are transported to the place
where they are used. They are then hoisted in their final positions and assembled to form the
complete structure.

FRAMED STRUCTURE:

Load bearing walls are very common for low rise buildings (i.e. upto 2 to 3 storeys).

The vertical load of walls, slab beam if any is transferred on wall and then to the foundations.

The building is not supposed to resist horizontal forces being the height is less than 2 to 3
storeys. Beyond four storeys, the vertical load becomes more affecting the wall thickness
considerably and usable space is lost. Hence this system is uneconomical beyond four storeys.
Hence framed structure is used.
Framed Structure Design:

Framed structure also called frame structural system. In this system a grid of columns, beams
provided to resist vertical as well horizontal forces. This rigid structure can be designed to resist
wind forces as well as earthquake forces.

This system is prevailing in construction till today and very efficient for vertical loads. Buildings
upto 12 to 16 storeys can be constructed adopting this structural system. The design of
columns and beams is done in R.C. structures. Beyond 16 storeys horizontal forces either due to
wind or earthquake becomes predominant and if the columns are designed for these forces,
their size becomes large and consequently reducing the usable space and also becomes
uneconomical

TYPES OF PREFABRICATION :

Site prefabrication- for large prefabricates

Plant prefabrication - large scale production

Site prefabrication:

 The RC members are produced at the site in the open air chiefly in the open air
or in the temporary sheds
 The difficulties in construction in general are felt in this mechanization can case.
 Mechanization can not be of such high degree as site PF is done for smaller
duration of time.
 When the pre fabricates are of large size it is difficult to transport the pre
fabricates to the site.
 In comparison with plant prefabrication transportation of the members are not
needed. As large members are not transported the design and weight of the
prefabricates are not limited.

Plant prefabrication

 The members produced are to be transported to the place of construction this

accounts for about 10-15% of the cost of production and assembling.
 Certain restriction is made in the dimension of prefabrication leading to
restrainst in the design and development of prefabrication.
 Prefabrication is appropriate for mass production for manufacture of
standaridized members.
 Needs costly materials for batching and production.
  This method is most suited in the case of small prefabricates which are to be
prefabricated in very large number.

Plant prefabrication is done under permanent plant or factories. It is done under the covered
roof so the effect of weather does not affect the work. So the quality and strength of the
members can be improved considerably. Plant prefabrication reduces the cost of prefabrication
if the number of prefabricate needed is more.

Plant prefabrication is carried out in permanent plants factories established for this purpose. All
the machinery and equipment required can be placed in a workshop building and
prefabrication be carried out. Prefabrication can be done in the plant as requirement. Constant
team of workers will be there in the work or to take up the work. Laboratory can also be
established to have continuous quality control.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PREFABRICATED AND MONOLITHIC CONSTRUCTION

METHODS :
Prefabricated method of construction has the following advantages over monolithic method of
construction:

 There will be saving in scaffolding.

 There is saving in shuttering as they can be removed following day and reused.
 As the members are cast in factory, more accurate and better workmanship can
be achieved.
 Due to better quality control, higher permissible stresses are allowed resulting in
reduced sections and consequent reduction in self weight.
 Standardised members can be precast in large number repetitively there by
speeding up the construction work.
 High degree of mechanization can be achieved.
 Prefabrication is less time consuming and cheaper for repeated operations.
 Lesser expansion joints are required for prefabricated construction
 Skilled man power required is less.
 Weather conditions does not hamper the progress of work
 For prestressed concrete construction prefabrication is well suited.
 CONTENTS
Introduction
What is earthquake……?
Techniques to resist Earthquake.
Different methods to resist to buildings.
Types of frames used for construction.
Earthquakes constitute one of the worst natural hazards
which often turn into disaster causing widespread
destruction and loss to human life.

The effects of earthquake vary upon the magnitude and

intensity. Earthquakes occur every now and then all
round the world, except in some places where
earthquakes occur rarely. The devastation of cities and
towns is one of the effects of earthquake.
What is Earthquake?

An Earthquake is the result

of a sudden release of energy
in the earth’s crust that creates
seismic waves.
The seismic activity of an
area refers to the
frequency,type and size of
earthquakes experienced over
a period of time
disaster picture from Kashmir earthquake
2005
Damage to high rise building in Bhuj
Techniques to resist Earthquake
• Active & Passive system
• Shear walls
• Bracing
• Dampers
• Rollers
• Isolation
• Light weight material
• Bands
• Others
7
Active System
Active control systems are devices integrated with real-time
processing evaluators for improved service and safety.

Passive control systems are conventional devices to resist or

absorb the energy produced during Earthquake.
For example: Viscous Dampers

8
Inertial Forces

9
10
Bracing
Link
Beams

Diagonal Cross Chevron Eccentric

11
Bracing

12
Cross Bracing

13
14
Rollers

15
Isolation

16
Bands

17
Waste Tire pads

Source: www.homeimprovementpages.com 18
Waste Tire Pads

Source: www.homeimprovementpages.com
19
 Light weight material

In recent times, many new systems and

devices using non-conventional civil
engineering materials have been
developed, either to reduce the
earthquake forces acting on a structure
or to absorb part of seismic energy.

20
Avoid Hammering & Pounding

21
 Suggestions
• Avoid weak column and strong beam design
• Provide thick slab which will help as a rigid diaphragm
• Provide cross walls which will stiffen the structures
• Provide shear walls in a symmetrical fashion
•Increase in the transverse (Shear) reinforcement.
• Horizontal lintel band should be provided
• Revision/ updation of building code of Pakistan
• The building must be regular and symmetrical in shape
• Reinforcing bars should be provided at the corners and the
junctions of the walls
22
• Earthquakes affect
RCC
structures too…

• Slabs forces the

beam
to bend with it when
horizontal forces act.
23
 Earthquake resistant designs

• Design - but it is analysis of forces - buildings due

to loads acting on it.

• If a building is enough to resist the earthquake,

then such building is called Earthquake resistant
structure.

• Such design is called Earthquake resistant designs

24
 Popular Earthquake resistant
Techniques

• Earthquake may not be able to damage entire

building but it damages members of it.

• So special techniques are adopted:

Base Isolation Devices and
Seismic Dampers.

25
26
Frames Resisting EQ’

27
28
29
 An earthquake is caused by the breaking and shifting of rock
beneath the Earth's surface.
 Earthquakes, also called temblors, it’s hard to imagine they occur
by the thousands every day around the world, usually in the form
of small tremors.
 Some 80 percent of all the planet's earthquakes occur along the rim
of the Pacific Ocean, called the "Ring of Fire“
 On average, a magnitude 8 quake strikes somewhere every year
and some 10,000 people die in earthquakes annually
 Ground shaking from earthquakes can collapse buildings and
bridges; disrupt gas, electric, and phone service; and sometimes
trigger landslides, avalanches, flash floods, fires, and
huge, destructive ocean waves (tsunamis).
 Collapsing buildings claim by far the majority of lives,
but the destruction is often compounded by mud slides,
fires, floods, or tsunamis
 Ground Shaking: Shakes structures constructed on ground
causing them to collapse.

 Liquefaction: Conversion of formally stable cohesion-less soils

to a fluid mass, causing damage to the structures.

 Landslides: Triggered by the vibrations

 Retaining structure failure: Damage of anchored wall, sheet

pile, other retaining walls and sea walls.

 Fire: Indirect result of earthquakes triggered by broken gas and

power lines.

 Tsunamis: large waves created by the

instantaneous displacement of the sea floor
during submarine faulting
Damages due to earthquake in 2011
 Conventional Approach:-
 Design depends upon providing the building with
strength, stiffness and inelastic deformation capacity
which are great enough to withstand a given level of
earthquake generated force.

 Basic Approach:-
 Design depends upon underlying more advanced
techniques for earthquake resistance is not
to strengthen the building, but to reduce
the earthquake generated forces
acting upon it.
 Intensity of earthquake
 Type of earthquake waves
 Type of structure
 Type of design
 Shape of structure both in plan & elevation
 Type of soil
 Type of foundation
 Type of material used for construction
 Load of structure
 Increase natural period of structures by Base Isolation like :
 Lead Rubber Bearing
 Laminated Rubber Bearing
 High Damping Rubber Bearing
 Spherical Sliding Bearing
 Friction Pendulum System
 Increase damping of system by Energy Dissipation Devices
like :
 Viscous dampers
 Friction dampers
 Yielding dampers
 Visco elastic dampers
 By using Active Control Devices like :
 Sensors
 H/w & S/w
 Actuators
 Planning stage
 Plan building in symmetrical way (both axis)
 Avoid weak storey and provide strong diaphragm
 Don’t add appendages which will create difference in Centre of mass and
centre of rigidity
 Conduct soil test to avoid soil liquefaction
 Steel to be used of having elongation of 14% and yield strength of 415
N/mm2
 Design stage
 Avoid weak column and strong beam design.
 Provide thick slab which will help as a rigid diaphragm. Avoid thin slab
and flat slab construction.
 Provide cross walls which will stiffen the structures in a symmetric
manner.
 Provide shear walls in a symmetrical fashion. It should be in outer
boundary to have large lever arm to resist the EQ forces.
 Construction stage
 Compact the concrete by means of needle vibrator.
 Cure the concrete for at least a minimum period.
 Experienced supervisor should be employed to have
good quality control at site
 Guideline laid down for five category of structures
 Part 1 General provisions and buildings
 Part 2 Liquid retaining tanks - Elevated and ground supported
 Part 3 Bridges and retaining walls
 Part 4 Industrial structures including stack like structures
 Part 5 Dams and embankments

 Seismic zone identified and construction

parameters amended accordingly
 Foundation laying in various soil type is
also specified.
 Specification about material to be used
including RCC, Steel, masonry work etc.
 IS 1893 (Part I), 2002, Indian Standard Criteria for
Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures (5th
Revision)
 IS 4326, 1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for
Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of
Buildings (2nd Revision)
 IS 13827, 1993, Indian Standard Guidelines for
Improving Earthquake Resistance of Earthen Buildings
 IS 13828, 1993, Indian Standard Guidelines for
Improving Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength
Masonry Buildings
 IS 13920, 1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice
for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces
 How will you stop the building from collapsing?
 If it does not fall how will you prevent accidents in the
building as it moves?
 What about falling glass and rubble on the people
outside?
 What about problems after the earthquake (fire, gas
and water leaks, no power)?
 Where will you build it? Away from built up areas or
near emergency services?
 There are plenty of other things that you need to think
about.
 9. DAMP PREVENTION

Damp prevention is a chief requirement to ensure safety of building against dampness.

One of the basic requirements in all the buildings is that structure should be dry as far as
possible.

If this is not satisfied it is likely that building may become inhabitable and unsafe from
structural point of view.

In order to prevent entry of damp into a building the courses known as damp proofing courses
are provided at various levels of entry of damp into a building.

Presently all buildings are given dpc treatment

So dpc prevent entry of moisture from walls floors and basements of a buildings

The treatment given to roofs of buildings for some cause is called water proofing.

Cause Of Dampness

Responsible causes are one or more of the followings

1. Faulty design of structure

2. Faulty construction / poor workmanship

3. Use of poor quality of material in construction

These causes give rise to an easy access to moisture to the building from different points,
such as rain penetration through walls, roofs and floors etc. The moisture entering into the
buildings from foundation and roofs travels in different directions further under the effect of
capillary action and gravity respectively. The entry of water and its movement in different
parts of the buildings are positively due to one or more of the causes listed above

(1) Rising Of Moisture From The Ground

The subsoil or ground on which the building is constructed may be made of soils
which easily give an access to water to create dampness in building. Generally the foundation
dampness is caused when the building structures are constructed on low lying water logged
areas where a sub soil of clay or peat is commonly found through which dampness will easily
rise under capillary action unless properly treated.

This dampness further finds its way to the floors, walls etc. through the plinth.

69 * Under revision
(2) Action Of Rain Water

Whenever the faces of walls are not suitably protected from the exposer to heavy
shower of rains, they become the sources of dampness in a structure. Similarly the poor
mortar joints in walls and cracked roofs also allow dampness to enter the building structure.
Sometimes due to faulty eave courses and eave gutters, the rain water may percolate through
the roof coverings

(3) Rain Penetration From Top Of The Wall

All parapet walls and compound walls of the buildings which have not been protected
from rain penetration by using dam proof courses or by such measures on their exposed tops
are subjected to dampness. This dampness in the buildings is of serious nature and may
results in unhealthy living condition or even in structurally unsafe conditions.

(4) Codensation Due To Atmospheric Misture

Whenever the warm air in the atmosphere is cooled it gives rise to process of
condensation. On account of condensation the moisture is deposited on the whole area of
walls, floors, and ceilings. However the sources of dampness is prevalent only in certain
places in India, where very cold climate exist.

(5) Miscellaneous Sourses Or Causes

The various other sources responsible for dampness in buildings are mentioned
bellow:-

(a) Poor Drainage Of Site

The structure if located on low lying site causes water logged conditions where
impervious soil is present underneath the foundation.

So such structures which are not well drained cause dampness in buildings through the
foundations.

(b) Imperfect Orientation

Whenever the orientation of the buildings is not proper or geographical conditions are
such that the walls of buildings get less of direct sunrays and more of heavy showers of rains,
then such walls become prone to dampness.

(c) Constructional Dampness

If more water has been introduced during construction or due to poor workmanship,
the walls are observed to remain in damp condition for sufficient time.

70 * Under revision
(d) Dampness Due To Defective Construction

Dampness in buildings is also caused due to poor workmanship or methods of

construction viz inadequate roof slopes, defective rain water pipe connection, defective joints
in roofs in proper connection of walls etc.

Effect Of Dampness

The various effects (indirectly defects), caused due to dampness in buildings are mentioned
below

All effects mainly result in poor functional performance, ugly appearance and structural
weakness of the buildings.

(a) A damp building creates unhealthy living and working conditions for occupants.

(b) Presence of damp conditions causes efflorescence on building surface, which

ultimately may result in the dis-integration of bricks, stones, tiles etc. and hence in the
reduction of strength.

(c) It may cause bleaching and flaking of the paint which results in the formation of
coloured patches on the wall surfaces and ceilings.

(d) It may result in corrosion of metals used in the construction of buildings.

(e) The material used as floor coverings, such as tiles, are damaged because they lose
adhesion with the floor base.

(f) Timber, when in contact with damp conditions, gets deteriorated due to the effects of
warping, buckilng and rolling of timber.

(g) All electrical fittings get deteriorated, causing leakage of electric current with the
potential danger of a short circuit.

(h) Dampness promotes the growth of termites and hence creates unhygienic conditions
in buildings.

(i) Dampness when accompanied by the warmth and darkness, breeds the germs of
tuberculosis, neuralgia, acute and chronic rheumatism etc.which sometimes result in fatal
diseases.

71 * Under revision
Techniques And Methods Of Damp Prevention

The following precautions should be taken to prevent the dampness in buildings, before
applying the various techniques and methods described later :

(I) The site should be located on a high ground and well drained soil to safeguard against
foundation dampness. It should be ensured that the water level is at least 3m. below the
surface of ground or lowest point even in the wet season. For better drainage the ground
surface surrounding th building should also slope away.

(II) All the exposed walls should be of sufficient thickness to safe guard against rain
penetration. If walls are of bricks they should be at least 30 cm thickness

(III) Bricks of superior quality which are free from defects such as cracks, flaws, lump of
lime stones should be used. They should not absorb water more than 1/8 of their own weight
when soaked in water for 24 hours.

(IV) Good quality cement mortars should be used to produce a definite pattern and perfect
bond in building units throughout the construction work. This is essential to prevent the
formation cavities and occurrence of differential settlement.

(V) Cornices and string courses should be provided. Window sills, coping of plinth and
string courses should be slopped on top and throated on the undesirable to throw the rain
water away from walls.

(VI) All the exposed surfaces should be covered with waterproofing cement plaster

(VII) Hollow walls are more reliable than solid walls in preventing dampness and hence the
cavity wall construction should be adopted wherever possible.

Prevention of dampness

Use of damp proofing courses or membranes-

These are the layers or membranes of water repellent material such as bituminous
felts, mastic asphalts, plastic sheets, cement concrete, mortar, metal sheets which are
interposed in the building structure at all location wherever water entry is anticipated. These
damp proof courses of suitable materials should be provided at appropriate location for their
effective use. Basically D.P.C is provided to prevent the water rising from the sub soil and
getting into the different part of the buildings. The best location for D.P.C in case of
buildings without basement lies at the plinth level or in case of structure without plinth
should be laid at least 15 cm above the ground. These damp proof courses may be provide
horizontally or vertically in floors, walls etc. in case of basement laying of D.P.C is known as
tanking.

While providing damp-proof courses in buildings, the following general principles should be
observed in practice.

72 * Under revision
• The DPC should cover the full thickness of the walls excluding rendering, in order to
act as an effective barrier to moisture under all conditions.

• The mortar bed upon which the DPC is laid should be level, even and free from any
projections.

• The DPC course should be placed in correct relation with other DPC courses so as to
provide a complete course should be placed in correct relation with other DPC courses so as
to provide a complete and continuous barrrier to the passage of moisture from below, top or
sides. Therefore, the junctions and corners, formed by walls, or walls and floors, should be
laid continuous.

• Where a vertical DPC is to be laid continuous with a horizontal DPC(i.e., forming

angle projection), a fillet 75mm in radidius should be provided. the DPC should not be
exposed on the wall surface, otherwise it is likely to be damaged by carpainters, tile
layers,etc.

(2) Waterproof (or damp proof ) surface treatment

The surface treatment consists in filling of the pores of the material exposed to
moisture by providing a thin film of water repellent material over the surface. These surface
treatments can be either external or internal, the external treatment is effective in preventing
dampness where as internal one only reduces it to a certain extent.

Many surface treatments like pointing, plastering. Painting, distempering, are given to
the exposed surfaces and also to the internal surfaces. Most commonly used treatments, to
protect the walls against dampness, is lime cement plaster of mix (one cement : one lime : six
sand ) proportions. A thin film of water proofing can be materials, generally employed as
waterproofing agent in surface treatments are : sodium or potassium silicates, aluminium or
zinc sulphates, barium hydroxide and magnesium sulphate in alternate applications, soft soap
and alum also in alternate applications, lime and linseed oil, coal tar, bitumen, waxes and fats,
resins, and gum, etc.

Some of the abve mentioned materials, like the waxes and fats, are unsuitable in the
tropics as they melt with rise in temperature, resins and gums and also not lasting materials
are coal tar and bitumen disfigure the original surface.

(3) Integral damp-proofing treatment

The integral treatment consists adding certain compounds to the concrete or mortar
during the process of mixing, which when used in construction act as barriers to moisture
penetration under different principles. Compounds like chalk, talc, fuller’s earth, etc.have
mechanical action principle, i.e., they fill the pores present in the concrete or mortar and
make them denser and water proof. The compounds, like alkaline, silicates, aluminium
sulphates, calcium chlorides,etc.work on chemical action principle i.e., they react chemically
and fill in the pores to act as water resistant. Similarly , some compounds like soaps,
petroleum oils, fatty acid compounds such as stearates of calcium,sodium ammonium

73 * Under revision
etc.work on repulsion principle i.e., they are used as admixtures in concrete to react with it
and become water repellent.

The synthetic compound prepared under this principles are available in commercial
forms, like Pudlo, Sika, Novoid, Ironite, Dampro, Permo Rainers,etc.

(4) cavity walls

 A cavity wall consist of two parallel walls/leaves/skins of masonry, separated by a

continuous air space/cavity.

 They consists of three parts.

• Out wall/leaf(exterior wall part 10cm thick)

• Cavity/air space(5cm-8cm)

• Inner wall/leaf(minimum 10cm thick)

 The two leaves forming a cavity in between may be of equal thickness or may not be.
The inner wall thickness may more to take larger properties of imposed loads transmitted by
floor and roof.

 Provision of continuous cavity in the wall efficiently prevents the transmission of

dampness from outer to inner wall.

 Under climatic conditions of India (hot-dry/hot-humid), cavity type construction is

most desirable as it offers many advantages such as better living and comfort conditions,
economic construction and preservation of buildings against dampness.

1. As there is no contact between outer and inner walls of a cavity wall except at wall
ties, which are of impervious material, so possibility of moisture penetration is reduced to a
minimum.

2. It has been verified a cavity wall of 10cm thick internal and external walls with 5cm
cavity/air space in between is better or more reliable than solid wall of 20cm thickness w.r.t
damp prevention.

3. The cavity wall offers good insulation against sound.

4. It reduces the nuisance of efflorescence.

5. It offers other advantages like,

• Economy

• Better comfort

74 * Under revision
• Hygienic conditions in buildings.

(5) Shot concrete(gunting)

This consists in forming an impervious layer of rich cement mortar(1:3) for water
proofing over the exposed concrete surface or over the pipes, cisterns, etc. for resisting water
pressure. Gunite is a mixture of cement and sand on well graded fine aggregate, the usual
proportion being 1:3 or1:4. A machine known as cement gun, having a nozzle for spraying
the mixture and a drum of compressed air for forcing the mixture under desired pressure, is
used for this purpose, Any surface which is to be treated is first thoroughly cleaned of any
dirt, greese or loose particles and then fully wetted. The mix of cement and sand is then shot
under a pressure of 2-3kg/sq.cm by holding the nozzle of cement gun at a distance of 75-99
cm from wall surface. The necessary quality of water is added by means of regulating valve
soon after the mixture comes out from cement gun. So mix of desired consistency and
thickness can be sprayed, to get an impervious layer, the impervious surface should be
watered for about 10 days.

By this technique impervious layer of high compressive strength can be obtained (28
days strength) and so it is useful method for reconditioning/repairing old concrete works,
bricks and masonry works, which have deteriorated.

(6) Pressure grouts (cementation)

Cementation is the process of forcing the cement grout (mix of cement, sand, water)
under pressure into cracks, voids, fitters present in structural components/ground. All the
components of a structure in general and foundation, which are liable to moisture penetration
are consolidated and so made water resistant by this process.

Here heels are drilled at selected points in structure and cement grout of sufficiently
thin consistency is forced under pressure to ensure complete penetration onto cracks. This
makes structure water tight and restores stability and strength.

When structure is resting on hard but loose textured ground its strength can be
increased, by this process. This technique is used for repairing structures, consolidator ground
to improve bearing capacity forming water cut offs to prevent seepage.

75 * Under revision
 Dampness

• Presence of hygroscopic or
gravitational moisture
• Reduce strength and lead to
unhygienic conditions
• Damp prevention is
therefore one of the
important factors for
building design.
 Causes of dampness

• Moisture rising up the walls from ground

• Rain travel from wall tops
• Rain beating against external walls
• Poor drainage at the building site
• Defective construction
 Effects of dampness

• Breeding of mosquitoes
• Moisture cause unsighty patches, softening of
plaster
• May cause efflorescence; disintegration of
stones, bricks
• Cause rusting and corrosion of metal fittings
• Floor coverings are damaged
 Precautions

• The following precautions should be taken to prevent the

dampness in buildings, before applying the various techniques
and methods described later :

(I) The site should be located on a high ground and well drained
soil to safeguard against foundation dampness. It should be
ensured that the water level is at least 3m below the surface
of ground or lowest point even in the wet season. For better
drainage the ground surface surrounding the building should
also slope away.

(II) All the exposed walls should be of sufficient thickness to safe

guard against rain penetration. If walls are of bricks they should
be at least 30 cm thickness
III) Bricks of superior quality which are free from defects such as
cracks, flaws, lump of lime stones should be used. They
should not absorb water more than 1/8 of their own weight
when soaked in water for 24 hours.

(IV) Good quality cement mortars should be used to produce a

definite pattern and perfect bond in building units throughout
the construction work. This is essential to prevent the
formation cavities and occurrence of differential settlement.

(V) Cornices should be provided. Window sills, coping of plinth

should be slopped on top and throated on the undesirable to
throw the rain water away from walls.
(VI) All the exposed surfaces should be covered with
waterproofing cement plaster

(VII) Hollow walls are more reliable than solid walls in preventing
dampness and hence the cavity wall construction should be
adopted wherever possible.
 Methods of damp proofing
1. Use of damp proofing courses or membranes-
• These are the layers or membranes of water repellent material
such as bituminous felts, mastic asphalts, plastic sheets,
cement concrete, mortar, metal sheets

• Basically D.P.C is provided to prevent the water rising from the

sub soil and getting into the different part of the buildings.

• The best location for D.P.C in case of buildings without

basement lies at the plinth level or in case of structure without
plinth should be laid at least 15 cm above the ground. These
damp proof courses may be provide horizontally or vertically in
floors, walls etc
Mastic asphalt
 2. Waterproof (or damp proof ) surface treatment

• The surface treatment consists in filling of the pores of the

material exposed to moisture by providing a thin film of water
repellent material over the surface. These surface treatments
can be either external or internal.
• Painting, distempering are given to the exposed surfaces and
also to the internal surfaces. Most commonly used
treatments, to protect the walls against dampness, is lime
cement plaster of mix (one cement : one lime : six sand )
proportions.
• A thin film of water proofing materials, generally employed as
waterproofing agent in surface treatments are : sodium or
potassium silicates, aluminium or zinc sulphates.
 3. Integral damp-proofing treatment
• The integral treatment consists adding certain compounds to the
concrete or mortar during the process of mixing, which when
used in construction act as barriers to moisture penetration
under different principles.

• Compounds like chalk, talc, fuller’s earth, etc. have mechanical

action principle, i.e., they fill the pores present in the concrete
or mortar and make them denser and water proof.

• The compounds, like alkaline, silicates, aluminium sulphates,

calcium chlorides etc. work on chemical action principle i.e.,
they react chemically and fill in the pores to act as water
resistant. Similarly, some compounds like soaps, petroleum oils,
fatty acid compounds such as stearates of calcium, sodium
ammonium
 4. Cavity walls
• A cavity wall consist of two parallel walls/leaves/skins of
masonry, separated by a continuous air space/cavity.
• They consists of three parts:
Out wall/leaf(exterior wall part 10 cm thick)
Cavity/air space(5cm-8cm)
Inner wall/leaf(minimum 10 cm thick)
• The two leaves forming a cavity in between may be of equal
thickness or may not be.
• Provision of continuous cavity in the wall efficiently prevents
the transmission of dampness from outer to inner wall.
• Under climatic conditions of India (hot-dry/hot-humid), cavity
type construction is most desirable as it offers many
advantages such as better living and comfort conditions,
economic construction and preservation of buildings against
dampness.
1. As there is no contact between outer and inner walls of a
cavity wall except at wall ties, which are of impervious
material, so possibility of moisture penetration is reduced to a
minimum.
2. It has been verified a cavity wall of 10cm thick internal and
external walls with 5cm cavity/air space in between is better
or more reliable than solid wall of 20cm thickness w.r.t damp
prevention.
3. The cavity wall offers good insulation against sound.
4. It reduces the nuisance of efflorescence.
5. It offers other advantages like Economy and Better comfort
 Shot concrete(gunting)
• This consists in forming an impervious layer of rich cement
mortar(1:3) for water proofing over the exposed concrete
surface for resisting water pressure.
• Gunite is a mixture of cement and sand, the usual proportion
being 1:3 or1:4.
• A machine known as cement gun, having a nozzle for spraying
the mixture and a drum of compressed air for forcing the
mixture under desired pressure.
• Any surface which is to be treated is first thoroughly cleaned of
any dirt, grease or loose particles and then fully wetted. The
mix of cement and sand is then shot under a pressure of 2-3
kg/sq.cm by holding the nozzle of cement gun at a distance of
75-99 cm from wall surface.
• The impervious surface should be watered for about 10 days.
 Pressure grouts (cementation)
• Cementation is the
process of forcing the
cement grout (mix of
cement, sand, water)
under pressure into
cracks, voids, fitters
present in structural
components/ground. All
the components of a
structure in general and
foundation, which are
liable to moisture
penetration are
consolidated and so
made water resistant by
this process.
 Material Used for DPC:
• Hot bitumen:
– This is highly flexible material, which can
be applied with a minimum thickness of 3
mm. It is placed on the bedding of concrete
or mortar, while in hot condition.

• Mastic asphalt:
– Mastic-asphalt is semi-rigid material
which is quite durable and completely
impervious. It is obtained by heating
asphalt with sand and mineral fillers.
However, it should be laid very carefully by
experienced persons.
• Bituminous felts:
– This is a very flexible material which is available in rolls
of various wall thickness. It is laid on a leveled flat layer
of CM. An overlap of 10 cm is provided at joints and full
width overlap is provided at angles, junctions and
crossings.
• Metal sheets:
– sheets of lead, copper, aluminium can be used as DPC.
Lead sheets are quite flexible and thickness should be
such that its weight is not less than 20 kg/m2. They are
laid similar as bituminous felts.
– Copper sheets are of 3 mm thick and embedded in lime or
cement mortar. It has high durability, resistance to
dampness, sliding, etc.
– Aluminium sheets are used with protective layer of
bitumen and not as good as other two.
• Combination of sheets and bituminous felts:
– Lead foil sandwiched between asphaltic or bituminous
felts can effectively used as DPC and combination is
known as lead core.
• Bricks:
– Special bricks, having water absorption not less than 4.5
% of their weight may be used as DPC in locations
where dampness is not excessive.
• Stones:
– Dense and sound stones, such as granite, trap, slates,
etc. are laid in CM in two courses to form effective DPC
• Mortar:
– CM (1:3) is used as bedding layer for housing other DPC
materials.
• Cement concrete:
– Cement concrete 1:2:4 or 1:1.5:3 is generally provided
at plinth level to work as DPC. The thickness may vary
from 4 to 15 cm. Such a layer can effectively check the
water rise due to capillary action.
• Plastic sheets:
– This is relatively new type of DPC material, made up
from black polythene, 0.5 to 1 mm thick in usual walling
width and roll length of 30 m. The treatment is cheaper
but not permanent.
DPC Treatment in Buildings:
• Treatment to foundations against gravitational
water:
– Foundation may receive water percolating from
adjacent ground, and this moisture may rise in the wall.
– This can be checked by providing air drain parallel to
the external wall.
– The width of air drain may be about 20 to 30 cm. The
outer wall of the drain is kept above the ground to check
the entry of surface water.
– A RCC roof slab is provided. Openings with gratings are
provided at regular interval, for passage of air.
 Treatment to basements:

• Provision of Foundation drains and DPC

• Provision of RCC raft and wall slab
• Asphalt tanking
• Treatment to basements:
– Provision of foundation drain and DPC:
• When basement rests on soil which are not properly
drained, great hydrostatic pressure is exerted and
the floor as well as wall receive water continuously.
• In such a case it becomes necessary to make a trench
all round, up to foundation level and fill it with
gravel, coke and other pervious materials.
• Open jointed drains may be provided to collect the
under ground water or drainage pipes embedded in
gravel bed may also be provided before foundation
concrete.
– Provision of RCC floor and wall slab:
• Where underground water pressure is severe, the
drainage system may not solve the problem effectively.
Also, constant pumping out water may be costly.
• In such case, floor slab as well as walls may be
constructed in rigid RCC structure. Horizontal and
vertical DPC treatment is also provided. Atleast, 3 layers
of bituminous felts are used as DPC
• Half brick thick wall protective wall provided at outer
face of RCC wall slab.
 Asphalt tanking
o Subsoil water table is not very high.
o Horizontal DPC in the form of asphalt layer of 30 mm thick in
three coats over the entire area of basement floor and
extending it in the form of 20 mm thick vertical DPC on the
external face of basement walls
o A 1 ½ brick thick outer wall is constructed
o Vertical DPC 15 cm from ground
o Layer of flat bricks on foundation concrete (1:3:6) is provided
to protect DPC from damage during floor construction slab
Asphalt Tanking for Basement
• Treatments to floors:
– for location where ground moisture is not present, subsoil
is rammed well and a 7.5 to 10 cm thick layer of coarse
sand is spread over the entire area under flooring.
– Alternatively stone soling may first be provided and then
7.5 to 10 cm thick layer of lean cement concrete (1:3:6 or
1:4:8) may be provided over it and over this base, flooring
may be laid.
– In a damp soil, where water table is near GL, it is essential
to provide membrane DPC over entire area.
– A layer of flat bricks is laid on a cushion of fine sand over
DPC to protect it from damage during the construction of
floor slab.
DPC for Flooring
• Treatments to walls:
– For basement wall, a vertical DPC is laid over the external
face of wall.
– This vertical layer of DPC is laid over the base of water-
cement plaster grouted on the external face of the wall.
– This vertical DPC is further protected by external protective
walls of half brick thickness.
– The vertical DPC should be carried atleast up to a level of
15 cm above GL and similarly, horizontal DPC in external
wall, extending from the floor is provided atleast 15 cm
above GL.
– In the internal walls DPC is provided in level with the lower
surface of concrete floor.
 PRESENTATION ON
“FORMWORK”
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

BY
K.SNEHA
ROlL NO: 131564
M.Tech 1st year
 What is Formwork?
o Formwork is a mould including all supporting structures, used to
shape and support the concrete until it attains sufficient strength to
carry its own weight.
o It should be capable of carrying all imposed dead and live loads
apart from its own weight.

Formwork is commonly made of

o Steel
o Timber
TIMBER FORMWORK
STEEL FORMWORK
 Formwork has been in use since the beginning of concrete
construction.
 New materials such as steel, plastics and fibreglass are used in
formwork.
 Greater attention is being given to the design, fabrication,
erection and dismantling of formwork
 Formwork is designed according to The ACI document SP-4.
Qualities of Formwork
 It should be water tight.

 It should be strong.

 It can be reusable.

 Its contact surface should be uniform.

 It should be according to the size of member.

• In order to successfully carry out its
function, formwork must achieve a balance
of following requirements:
• Containment
• Strength
• Resistance To Leakage
• Accuracy
• Ease Of Handling
• Finish And Reuse Potential
• Access For Concrete
• Economy
• Containment: formwork must be capable of shaping and
supporting the fluid concrete until it cures.

• Strength: formwork must be capable of safely withstanding

without distortion or danger the dead weight of the fluid
concrete is placed on it, labour weight, equipment weight and
any environmental loadings.
• Ease of Handling: form panels and units should be designed
so that their maximum size does not exceed that which can be
easily handled by hand or mechanical means.

– In addition all formwork must also be designed and

constructed to include facilities for adjustments, levelling,
easing and striking without damage to the form work or
concrete.
• Economy: all the formwork is very expensive. On average about 35%
of the total cost of any finished concrete unit or element can be
attributed to its formwork; of this just over 40% can be taken for
material for formwork and 60% for labour.

– The formwork designer must therefore not only consider the

maximum number of times that any form can be reused, but also
produce a design that will minimize the time taken for erection and
striking.
Major objectives considered in
formwork:
 Quality

 Safety

 Economy
 Quality:
Forms must be designed and built with sufficient stiffness and accuracy so that
the size, shape, position, and finish of the cast concrete are maintained.

 Safety:
Forms must be built sufficient strength and factor of safety so that they have
the capable of all supporting loads.

 Economy:
Forms must be built efficiently, minimizing time and cost.
Requirements of formwork:
 Material should be cheap and re usable,
 It should be practically water proof, so that it should not
absorb water from concrete,
 Swelling and shrinkage should be minimum,

 Strong enough to with stand all external loads,

 Deflection should be minimum,

 Surface should be smooth, and afford easy striping,

 Light in weight, so that easy to transfer,

 Joints should be stiff, so that lateral deformation and leak is

minimum .
 Three stages in the process :
a) Assembly and erection .

b) Concrete placement.

c) Stripping and dismantling.

• Formwork detail for different
structural members
In concrete construction formwork is
commonly provided for the following structural
members.
o Wall
o Column
o Slabs & Beams
o Stairs
o Chimneys
o Water tanks
o Cooling Towers
• Formwork for Wall
 It consists of
• Timber sheeting
• Vertical posts
• Horizontal members
• Rackers
• Stakes
• Wedges

 After completing one side of

formwork reinforcement is
provided at the place then the
second side formwork is
provided.
• Formwork for Column
• It consists of the following
– Side & End Planks
– Yoke
– Nut & Bolts
• Two end & two side planks
are joined by the yokes and
bolts.
• Formwork for columns
• Formwork for Slabs & beams:• It consists of
– Sole plates
– Wedges
– Props
– Head tree
– Planks
– Batten
– Ledgers
• Beam formwork rests
on head tree
• Slab form work rests on
battens and joists
• If prop height are more
than 8’ provide
horizontal braces.
• Lintel or Beam Formwork:
• FORMWORK FOR SLAB:
• FORMWORK FOR STAIRS:
• It consists of
– Vertical & inclined
posts
– Inclined members
-- Wooden Planks or
sheeting
– Stringer
– Riser Planks
• FORMWORK FOR STAIRS:
• FORMWORK FOR SPIRAL STAIRS :
• FORMWORK FOR CHIMNEYS:
For tall chimneys two types of forms
techniques are in generally use in our country

a) Jump form

b) Slip form
• Removal of formwork:
 Time of formwork removal depends on the following factors

1. Type of Cement

1. Rapid hardening cements require lesser time as compared to OPC

(Ordinary Portland Cement)

2. Ratio of concrete mix

1. Rich ratio concrete gain strength earlier as compared to weak

ratio concrete.

3. Weather condition

1. Hydration process accelerates in hot weather conditions as

compared to cold and humid weather conditions.
Time of Removal of formwork:
Cantilever slab
• First free end's support
should be removed.

• And then from right to left it

should be proceed.

• If we are removing from the

mid span then it will act as a
prop cantilever.
Simply supported slab
• In simply supported we
have to remove the
support from the mid
span to the ends.
• To meet the design
behavior.
• Maintenance of formwork:
• Due to continuous use wooden planks & steel plates
surfaces become uneven and require maintenance.

• For wooden formwork use cardboard or plastic fiber

board. Bolt hole places must also be repaired.

• For steel formwork plates must be leveled by mallet

and loose corners must be welded.
• Cost of formwork
 For normal works cost of formwork is about 30%-40% of the concrete cost.
 For special works cost of formwork is about 50%-60% of the concrete cost.
 Formwork cost is controlled by the following factors
• Formwork Material cost
• Formwork erecting cost
• Formwork removal cost
• Formwork jointing cost (Nails and Cables)
• Labor charges.
• Advantages of steel form work:
 It can be used for a no. of times.
 It is non absorbent.
 Smooth finish surface obtained.
 No shrinkage of formwork occurs.
 Easy to use.
 Its volume is less
 Its strength is more.
• LOADS ON FORMWORK:
• Dead load
 Self weight of formwork
 Pressure and loads from fresh concrete
 Reinforcement
• Imposed load
 Construction workers
 Stacking of materials
• Horizontal loads
• Environmental loads
 Accidental loads
 Wind loads
• References
• R.C.C Design by B.C.Punmia
• R.C.C Design by H.J.Shah
• Formwork Design Section 1500
• Doka Formwork Design
• Design of safe timber structures by Eva and
Tomi Torrati
 Thank you
THANK YOU
Plastering and Pointing
Plastering
• Process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and
other building components with thin coat of plastic mortars to form a
smooth durable surface
Objects of plastering
• To protect external surfaces against penetration of rain water and
other atmospheric agencies
• To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge
• To give decorative effect
• To protect surfaces against vermit
• To conceal inferior materials or defective workmanship
TYPES OF MORTAR FOR PLASTERING
• LIME MORTAR
• may be either fat lime or hydraulic lime
• Fat lime yields good putty after slaking; preferred more
• Hydraulic lime contains particles which slake very slowly; slow slaking may
cause blisters
• Mix proportion(lime: sand)- 1:3 to 1:4 for fat lime
- 1:2 for hydraulic lime
• Addition of “gugal” can improve the binding properties of lime mortar
• Mixing of chopped hemp can improve adhesive and tensile properties of lime
mortar
• CEMENT MORTAR
• Being non-absorbant, it is best for external plastering work
• Preferred in damp rooms and damp climates
• Stronger than lime mortar
• Does not possess sufficient plasticity
• Mix proportion (cement: sand)- 1:4 to 1:6
• Mortar should be used before initial setting takes place
• Sand used should be clean, coarse and angular
• LIME-CEMENT MORTAR
• Contains properties of both lime mortar as well as cement mortar
• Addition of lime imparts plasticity resulting in smooth plastered surface
• Mix proportions (cement: lime: sand)- 1:1:6, 1:1:8 or 1:2:8
Preparation of background
• Joints should be raked to a depth of 10 mm in brick masonry and 15
mm in stone masonry for providing key to plaster
• Mortar droppings and dust should be removed with wire brush
• Unevenness is levelled before applying mortar
• Surface should be washed with clean water uniformly to produce
optimum suction; excess soaking with water may cause sliding of
mortar before it sets; less moisture may cause strong suction which
withdraws moisture from mortar and makes it weak
 METHODS OF PLASTERING
• LIME PLASTER- applied in 3 coats or in two coats
• Three-coat plaster
 Application of rendering/first coat:
Mortar is forcibly applied with mason’s trowel and pressed well into joints and over the surface;
Normal thickness-12mm (cover all inequalities of the surface);
Surface is allowed to slightly harden and then scratched criss-cross; left to set for 7 days (curing
and drying)
 Application of floating/second coat:
Rendering coat is cleaned off all dirt and loose material;
Lightly wetted;
Patches (15cm X 15cm or strips 10cm wide) applied at suitable spacing to act as gauges;
Mortar is then thrown with mason’s trowel; spread and rubbed with wooden float;
In case of lime-surkhi plaster, Surface is allowed to slightly harden and then scratched criss-
cross; left to set for 10 days (curing and drying)
  Application of finishing coat:
In case of lime-sand mortar, finishing coat is applied immediately after floating coat;
It consists of lime cream and sand (4:1) applied with steel trowel and rubbed and finished
smooth;
It is left for 1 day and then curing is done for atleast 7 days;
In case of lime-surkhi mortar, finishing coat is applied after 7 days of floating coat, after
cleaning the surface;
Finishing coat is rubbed hard and finished smooth
• Two-coat plaster
Rendering coat of two-coat plaster is combination of rendering and floating coats of three-
coat plaster; done under one continuous operation (except scratching of coats)
Finishing coat is applied in a similar manner to that of three-coat plaster
• CEMENT PLASTER AND CEMENT-LIME PLASTER
• Two-coat plaster
 Preparation of background
 If surface to be plastered is uneven, preliminary coat is applied to fill up the hollows
 Rendering coat is applied thickness equal to specified thickness of plaster less 2-3 mm

In order to maintain uniform thickness of plaster, screeds are formed of plaster on wall
surface by fixing dots of 15 cm X 15 cm. Two dots are formed in vertical line at a distance of
about 2 m by means of plumb bob. A vertical strip of mortar known as screed is then
formed. A number of such vertical screeds are formed at suitable spacing. Cement mortar
is then applied on the surface between the successive screeds and surface is properly
finished.
  Rendering coat is kept wet for atleast 2 days, and then allowed to dry completely
 Rendering coat is again damped evenly before applying final coat; final coat is applied with
wooden floats and finished with steel trowels.
 To eliminate joining marks, finishing coat should be applied starting from top towards bottom
and completed in one operation.
• Three-coat plaster
 Intermediate coat known as floating coat is applied
 Thickness: rendering coat-9-10 mm (rough coat)
floating coat- 6-9 mm (applied 4-7 days after applying first coat)
finishing coat- 2-3 mm (applied about 6 hours after applying floating coat)
• Single-coat plaster
 used only for inferior quality work
 applied as two-coat plaster
 rendering coat is finished off immediately after it has sufficiently hardened
Special materials used in plastering
• Acoustic plaster
 contains gypsum mixtures
 applied as final coat
 undergoes chemical reaction resulting in production of gas bubbles and tiny
opening in coat
 honey-combed openings absorb sound
 useful in interior walls of halls, auditoriums etc.
 applied in two coats each of 6mm
• Asbestos plaster
 made of cement, asbestos and finely crushed marble
 imparts marble-like finish
• Barium plaster
 made from cement, sand and barium sulphate
 provided in X-ray rooms to protect persons working in it
• Granite silicon plaster
 used for superior type of construction
 quick setting
 possess highly elastic properties which eliminate cracks
• Gypsum plaster/ plaster of paris
hardens within 3-4 minutes of adding water; retarders are added to increase
setting time
 used in combination with lime
 used for ornamental work, repairing holes and cracks
 properties- fire-resisting, light in weight, sound-insulating, good adhesion to
fibrous materials
• Kenee’s cement plaster
 obtained by calcinating POP with alum
 very hard and sets in few days
 polishing characteristics
 used for angles, skirtings
 also useful for ornamental work and decorative plastering
• Martin’s cement plaster
 pearl ash(potassium carbonate) is calcined with POP
 has quick setting properties
 forms white hard surface on drying
 used for internal finishing work
• Parian cement plaster
 borax is calcined with POP
 used for interior works
 cheaper than Kennee’s cement
• Scagliola plaster
 obtained by dissolving Kenee’s cement and coloring pigments in glue
 used for plastering panels, columns etc
 appears like marble
• Sirapite plaster
 obtained when POP is slaked in petroleum
 quick setting
 fire resisting
 produces white hard surface on drying
Defects in plaster
• Blistering of plastered surface
 formation of small patches of plaster swelling out beyond plaster surface
 caused due to late slaking of lime particles in plaster
• Cracking
 formation of cracks or fissures in plaster
 caused due to- imperfect preparation of background
structural defects in building
discontinuity of surface
movements in background due to thermal expansion and drying
movements in plaster surface itself
faulty workmanship
excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat
• Crazing
 Formation of series of hair cracks on plastered surface
 causes- same as that of cracking
• Efflorescence
 presence of whitish crystalline substance on the surface
 caused due to presence of salts in plaster-making substance and building
materials
 affects adhesion of paint with wall surface
• Flaking
 formation of very loose mass of plastered surface
 caused due to poor bond between successive coats
• Peeling
 complete dislocation of some portion of plastered surface, resulting in
formation of patch
 caused due to imperfect bond
• Popping
 formation of conical hole in plastered surface
 due to presence of some particles which expand on setting
• Rust stains
 formed when plaster is applied on metal laths
• Uneven surface
 obtained purely due to poor workmanship
POINTING
• Finishing of mortar joints in masonry
• Pointing consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10-20 mm and
filling it with better quality mortar in desired shape.
• What raking means?
• MORTAR: pointing is done with following mortar mixes:
 Lime-mortar- 1:2 mix (lime: sand/surkhi)
 cement mortar- 1:3 mix (cement: sand)
• PREPARARTION OF SURFACE
 New work- joints raked down to depth of 20 mm while mortar is still soft;
surface and joints cleaned and thoroughly wetted
 Old work- loose pointing and superfluous mortar on surface and joints
removed;
surface and joints cleaned and thoroughly wetted
METHOD OF POINTING
• Surface prepared, cleaned and wetted
• With the help of small trowel, mortar placed in joints in desired shape
• Mortar pressed to bring perfect contact between old interior mortar
of joint and new mortar
• Care should be taken that mortar does not cover face edges in case of
first-class brickworks
• Surface is kept wet for atleast a week or till it sets after application
TYPES OF POINTING
• Flash pointing
 formed by pressing mortar in raked joint and by
finishing off flush with edge of masonry units
 edges are neatly trimmed with trowel and
straight edge
 does not give good appearance
 durable as it does not provide any space for
accumulation of dust, dirt etc.
 extensively used
• Recessed pointing
 pointing is done by pressing
mortar back from edges by 5mm or
more
 face of pointing kept vertical
 gives very good appearance

• Rubbed, keyed or grooved

pointing
 modification of flush pointing
 groove at its mid height
 formed with a pointing tool
 gives better appearance
• beaded pointing
 formed by steel or ironed with a
concave edge
 gives good appearance
 liabale to damage easily

• Struck pointing
 modification of flush pointing
 face of pointing is inclined, upper
edge pressed inside the face by 10
mm
 drains water quickly
• Tuck pointing
 formed by pressing mortar in racked
joint, finishing flush with face
 groove or narrow channel (5 mm
width, 3 mm depth) is cut in the centre
while pressed mortar is green
 groove is tucked/ filled with white
cement putty, projecting beyond face
of joint by 3 mm
 if projection is done in mortar, it is
called Bastard pointing or half- tuck
pointing.
• V- pointing
 forming V-groove in flush-finishing face

• Weathered pointing
 forming V-shaped projection
 PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Reinforced concrete:

• Concrete is strong in compression weak in tension.

• Steel in strong in tension

• Reinforced concrete uses concrete to resist compression

and to hold bars in position and uses steel to resist tension.

• Tensile strength of concrete is neglected (i.e. zero )

• R.C beams allows crack under service load.

Pre-stressed Concrete

• What is Pre-stressed Concrete?:

– Internal stresses are induced to counteract external
stresses.
– In 1904, Freyssinet attempted to
introduce permanent acting forces
in conc. to resist elastic forces
under loads and was named
“Pre stressing”.
Concept of pre-stressing:

 i . The concept of pre stressing was invented

invented years ago when metal
brands were wound
 around wooden pieces to form barrels.

 ii . The metal brands
were tighten under tensile stress which
creates compression between the
staves allowing them to resist internal
liquid pressure.
Principle of pre-stressing:

• Pre-stressing is a method in which compression force is

applied to the reinforced concrete section.
• The effect of pre stressing is to reduce the tensile stress in the
section to the point till the tensile stress is below the cracking
stress. Thus the concrete does not crack.
• It is then possible to treat concrete as a elastic material.
• The concrete can be visualized to have two compressive force
i . Internal pre-stressing force.
ii . External forces (d.l , l.l etc )
• These two forces must counteract each other.
Principle of Pre-stressing:

• Stress in concrete when pre stressing is applied at the c.g of

the section
Principle of Pre-stressing:

• Stress in concrete when pre stressing is applied eccentrically

with respect to the c.g of the section .
Pre-stressed Concrete: Methods

• There are two basic methods of applying pre-stress to a

concrete member

– Pre-tensioning – most often used in factory situations

– Post-tensioning – site use

Types of pre-stressing:
I . Pre-tensioning
In Pre-tension, the tendons are tensioned against some
abutments before the concrete is place. After the concrete
hardened, the tension force is released. The tendon tries to
shrink back to the initial length but the concrete resists it
through the bond between them, thus, compression force is
induced in concrete. Pretension is usually done with precast
members
II . Post tensioning
• In Post tension, the tendons are tensioned after the
concrete has hardened. Commonly, metal or plastic
ducts are placed inside the concrete before casting.
After the concrete hardened and had enough strength,
the tendon was placed inside the duct, stressed, and
anchored against concrete. Grout may be injected into
the duct later. This can be done either as precast or
cast-in-place.
Post tensioning
Advantages:
•Take full advantages of high strength concrete
and high strength steel
•Need less materials
•Smaller and lighter structure
•No cracks
•Use the entire section to resist the load
•Better corrosion resistance
•Good for water tanks and nuclear plant
•Very effective for deflection control
•Better shear resistance
Disadvantages compared to RC:
• Need higher quality materials
• More complex technically
• More expensive
• Harder to re-cycle
Application:
•Bridges
•Slabs in buildings
•Water Tank
•Concrete Pile
•Thin Shell Structures
•Offshore Platform
•Nuclear Power Plant
•Repair and Rehabilitations
 Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's
natural weakness in tension.

 In 1904, Freyssinet attempted to introduce permanent

acting forces in conc. to resist elastic forces under loads
and was named “Pre Stressing”.

 It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a

longer span than is practical with ordinary
reinforced concrete.
 Pre-stressing is a method in which compression force is
applied to the reinforced concrete section.

 Pre-stressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or

rods) are used to provide a clamping load which produces a
compressive stress that balances the tensile stress that the
concrete compression member would otherwise experience
due to a bending load.
 This classification is based on the method by which the
prestressing force is generated.
 They are
 Hydraulic Prestressing
 Mechanical Prestressing
 Electrical Prestressing
 Chemical Prestressing
 Pre-stressed concrete refers to a
procedure whereby tensile rods
are put in place first and
tightened, followed by concrete
pouring.
 Compression can be applied
after pouring concrete using
bonds. They are tightened once
the concrete is dry
 Main disadvantage is that a
cable can burst out of the slab, if
the anchoring system fails.
 Even without a load, the  An upward force is
ordinary concrete beam created which in effect
must carry its own relieves the beam of
weight. having to carry its own
weight.
 There are two types of prestressed concrete.

 They are
 Pre- tensioned concrete
 Post tensioned concrete
 Pre-tensioned concrete is cast
around already tensioned tendons.

 This method produces a good

bond between the tendon and
concrete, which both protects the
tendon from corrosion and allows
for direct transfer of tension.

 The cured concrete adheres and

bonds to the bars and when the
tension is released it is transferred
to the concrete as compression by
static friction.
 Post tensioning is a technique for reinforcing concrete.

 Post-tensioning tendons, which are prestressing steel cables inside

plastic ducts or sleeves, are positioned in the forms before the
concrete is placed.

 Afterwards, once the concrete has gained strength but before the
service loads are applied, the cables are pulled tight, or tensioned,
and anchored against the outer edges of the concrete.

 They are classified into two types,

 Bonded post tensioned concrete

 Unbonded post tensioned concrete

 Bonded post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term
for a method of applying compression after pouring
concrete and the curing process (in situ).

 The concrete is cast around a plastic, steel or

aluminium curved duct, to follow the area where
otherwise tension would occur in the concrete element.
 Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from
bonded post-tensioning by providing each individual
cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the
concrete.

 To achieve this, each individual tendon is coated with a

grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a
plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion process.
 Take full advantages of high strength concrete and
high strength steel
 Need less materials
 Smaller and lighter structure
 No cracks
 Use the entire section to resist the load
 Better corrosion resistance
 Very effective for deflection control
 Better shear resistance
 Bridges
 Slabs in buildings
 Water tank
 Concrete pile
 Thin shell structures
 Offshore platform
 Nuclear power plant
 Repair and rehabilitations
 Thus, pre-stressed concrete increases the quality,
strength, span of the structure.

 Since it is cost effective, it is used widely on recent

days.
POORNIMA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, JAIPUR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BUILDING MATERIALS
& CONSTRUCTIONS

Temporary structures

DIVYA VISHNOI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
ALLPPT.com _ Free PowerPoint Templates, Diagrams and Charts
 What are temporaryworks?
O Temporary works (TW) are the parts of a construction
project that are needed to enable the permanent work
s to be
built. Usually the TW are removed after
use.
O EX- Scaffolding
Shoring
Underpinning
 What is Scaffolding?

 Scaffolding, also called staging, is a temporary

structure used to support people and material in the
Construction or repair of building and other structures.
O Types of scaffolding
I. Single scaffolding
II. Double scaffolding
III. Needle scaffolding
IV. Trestle scaffolding
V. Suspended scaffolding
VI. Steel scaffolding
VII. Patented scaffolding
Single scaffolding
 This is the most common type of scaffolding
and is widely use in the construction of brick
work..
 It consist of a single row of standards placed at a
distance of about 1.20m from the wall.
 Standard are placed at 2 to 2.5 m interval.
Double Scaffolding
 This scaffolding is stronger than the single
scaffolding.
 It is used in the construction of stonework.
Needle Scaffolding
O Used:
 Ground is week to support
the standards.
 Construction of upper part
of the wall is to be carried o ut.
 It is required to keep the
ground near wall , free f
or traffic etc.
 Trestle Scaffolding
 In this type of scaffolding,
the working platform is s
upported on movable co
ntrivances movable on
wheels.
 Use: painting , repair work
 What is Shoring?
 Shoring is the construction of a temporary
structure to support temporarily an unsafe
structure.

Types of Shoring
 Raking Shores
 Flying Shores
 Dead Shores
Raking Shor
es
 This is a system of giving temporary
support to an unsafe wall.
 The construction of raking shore, varies
with the condition at site.
 In this method In this method inclined
members called rakers are used to give
lateral support to the wall.
Flying shores
 In this type of shoring horizontal supports are pr
ovided for supporting temporarily the parallel wal
ls of the two adjacent buildings which may tend t
o collapse or damage.
 If the walls are quite near to each other (up to
9m) single flying shore can be constructed.
 When the distance between two parallel walls is
more than 9m a double shore can be constructed
.
Dead shores
Such type of shoring is provided for the
following purposes:
 Rebuild the defective lower part of the
wall.
 Rebuild the existing foundation.
 To make large opening in the existing wall.
 Underpinning

T h e term underpinning is applied to the construction of a

new foundation underneath the existing one for strengthening
purposes.
Types of underpinning
P i t Method
P i l e Method
M i s c e l l a n e o u s Method
 1. Pit Method

 In this method existing wall over

the foundations divided into various
sections, generally 1.2 to 1.5 m in le
ngth.
 Holes are than made at adequate
height in the existing wall.
 In these holes steel needle beams
with bearing plates are inserted
and supported on either side of the
by means of crib supports.
 2. Pile Method
 I n this method, piles are
driven at regular interval
along both the sides of the
wall.
• The piles are connected by
concrete or steel needles,
penetrating through the w
all.
• This method is very much
useful in clayey soils, and i n
water logged areas.
3. Miscellaneous method

1) Cement grouting
2) Chemical consolidation
3) Freezing
4) Vibroflotation
References
1) “Building Construction” authored by S.C. Rangwala, Char
otar publishing house Pvt. Ltd.
2) “Building Construction” authored by Bindra and Arora, Dh
anpat Rai publication.
3) “Building Construction” authored by M.L. Gambhir, Tata
Meghraw Hills publication.