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Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 774 – 779

The 22nd CIRP conference on Life Cycle Engineering

The Impact of Automotive Product Remanufacturing

on Environmental Performance
S.S. Yang a* , H.Y. Ngiam b, S.K. Ong a,b, A.Y.C. Nee a,b
a
NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117576, Singapore
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +65-85108891; E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract

Remanufacturing, as an emerging industry with great potential, presents an excellent product end-of-life (EOL) alternative to extend the
number of product life cycle from one to multiple. However, the procedure to quantify the environmental consequences of the complex life
cycle of a remanufactured product is still not yet available. In this regard, a modified cumulative energy consumption method is proposed to
effectively assess the relative environmental benefit of a remanufactured product and support the decisions on improving product design and
EOL recovery system. The applicability and importance of the proposed methodology has been demonstrated by the two case studies, namely,
automotive alternators and engine blocks.

© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. B.V.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of the Conference “22nd CIRP conference on Life Cycle
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Engineering.under responsibility of the scientific committee of The 22nd CIRP conference on Life Cycle Engineering
Peer-review

Keywords: Remanufacturing, Cumulative Energy Consumption, End of Life Strategies, Sustainable Manufacturing.

1. Introduction reported as the world’s largest remanufacturing sector, which

accounts for about two-thirds of global remanufacturing
The increasing amount of energy and non-renewable activities [3]. Major remanufactured products in the vehicle
material consumption has posed alarming threat to the sector include engines, starters, alternators, transmissions,
environment. In this regard, sustainable production has been steering and clutches. Compared with manufacturing new
widely recognized as the next industrial revolution, which is a vehicle parts, remanufacturing requires limited investment in
concept that requires a holistic approach to close the product machinery and equipments, but demands more labour for
life cycle and incorporate different aspects of sustainability numerous disassembly, separation, cleaning, and repair tasks.
throughout all the product life phases [1]. The commonly The worn, missing or malfunctioning components will either
adopted end-of-life (EOL) strategies for products include be restored or replaced with new parts, while electrical parts
reusing, remanufacturing, recycling and disposal. Among are rewound or rewired, as necessary. After these processes,
these EOL options, remanufacturing has received increasing the product will be reassembled and tested with up-to-date
attention due to its effectiveness in closing the loop on performance requirements.
material flows, extending product life cycle and reducing As remanufacturing can close the loop of material flow
production waste and emission. It is the process of restoring effectively and has great potential to extend the number of
the EOL product to “like-new’ condition, through the product life cycle from one to multiple, the resulting complex
operations of disassembly, cleaning, inspection, life cycles have to be modelled and assessed by decision
reconditioning/replacement and reassembly [2]. makers for a better understanding of the relative benefit of the
The motor vehicle parts remanufacturing industry is alternative design strategies and thus making decisions on

2212-8271 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of The 22nd CIRP conference on Life Cycle Engineering
doi:10.1016/j.procir.2015.01.017
 S.S. Yang et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 774 – 779 775

improving product design and EOL recovery system. To To evaluate and assess the environmental impact attributed
address this need, a decision support tool is proposed, which to the life-cycle of a product and identify improvement
adopts a modified Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) potential, a large number of assessment methodologies and
methodology to evaluate the environmental impact of corresponding indicators have been developed [13,14].
remanufactured products over multiple usage cycles. Among these proposed tools, Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)
Meanwhile, the situational variables, such as successful methodologies are the most widely used. Its underlying
remanufacturing rate and number of life cycles, will be philosophy is to provide a comprehensive view of the
accounted in the model to examine their impact on the overall environmental aspects of a product or process throughout the
environmental performance. life-cycle and an accurate analysis of the environmental trade-
offs in product and process selection [15]. However, one of
the limitations of carrying out an LCA is that a significant
2. Literature review
amount of data is required. Even though some software
program with inventory data are available, gathering data for
The potential benefit of automotive remanufacturing over specific product processes still remains a challenge, as most
manufacturing has been discussed and examined by several of these data are not available to the public or not provided in
research groups. For examples, Smith and Keoleian [4] have a standard format [16]. Meanwhile, generally only little
utilized life cycle methodology to demonstrate that information on product or process is available during early
remanufactured engines could be produced with 68% to 83% product development stage, which has limited the
less energy and 73% to 87% fewer carbon dioxide emission, applicability of LCA in this stage. To assist designers to
comparing with original manufacturing. Amaya et al. have identify the environmental performance of their designed
mentioned an 8-46% reduction of environmental impact products and compare or improve production process, a
involved with truck injector remanufacturing [5]. Besides the simplified LCA tool, namely CED has been proposed [17]. It
environmental benefits, the economic incentives of is an evaluation scheme that accounts for energy demand
remanufacturing have also been reported, e.g., Erwin et al.’s throughout the life cycle of a product. Comparing to the
study [6] on remanufactured alternators and Sahni et al.’s traditional LCA studies, the burden of data acquisition is
survey [7] on engine remanufacturing. For un-powered substantially reduced for CED, as only energy is required as
products, e.g., furniture, the benefit of product the input for impact calculation, and in most cases, data to
remanufacturing can be understood easily; however, for most estimate energy requirements are readily available.
powered products, e.g., automotive products, which use-phase Furthermore, energy consumption, especially burning of fossil
energy usually dominates their life-cycle energy, their fuels, has been confirmed by several studies [9,17,18], as a
remanufacturing rewards is still debatable. The reason is that major contributor to a number of environmental problems,
the undesired functional performance, such as fuel efficiency, e.g., global warming, acidification, eutrophication,
might result in increase of product use stage energy stratospheric ozone depletion, etc., which further contributes
to the argument for using energy demand as an indicator for
consumption and consequently overwhelm the benefit that
sustainable performance evaluation.
could be obtained through product remanufacturing [8]. For
Some relevant work has been identified, however, there are
example, a 1% of decrease in fuel efficiency for a mid-sized
still some limitations from the following viewpoints. First,
automobile powered by a remanufactured engine can negate most research work on evaluating the environmental benefits
the benefits provided by the remanufactured engine through of remanufactured products only focuses on a single life
avoided materials production and manufacturing [4]. Hence, phase, e.g., manufacturing versus remanufacturing. With the
assessing the impact of automotive product remanufacturing significant impact from usage and remanufacturing stages, a
from life-cycle perspective is of great importance. life-cycle based assessment tool which can account for the
Besides striving to achieve “good as new” quality, there complex life-cycles of remanufactured products is needed.
are other challenges that automotive remanufacturing has to Secondly, given the limited information available at the early
deal with, e.g., poor quality of returned cores, technology design stage, a decision support tool which can effectively
constraints, low recoverable value, etc. For this reason, 10% estimate the environmental benefits of design alternatives
to 50% of the components of cores need to be discarded and over multiple life-cycles is still not available. Thirdly, as
replaced with newly manufactured components [9]. To product remanufacturing involves many uncertainties, there is
address these challenges, various Design for Remanufacturing still a lack of a decision model which can effectively analyze
(DfRem) strategies have been proposed and employed. For the impact of situational variables, e.g., successful
example, product design should avoid protruding structures to remanufacturing rate, number of life-cycles, etc., on
prevent damages during transportation [10]; standardizing the environmental performance. The challenge to cope with these
types of fasteners and joints to facilitate the ease of limitations has constituted to the contributions as well as the
disassembly [11]; bulky over-designed components are motivations of this study.
preferred to provide margins for multiple reconditioning
processes [12]; adopting the concept of platform design or 3. Methodology
modularity, to facilitate product upgrading [8]. While making
decisions about product redesign to facilitate remanufacturing, To evaluate the environmental performance of design
the relative benefits of the alternatives should be quantified. alternatives over complex life-cycles and enable the rapid
Generally, a life-cycle based decision support tool is needed simulation of different life-cycle scenarios, a modified CED
methodology is proposed and described next. The traditional
to account for the benefit of any design changes.
“cradle-to-grave” product life cycle has been adapted to
776 S.S. Yang et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 774 – 779

“cradle-to-cradle”, as graphically represented in Fig. 1. cycle;

Basically, six generic phases, namely material extraction and
processing (MEP), manufacturing (MA), transportation (TR), CEDTRi : CED for the transportation of product during ith life
usage stage (US), product take back (PTB), and
cycle;
remanufacturing (RE), have been included to describe the life-
cycle of a product. The method assumes that the number of CEDUSi : CED for the use of product during ith life cycle;
products within a system is N , and the first use cycle will be
composed of the newly manufactured products only. During CEDPTBi : CED for the take-back of product during ith life
remanufacturing stage, P * N cores will be reprocessed to
cycle;
“good as new” quality to enter into next life-cycle, while the
lost cores will be made up with 1  P * N virgin products. CEDREi : CED for the product remanufacturing during ith life
cycle.

N N
It should be noted that for a complex life cycle that involves
MEP MA TR US product remanufacturing, designers have to estimate the
maximum number of life-cycles M that a product or
component can support. During the remanufacturing process,
N N
ሺͳ െ ߤሻN it is unlikely that 100% of the product can be remanufactured
RE PTB successfully to “good as new” quality due to recovery process
ߤN
capability (poor quality of returned cores, technology
constrains, low recoverable value etc.). Hence, an estimation
: D irection of flow of cores (multiple times) of the successful remanufacturing rate is required. Further,
: D irection of flow of cores (first use cycle only) only the remanufacturing strategy is considered as the closed-
Fig. 1. Flow of products over multiple life-cycles loop strategy, as it is the main focus of this study and is able
to preserve more significant amount of embedded energy of
the product than other closed-loop strategies. The inclusion of
CED will be used to represent the sum of the primary other recovery strategies, such as recycling or disposal, will
energy demand throughout the life span of a product, and thus be addressed in the next stage of the study.
approximate the environmental performance of different
design alternatives. To apply the concept of CED to the above 4. Case studies
described life-cycle model, CED will be calculated as a
function of the number of use cycles M , the successful The proposed method has been applied in two case studies,
remanufacturing rate ߤ , the primary energy demand for namely, alternators and engine blocks, to illustrate the method
material extraction and processing CEDMEP, manufacturing to quantify the relative benefits of different design alternatives
CEDMA, transportation CEDTR, usage CEDUS, product take through complex product life-cycles. The result is calculated
back CEDPTB, and remanufacturing CEDRE of the product, as based on the data and assumptions below:
shown in equation 1. x The OEM company have the capability to remanufacture
CEDTotal CEDMEP1  CEDMA1 their own products.
x Energy content of diesel fuel is assumed to be 36 MJ/L
M and there is a 0.19 litres of fuel saved for every 100 miles
 ¦ CEDUS i
 CEDTRi  CEDPTBi  of each 100 kg of weight saving [19].
i 1 x The mileage for an automobile product life cycle varies
M
among product types and brands. An estimated life
 ¦ P i * CEDRE i

 1  P i * CEDMAi  CEDMEPi  (1) mileage of 125,000 is taken for an alternator and 750,000
for a diesel engine, for the purpose of illustration [6, 7,
i 2
20].
where: x The functional performance for design alternatives
M : number of life-cycles; remains the same and thus only the weight-induced energy
saving is examined during the use stage.
P : successful remanufacturing rate; x The quality of the remanufactured product is assumed to
be “good as new”.
i : ith life cycle;
x The manufacturing and remanufacturing energies remain
CEDTotal : CED throughout the entire product life span; constant and the successful remanufacturing rates also stay
the same throughout multiple life-cycles.
CEDMEPi : CED for the material extraction and processing x The energy used during the transportation stage as well as
product take back stage have been neglected due to their
during ith life cycle;
relative insignificance [4].
CEDMAi : CED for the product manufacturing during ith life x The energy consumption of material extraction and
processing, manufacturing, remanufacturing processes are
 S.S. Yang et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 774 – 779 777

calculated based on research reports and Material

Handbook [4, 9, 21, 22]. Example 2: Engine block
x The model assumes that the number of product within a The second case study compares the environmental
system remain as 100. performance of engine blocks made up of Cast Iron,
Aluminium and Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI) respectively.
Example 1: Alternators Traditional engine blocks are usually made up of Cast Iron.
In this first case study, CED was carried out for three However, driven by government specification for fuel millage
alternative alternator designs for an automobile. Design and emission level control, the use of light weight material,
alternative 1 is a conventional alternator (weight 6.096 kg) e.g., Aluminium, is gaining popularity [23]. More recently,
with cast iron housing, steel bearings, steel belt fitting and with the development of material processing technology,
steel fan. Design alternative 2 is a lightweight design (weight Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI) is viewed as the potential
4.378 kg) with plastic fan and aluminium housing. Design substitute for Cast Iron for engine blocks due to its improved
alternative 3 is an ultra-lightweight alternator (weight 3.952 performance in strength, ductility, heat-resistance and
kg) which has the material of the belt fitting replaced with toughness, as well as the potential to achieve 10 to 15% of
aluminium and the material of the bearing replaced with weight reduction [24]. The successful remanufacturing rate of
plastic. To demonstrate the environmental benefit of the Cast Iron engine block (weight 158 kg) has been reported to
design alternatives over complex life-cycles, the energy be 60% by Adler et al. [25]. In comparison, the successful
consumption of design alternative 2 and 3, relative to design remanufacturing rate for Aluminium (weight 130 kg) and CGI
alternative 1 will be evaluated. The component replacement (weight 134 kg) engine blocks are estimated as 50% and 70%
rates of the three design alternatives during the respectively [26, 27]. In this case, Cast Iron engine block will
remanufacturing process are adopted from Erwin et al. [6]. be used as the reference to calculate the relative energy
The result of the environmental performance for the design consumption of the other two design alternatives. The results
alternatives is shown in Fig. 2. of the study are shown in Fig. 3.

15.00
Energy Consumption Relative to

10.00
Conventinal Design (GJ)

5.00

0.00
0 50000 100000
000 150000 200000
2 250000
00 300000 350000
-5.00

-10.00 1st Life-Cycle

-15.00 2nd Life-Cycle

3rd Life-Cycle
-20.00

-25.00
Miles
Light Design Ultra light Design

Fig. 2. Alternators environmental performance

4000.00
Energy Consumption Relative to Cast

3000.00

2000.00
Iron Block (GJ)

1000.00

0.00
0 250000
00 500000
50000 750000
750
0000
0 1000000 1250000 1500000
1500
0000 1750000 2000000 2250000
2250
0
-1000.00

-2000.00
1st Life-Cycle
2nd Life-Cycle
-3000.00
3rd Life-Cycle
-4000.00
Miles
Aluminium CGI

Fig. 3. Engine blocks environmental performance

778 S.S. Yang et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 774 – 779

15.00

Energy Consumption Relative to

10.00

Conventinal Design (GJ)

5.00

0.00
Extraction & Process Stage Usage Remanufacturing
-5.00

-10.00

-15.00

-20.00

light Design Ultra Light Design

Fig. 4. Alternators energy consumption breakdown

3000.00

2500.00
Energy Consumption Relative to

2000.00
Cast Iron Block (GJ)

1500.00

1000.00

500.00

0.00
Extraction & Process Usage Remanufacturing
-500.00 Stage
-1000.00

-1500.00 Aluminium CGI

Fig. 5. Engine blocks energy consumption breakdown

use stage [19]. In addition, light duty materials tend to be

5. Discussion more fragile and/or prone to breakage during the
remanufacturing process and require more virgin parts for
Figure 2 shows the relative environmental performance of replacement than conventional materials. For example, only
the three alternator designs for three life cycles. The benefit of 15% of the cast iron housings of alternators need to be
the ultra-lightweight design increases with the number of life replaced during remanufacturing, while up to 40% of
cycles even though its parts replacement rate is the highest aluminium housings require new parts replacement [28].
among all the design alternatives. The light weight design also Therefore, a model which can estimate the overall
outperforms the conventional design in the long run, resulting environmental trade-offs of the different design concepts
from its relatively lower energy consumption during the usage accurately within complex life cycles is of significance. The
stage, as depicted in Fig. 4. Figure 3 shows the overall energy proposed tool has provided an easy-to-use and effective
consumption of alternative engine block designs. CGI engine approach to support this analysis.
block appears superior to Aluminium and Cast Iron engine Further, the results obtained for these two case studies are
blocks due to its light weight design and satisfying dependent on the underlying assumptions and data, among
remanufacturing rate. Although the Aluminium block design which, the successful remanufacturing rate, weight-induced
is the lightest among all the alternatives, it is comparatively fuel saving rate, life mileage and product life span are of
more energy intensive to produce and remanufacture as major importance. To examine the impact of these situational
observed in Fig. 5, which overwhelms the benefits obtained variables on the results obtained, a sensitivity analysis can be
from weight reduction energy savings. carried out. For example, sensitivity analysis indicates that the
A finding of this study is that the benefits of the desired Aluminium engine block would need a successful
light weight design strategy depends on whether the weight remanufacturing rate of 90% for two life-cycles in order to
induced energy saving during the use phase is sufficient to achieve a better environmental performance than cast iron
compensate for the potentially increased environmental engine block; when the weight-induced fuel saving rate
impact of producing this part at the production stage as well increases by 50%, or the life mileage reduces by 40%, the
as the remanufacturing stage. Specifically, it is known that ultra-lightweight alternator will outperform the convention
many lightweight materials, e.g., aluminium, magnesium or alternator even in the first life cycle. Moreover, an important
plastic composite, are considerably more energy-intensive to feature of the proposed assessment tool is the consideration of
produce than, for example, conventional cast iron, prior to the the multiple life cycles that can be realized through product
 S.S. Yang et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 774 – 779 779

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