Geographic Information System

research are identified as (i) spatial association

The major themes in the modern geographicalinteractuol, and (iv) distance
(ii) spatial forms and processes, (11) spatial
decay (i.e., how the
with distance from their point origin).. There are several
of
magnitude of the variable(s) decreases Direction and true direction (azimuth), (h)
key concepts in geography (Dent, 1999) like (a)
Distance between objects (Euclidean system), (c) Scale or the area for study (micro-scale
macro-scale), (d) Location (absolute and relative), (e) lDIStibution or areal patten (dispersed/
clustered/ random/ regular), (1) Localization, (g) Functional association (connectivity), (h) Spatial
interaction between events and objects with the people, () Region, and G) Change.

As we visualize, geographical phenomena may either be discrete (buildings, trees, roads) or

continuous (air temperature, soil pH, elevation). The continuous phenomenon is often described
and mapped using discrete units (e.g., land use/ land cover derived from satellite data as a
continuous phenomenon is mapped using political boundaries). The dimensions range from zero
to four as point (zero-dimension), line (one-dimension), area (two-dimensions), volume (three-
dimensions) and space-time (four-dimensions). Based on the origin, there are primary and
secondary or derived geographic variables, the latter includes averages (mean, median and mode
of primary data), ratios of two variables, proportion (ratio of one variable to the sum of all
variables) and percentages of proportions. These variables are measured in terms ofqualitative
values (nominal scaling) like buildings, road, rivers, or on the basis of rank (ordinal scaling)
like type of drains, road kaccha/ metallic or railway track-broad gaugel meter gauge. The
intervalscaling adds numerical information to the raw data like rainfall in mm or temperature
in degrees. Interval scale usually has arbitrary zero value that does not indicatean absence of
variable but its value that separates the positive and negative values.
rather There is another
measurement scale called ratio scaling, similar to interval scaling, but is designated of having
a non-arbitrary zero value that indicates a lack of variables in question, e.g, precipitationin
mm/year and any point is compared to the starting point (usually zero) unlike to the interval
scaling where no starting point is present.

1.2 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF A GIS

With this background let us see what a geographical information system (GIS) is? Attempts have
been made to define GIS from various angles. People have generally defined GIS as a
powerlul
computer system with in-built database management component. Thus, GIS is "a powertul set O
tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will,
transforming and displaying spatial data from the
real world for a particular set of purposes" (Burrough, 1986) or "a database system in whicn
mostof the data are spatially indexed, and
upon which of
answer queries about spatial entities in the database'"
a set
procedures operated in order to
(Smith et al, 1987). But to the opinion o
some people, a GIS has
something more than a computer system. It is a decision support system
which "involves the integration of spatially referenced data in a problem solving environment o
even "an institutional
entity" that "integrates technology with database and expertise" (Carter
1989). Keeping in view of the present day capabilities of GIS and the role it plays, we can deline
GIS, in our own
language, as an information system used to store, organize, retrieve, anilyzcs
 Fundamentals of GIS

output and update georeferenced (or spatially referenced) data, in order to support decision
aking tor planning and management of activities like natural resources and environmental
anagement, transportation and telecommunication utilities, commerce and business affairs,
detense services, and various administrative management. Interestingly, the term itself
1S Decoming hybrid and modified to satisty intellectual, cultural, cconomic and even political
opyectives. (DeMers, 2000),. Thus here it is Geographic Information System while in Europe it is
eographical Information System. Canadian people call it a Geomatiave (a Geomative). It
seoreltional Information System (technology based) or Spatial Data Analysis System
(terminology based) or simply Geoscience (discipline based).

OWever, there are two

basic concepts of Geographical Information System. One is that the
a
Teatures have attributes associated with them. For example, let us think of a tree. How do we

Kep track of and communicate

all about it? We database
information about this tree to other people who need to know
use a to keep
track of what itis, how
species old itis,
how tall it 1s,
how healthy it is, and likewise other attributes that are important (like quality and size of
fruits). This single tree is one record in a database. We call each category (1.e.. tree height) a
field. Now let us select a forest where we have many trees and we want to keep track of
attributes for all. AS we are now dealing with more than one tree, it becomes relevant where
each tree is located so that we know 'what' information is related to 'which tree (Fig. 1.1). We
map the location of each tree and identify which attributes belong to which tree. Here lies the
foundation of GIS. A GIS tells us where something is and what it is. Geographic location
answers to 'where and attributes to 'what. Thus any GIS is clearly distinguishing itself from

There are two ways of explaining

any clement/object on the Earth

Locational Information: Where is it?

Attribute Information: What is it?

Type
X*S, Y°W Species
Height
Age
Use

Figure 1.1: Deseribing our Real World

4 Geographic Information System

systems like computer assisted cartography (CAC)/

non-geographic spatial data management
data. As Cowen (1988)
(CAD) etc., which do not use 'georeferenced
computer assisted design and can be used specifically for
CAC systems are excellent for display
has rightly pointed out, and simplifying
CAD is excellent for producing architectural drawings
mapping purposes, the primary task
but more would be capable
of analyzing maps-generally
cditing process;
assigned to any GIS.
into layers. In GIS,
information collected must be separated
The second basic concept is that the
stored in different layers so that they can be
teatures like rivers, roads or forests are usually
called coverages
added or taken off during the GIS project as and
when needed. Layers are often
files that have the same name but
(or databases) and in most cases consist of several computer
is called shape file and can have five
different extensions. For examples, in Arc View coverage
a
files (.shp, "sbn, *dbf, ".sbx, *.prj.) associated with it. Layers represent information of particular

classes and can be combined to create new layers containing selected information specific to a
would constitute one layer (or
particular query on the GIS. Our information on the apple orchard
more than one, depending on the objective) of information. We could also have a layer with
rivers and a layer with soil types, the purpose maybe different. Thus, any information can be
represented as a layer. If we look more closely we will identify three fundamental features by
which any layer can be represented. These are as follows:

(a) Points: A point is good for representing information in which it is necessary to show
where a feature is but its physical shape is not important (i.e., location of apple trees in an
orchard).

Land parcels
(polygons)

Road (lines)

Wells (points)

Soil types
(polygons)

Figure 1.2: GIS layers

 Fundamentals of GIS 5

(D) Lines A line is suitable

represent any real linear features (i.e., a river or a road)
to

(C) Polygons: It is just a solid multisided shape. When we want to represent an area we nave
to araw a polygon, keeping in mind that everything inside the boundary has the attributes
associated with the record (i.e., land use/ land cover
types).
EAch layer of information (e.g., location of apple trees, river, land use) has to be tied to the same
CxaCt geographic coordinate system so that each layer occupies the exact same space and they
can be overlaid. We can think of the layers as floating maps that can be stacked iE1.4) ud
conduct analysis between layers and display only the layers of interest,

1.3 COMPONENTS OF A GIS

Burrough(1986)suggested that a GIS could have three principal components, namely, computer
hardware,application software modules and a proper organizational context. But data being
themost important part and the user as the stakeholder, the key components of a GIS should be
represented as shown in Figure 1.3.

Maps: Real and Virtual

Computers: Hardware and
Software

People: Diseussion/Decision

Data and Information

Methods/Procedures

Figure 1.3: Key components of a GIS

 Geographic Information System
The computer hardware should have a powerful processor to run the GlS software, sufficient
sereen. Apart from theseit
memory to store large volumes of data and a high-resolution color
convert maps into digital format).
have input-output elements like a digitizer tablet/scanner (to
must device) and ol course an efficient
Keyboard (to enter the data), plotter or printer (as display
needed to store, analyze, and display
mouse.GIS software provides the functions and tools software are () tools for
of a GIS entering and
omation about places. The key components or political boundaries, (1i) a database
manipulating geographic information such as addresses
retrieve and update data (11) tools thal create
nanagement system (DBMS) designed to store, information, o r for presentation and
(iv)
nteligent digital maps for analysis, query for more print
an easy-to-use graphical user interface (GUD. GIS software ranges from low-end business-
be downloaded from the internet)
mapping soltware (usually available as free software which
can

approprate lor displaying sales territories to high-end software (commercially available) capable
of managing and studying large protected natural areas. The software component must be able
to Input, verily, store, manage, analyze, output, present and transtorm data efficiently. Today's
software packages are capable of allowing both graphical and descriptive data to be stored in a
Single database. These packages usually come with a set of tools that can be customized to the
users' need. Details of these functions are presented in the subsequent chapters. The type of
interface must be user-friendly considering the heterogeneity of the persons handling the GIS.
There may be menu-driven commands or typing the commands via a command language
interpreter. As all operations cannot be menu-driven and the user is required to write their own
computerprograms, some geographical intormation systems provide simple and easy-to-understand
macro-languages that may be used to link many basic applications. The latest example is the
Simulation modelling with GIS,

Data/Information

Spatial Non-spatial

Non-geographic GIS Non-spatial data management system

CACICAD/ CAM

Raster GIS Vector GIS

Figure 1.4: Data and GIS system

 Fundamentals of GIS

Data for GlS come in two forms-geographic or spatial data, and attribute or non-spattal data

Spatal data contains an explicit geographic location in the form of a set of coordinates. Attribut
data are descriptive sets of data that contain various information relevant to a particular locaton
C g deptn, height, sales figures, agricultural production, etc., and can be linked to a particu

1ocation by means of an identifier, e.g., address, zip code, district number etc and likeWISe.
into tne
Sources ol drawings scanned or digitized
spatial data include paper maps, charts, and
system. Coordinate data recorded using a GPS receiver and data capturedfrom satelhte a
Or aerial photography are also source of spatial data. Sources of attribute data include database,
work flow, messaging and anyother form of computer system, which stores data sets tnt
sensorS Or
De Iinked to the GIS by means of a common identifier. Data streams generated by
data loggers of any kind where the location of the sensor or data logger is stored in the GIS and

thedata can be linked to it by means of an identifier. Data from satellite imagery deri ved througn
Data/information as
location or set of locations.
mage analysis techniques can also be linked to a
a component of GIS is explained in Figure
1.4

Position (latitude/longitude)
Spatial characteristics

76 35 76 76 4

Proximity
2912

Shape: Imegular polygon

Area: 983 km
29 10 Perimeter: 1562 km
2 10

Distance
Spatial relationship

29 295

Symbology

16 40
Figure 1.5: Spatial data characteristics
 Geographic Information System
coordinate system on the
characteristics (Davis, 1996) like: (a) position:
Spatial data has several
an object/feature;
(6) spatial relationship: distance
location of
the approximate and shape of a
map that tells (c) spatial
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : the sizZe

another (proximity);
from one feature to
with coordinate values;
(d) Symbology: the line types,
feature which is defined by
the computer
the attribute of the features
interpreted from the legend show
point features, and polygon shading but in GIS these
characteristics must be
characteristics can all be implicitly interpreted,
These
delineated (Fig. 1.5).
very explicitly time consuming and costly aspect
of a GIS, the most
Data being the most important componentcreate a database. There are
several considerthings to
is to
of initiating a GIS project perhaps
must be checked before working on
before acquiring geographic
data. The quality of the data
and costly hours to implementing GIS and the
it. Errors in the data set can add many unpleasant
to go wrong, One need to look at least five
results and conclusions of the GIS analysis are likely
source material from which the data were
things regarding good quality data-(1) lineage the
all transformations involved in producing the final
derived, the methods of derivation, including
closeness of an entity in an appropriate coordinate
digital files; (2) positional accuracy-this is the
the system; (3) attribute accuracy-attribute information
system to that entity's true position in
often includes measurements of some sort, such as temperature or elevation of a point or place. The
source of error usually lies within the collection of these facts; (4) logical consistencyit deals
with the logical rules of structure and attribute rules for spatial data and describes the compatibility
of a datum with other data in a data set. The consistency checks should be run at different
stages while handling the spatial data; (5) completenessthis is to see if relevant data is missing
with regards to the features and the attributes. This could deal with either omission errors or
spatial rules such as minimum width or area that may limit the information.
The fourth essential component is the user who plans, implements and operates the system and
makes decIsions bascd on the analyzed results. No GIS can exist in isolation from the people and
that's why the role of organization is very important in the successful use of GIS in implementing
any program. to be uselul and successful, GIS must be a part of the organization and must have
people and facilities dedicated to it. People also need to be educated to make decisions on what
type of system to use. People associated with a GIS can be categorized into viewers, general
users, and GIS specialists. The last category of people is responsible for the maintenance of
the
geographic database and the provision of technical support to the other two classes of
users.
The fifth key component of GIS is the methods or procedures. Procedures include how the data
will be retrieved, input into the system, stored, managed, transformed,
in a form of output. The procedures are the steps taken to answer the
analyzed, and finally presented
resolved. The ability of z GIS to pertorm spatial analysis and answer these questions need to be
differentiates this type ol system rom any other intormation systems. questions what is

GIS is designed and developed to

a1d the data management and decision support
anization (Fig. 16). 1he operallon ol any
organ processes of an
rules unique to that organizatiom. whileorganization
some
is based on a set of
practices and
each user formulating their own standards of organizations may use GIS on an
ad-hoc
work and methods of
define theirhiusiness logic
into the Gls to
streamline certain analysis, others
aspects of their operations. For
 Concept of Geographic hformation System 443
is the
It is the collection of data in a meaningful and useful form. Information
Information is called
arranged data tor a specitic purpose. Therefore, all data which has some meaning
Data and intormation is not the same. Data is raw but information is an organized
information.
To be useful, information must be complete, accurate, available, and relevant
form of data. often
There is a clear
distinction between data and although the two terms
information, are

it is perhaps easiest to think of data as

used interchangeably. 1o help appreciate the distinction, It is necessary
such as 45, since the number by itself has no particular meaning
raw numbers,
context to make the number useful. For example,
in a table under age column it may
to add
this details data
inserted just beside a name (e8, Bob Smith) under the name column. With
information is data
become intormation, which means the age of Bob Smith is 45. Therefore,
with meaning and context added.
data. The data in the databasee
Database A database is an organized collection of related
It is assumed that operations (update,
should therefore be integrated, structured, and shared.
out in a simple and tlexible way.
Moreover,
insert, retrieve, etc.) on the database can be carried
since a database tends to be a long-term resource of an organization, it is expected that planned

unplanned applications can (in general) be carried out without great diiCulty
as well as

DBMS consists of a collection of interrelated

Database management system (DBMS) A

a set of programs to access those data.

data and
Management done by DBMS:
of information and the provision of mechanisms
Definition of the structure for the storage
for the retrieval and manipulation of information.
for the satety ot intormation stored despite system crashes or
In addition, it provides
attempts at unauthorized access.

the system must avoid possible anomalous

f data are to be shared among several users,
results.
Database +
DBMS) is a particular class of data
Database system Database system (E of
of software called a DBMS, a
variety
processing system. These are characterized by piece
a

users, and a central shared p0ol of data (database).

of data
RDBMS In recent years, DBMS have established themselves as the primary means
intormation systems ranging trom large commercial transaction processing
StOrage tor
At the heart of most of todays information
aPplications to PC-based desktop applications.
sYstems is a relational database management system (RDBMS)
RDBMS. A database is an integrated collection
Let examine the components of the term
us
structure of a database facilitates the access
to
Of related data. Given a specific data item, the
courses or an employee and his
Oata related to it, such as a student and all of his registered
a relational database.
dependents. A RDBMS is the software that manages

42 DEFINITIONS OF GIS
ne GiS is an information system designed to work with data referenced by spatial/
database system with specific
BCographicalcoordinates. In other words, GIS is both a
referenced data operations for working with
as well as a set of
pailities for spatially on which
e data. It may also be considered as a higher-order map or an intelligent map
Computer analysis can be pertornmed.
The GIS has been defined in many ways by many peopie.
One of the ways it has been detined is
 Gs
444 Remote Sensing and

Geographic information system

a systematic integration
15
of compute
and spatial data, for capturng, Storng, displaying, updating
lating
hardwa
momir
manipulating,
sofiware,
and analysing, in order to solve complex management problems.
Another alternative is,
Geographic information system (GIS) is defined as an information sys
used to input, store, retrieve, manipulate, analyse, and output geographie
system that is
referenced data or geospatial data, in order to support decision making for Dlom
and management of land use, natural resources, environment, transportation
n,
lanning
and other administrative records.
urban
facilities,
C. Dana Tomlin's definition (Tomlin 1990),
A geographic information system 1s a jacility Jor preparing,
interpreting facts that pertain to the surface of the earth.
presenting,and
This is a short, simple, and memorable definition, but unfortunately it is
more specific but simple alternative also given as (Tomlin 1990),
all-inclusive A
In common parlance, a geographic information system or GIS
is a configuration
of computer hardware and software specifically designed for the acquisition
maintenance, and use of cartographic data.
The GIS is defined by Jeffrey Star and John Estes (Star and
A geographic information system (GIS) is an
Estes 1990),
information system that is designed
to work with data referenced by spatial or
a GIS is both a database
geographic coordinates. In other words,
system with specific capabilities for spatially-reference
data, as well Tas/ a set of operations for working with data. In
a sense, a GIS may
be thought of as a higher-oder map.
According to Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI 1990),
A GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data
and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyse, and
display all forms of geographically referenced information.
Peter A. Burrough in 1986 defined GIS as (Burrough 1986),
A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transfornming anu
displaying spatial data from he real world for a particular set of purposes.
S. GIS as (Aronoff 1989),
Aronoff defined
A
baseddata
computer data: system thatdata
provides four sets of capabilities to hande
georeferenced input, management (data storage and rere
manipulation and analysis, and data output.
Each of the definitions is correct in an appropriate context.
13.3 KEY COMPONENTS OF GIS
The GIS constitutes of five key components, namely, hardware,
Ocedure,

software, p lance 10
data, and users as shown in Fig. 13.1. These five components need to bein bala
function any information system satisfactorily.
 Concept of Geograpbic Information System 445

Hardware Software Procedure

Computer Hardware, software and procedure for capture,

System Storage, processing, analysis, display, etc.

GIS
Data Users

Maps, aerial photographs, Design of standards,

satellite inmages updating, analysis

and implementatio
statistic tables, etc.

Fig. 13.1 Key components of GlS

13.3.I Hardware
the GIS software runs. The GIS
t consists of the computer hardware system on which
run on the whole spectrum of computer systems ranging from portable personal computers
hardware for GIS consists of input devices
(POs) to multi-user supercomputers. The
such as digitizers, scanners and GPS receivers, the storage devices such as magnetic
disks, central processing units, and the
tapes and disks, CD ROMs and other optical
and plotters.
output devices such as display devices, printers,

13.3.2 Software
to
that run on computers, these include programmes
Software refers to the programmes
functions. The GIS software provides the
anage the computer and to perform specifie intormation.
and display geographic
unctions and tools that are necessary to store, analyse,
are ArcGIS, ArcView, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, Maplnfo,
Some common GIS software these GIS software can work on
Geomatica, TNTmips, and Autodesk Map. Some of
on networked server-based environment; and some
desktop computers; some can work GiS is another concept, which
(with extended features) has both capabilities. Web-based
s Decoming very popular nowadays, and it uses the Web application software. A common
practice in GIS is using MS-Access, Oracle, SQL Server, erc. as a DBMS software along

with the chosen GIS software.

13.3.3 Procedure
Acomputer system for GIS consists of hardware, software, and procedures designed to
Supportthe data capture, storage, processing, analysis, modeling, and display of geospatial
data, Besides the technical components like hardware, software and databases, institutional
frameworkand policies are also important lor a functional GIS. The interest and willingness
446 Remote Sensing and GIS

and the organisational set up forc

of decision makers in exploiting GlS technology, r collecting

spatial data, analysis procedures, and using

the results for planning and implesng
ementat
form important component in a GIS. A successtul GIS operates accordi
a very
well-designed plan and business rules,
which are the models
rating 0
and operatino
practices
unique to each organization.

13.3.4 Data
Data are named as geospatial and attribute data in GIS. The GIS facilitates integrationnof
spatial and attribute data and this makes them unique in contrast to other database syste
The GIS data is handled in databases with special functional requrements as well as the
general characteristics of any standard database. The sources ofspatial data are digitiza
maps, aerial photographs, and satellite images. Attribute datasources are statisticaltables
and other related documents. Geographic data and related tabular (attribute) data can be

collected by surveying or purchasingfrom acommercial data provider, Thedigitalmap

formsare the basicdata input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects are also
necessary to be attached to the digital map data.

13.3.5 Users
Theroles ofthe user are to select pertinent information to set necessary standards,to
design cost-ctficientupdatingschemes,toanalyse GISoutputs for relevant purposes,and
plan the implementation. Most definition of GIS focuses on the hardware,software,data,
and analySis components. However, no GIS exist in isolation of the user. There must
alwaysbepeople to plan,implement, andoperatethe system as wellastomakedecisions
basedonthe output. The GISprojects rangefrom smallresearch applications,whereone
user 15 responsible for design and implementation and output,to internationalcoporale
distributed systems, where different type of users interact with the GIS in many diferent
levels and ways.

13.4GIS-AN INTEGRATIONOF SPATIAL AND ATTRIBUTE INFORMATION

TheGIS uses layers, called 'themes', to overlay different types of information, su
to
some statiC maps use Mylar (transparent film) overlays to add tiers of inlo
geographic background (Fig. 13.2), Each theme represents a category o1 eath
such as roads or forest cover. As with the old Mylar maps. 1ayers which are undermean
remain visible although other themes are placed above. GS
layers in
a
A GIS can integrate a variety of types of data, but most data lay data

are considered geospatial (or spatial) data because they are

OSt

snecifie
assOclat
locations on the earth's surface and linked to additional information shout thal
location.
(attribu
almeans

Theword 'spatial' originated from Latin 'spatium', which

pertaining to space' or "having to do with space; relating to means p ition.
space and in 3
shape, etc." (Oxford Dictionary), which refers to features or
phenonic
P e n o m e n a
distributed
 Concept of Geograpbic nformation
System 447

space (any space, not only the earth's surface) and,

thus, having
Parks
physical, measurable dimensions. In GIS, spatial is also referred
to as 'based on location on
map'
Geographic(al) means
'pertaining to geography (the study of
Streets the surface of the
earth) and 'referring to or characteristic
certain locality, especially in reterence to its
of a
location in relation
to other
places (Macquarie Dictionary). Spatial has broader
Wards meaning, encompassing the term geographic. Geographic data
can be defined as a class.
of spatial data in which the frame is
the surface and/or near-surtace ot the earth.
"Geographic
is
the right word for graphic presentation (e.g., maps) of features
and phenomena on or near the earth's surface. Geographic data
Resulting map
different feature types (raster,
uses points, lines, or polygons) to
Fg 13.2 GIS themes or data layersnaeiy ldentiy
the location
and/or the geographical boundaries
of spatial (location based) entities that existon the carth surface.
Geographic data are a significant subset of spatial data, although the terms geographic,
spatial,and geospatial are often used interchangeably.
Geospatial is another word and might have originated in the industry to make the things
diferentiate trom geography. Though this word is becoming popular, it has not been
defined in any of the standard dictionary yet. Since geo 1s from Greek 'gaya meaning
theearth, geospatial thus means earth-space. NASA says geospatial means the distribution
ofsomethingin a geographic sense; it refers to entities that can be located by some co-
ordinate system. Geospatial data is to develop information about features, objects,and
classes on theearth's surface and/or near the earth's surface
The three terms feature, object, and class have dififerent but somewhat overlapping
meanings. Feature can refer to 'overall appearance, 'mark, or "characteristic, and/or
to a set of measurable properties, or, more narrowly, to a specific geometric or geomorphic
entity on the surface of a planet such as the earth. Object relates to a singleentity, of a
physical nature, capable of being sensed (e.g., seen or touched), to which a deseriptive
namecan be given, such as 'house, 'road. Class has a more general meaning. pointing
to a group of features or objects of identical or similar types that have taxonomic significance;
examples are "forest', 'urban', 'mountains Classes can be hierarchical, that is, can be
Subdivided into subelasses; thus urban' includes 'inner city/suburbia', 'road networks,
neighbourhoods, 'shopping centres, ete. The term "theme' is often interchangeable
with 'class' (NASA 2010).
Features shown on maps or those organized in a digital database that are tied to the
Surface of the earth by coordinates, addresses, or other means are collectively called
geospatial data, In GIS. geospatial data are often referred to as GeoData. Geospatial is
that type of spatial data which is related to the earth, but the terms spatial and geospatial
are often used interchangeably. United States Geological Survey (USGS) says 'the terms
Spatial and geospatial are equivalent
448 Remote Sensing a n d GIS

In addition to spatial data, a GIS

Section ID: 168 stores
the attribute data that describe the
Street 1D: 69 propertiee
Street name: STRAND ROADp and characteristics of the spatial features
Streets These characteristics can be
quantitativeand
Type Stoneset

Parking Yes or qualitative in nature.

Attribute data are
Ward: often referred to as tabular data. In a
Gis
attribute data are stored in a table and ar
linked to the spatial features. Attribute
data
also referred as non-spatial data
are
since
Fig.13.3 Spatial data linked with attribute data
they do not represent any spatial nature of
the geographie data. Spatial data describe where the feature is, while attribute data describe
what the feature is. For example, the graphical representation of a state on a map is
spatial data and the population, male, female, percentage of literacy, etc. are attributes
Figure 13.3 shows an example of the linkage between spatial and attributes data.

13.5 GIS-THREEVIEws OF INFORMATION SsYSTEM

AGIS is most often associated with maps. A map, however, is the only way to work with
geographic data in a GIS, and the only type of product generated by a GIS. This is
important because it implies that a GIS can provide a greater problem-solving capability
than using a simple mapping program or adding data to a mapping tool.
A GIS can be viewed in three ways (Environmental Systems Research Institute(ESRI)

13.5.I Database (or Table)View

A GIS is a unique kind of database of the world a geographicdatabase(geodatabase)
Itis an 'information system for geography". Fundamentally, a GIS is basedon a structured
database that deseribes the world in geographic terms.

13.5.2 Map View

A GIS isa set ofintelligent maps and other views that showfeatures and feature relanonsu
onthe earth s surface. Maps of the underlying geographic information can be constru
and used to support queries, analysis, and editing of the information. This is also cau
geovisualization.

13.5.3 Model View lobject or

MOdelis a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show tnerca abstracton

workings of an object, system, or concept. In most generalized way, model iS tne

of reality.
geographic dalS new
A GIS is a set of information transfomation tools that derive functios
unca
essing
from existing datasets. This is called geoprocessing. These geoproce eSulis m

take information from existing datasets, apply analytic functions, and e nalye
new derived datasets. In other words, by combining data and appiysced. These
DOS

rules, we can create a model that helps a n s w e r the question we t

models may be schematic, mathematical, and/or methodological

 on
numan
dienstons, provide impacts
elements of
forces, the key
industrializations,
1hus human
driving resoturces,
uroanizaton,

Such as development of natural impacts accordingly

induce
ct These humanete.
consumption, of lite style, land
degradation,
n , energy change, change
such as land-use monitored to
Changes should be timely
environmental change
etc. Such
a t e change, can be very
usetul lor a better understanding
public awareness. Remote sensing well as for
1ncrcase and the ern
v i r o n m e n t a l change as

between human impacts

p
tbuilding databases.
dimensions
be fed back to human
can
by remote sensing
dimensions monitored
Physical order to support better
decision. In this sense,

througn analysis and assessment by GIS in

remote sensing should be integrated with GlS

OF GIS
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTs have
in different ways. In Section 14.3, we

TheGIS can be used in variety of applications

areas of GlIS. This section explains
the functional
idea about application
gained some
requirements of GIS with examples.

Relating Information from Different

Sources
14.5.I
Ifwe could relate information about the rainfall
to.remote sensing imageries of our county,
wetlands dry
we might be able to tell whichdifferent up at certain times of
the year. AGIS, which can
sources and in
many different forms, can help with
use information from many for the
requirement for the source data is that the locations
Such analyses. The primary be annotated by x,y, and z co0ordinates of longitude,
variables are known. Location may
latitude,and elevation, or by other systems, Any variable that can be located spatially can be
of data in map form can be entered into a
GIS.
fedinto a GIS. Moreover, different kinds form,
which not yet be in map
AGIScan also convertexisting digital information, satellite
may
images can be analysed
intoforms it can recognize and use. For example, digital
to produce a map-like layer of digital information about vegetative covers.

14.5.2 Data Capture

ft the data to be used are not already in
Howcan a GIS use the information in a map?
various techniques can capture
digital form (i.c., in a form the computer can recognize),
theinformation. Maps can be digitized with a digitizer table, hand-traced with computer
or a

mouse to collect the coordinates of features. Electronic scanning devices will also convert

mapfeatures into digital format.

14.5.3 Database Storage and Management
ter data are collected and integrated, The GIS must provide facilities which can contain
has definitions but should include all
antan data. Effective data management many
aspects: data security, data integrity, data storage retrieval, and d
and
1OOwing
maintenance abilities.
emote Sensirg and GIS

14.5.4 Data Integration

AGS makes it possible to link, or integrate information that s difhcult to associate to

any other means Thus, a GIS can use

combinations of mappeo viarables to build
analyse new varnabies
For example, by using GIS technology and waler-compny Dilling tnfomation
m a nerghbourtod
of materals tn the scptc systems
possioie to Simulate the discharge

upstream from a wetland. The bills

show how mich warcr is usecu at each
address Th
amount of water uscd by a customer roughiy predics the amount of material that

discharged into the septic systems, so that areas ot heaY Sepuc oscarge can be located

using aal
14.5.5 Projection and Registration
infomation
Aproperty ownership map mught be at a difierent scale trom a solls map: Map
in a GlS must be manipulated so that it registers, or tits, with intormathon gathered from
other maps. Before the digital data can be analysed, they may have to undergo other
manipulatons-tor eNample, projection conversionsbat integrate then into a GIs.
Projectio 1s a fundamental component ot mapraking. Aprojection is a mathematical

means of transferring information from aSD curvedsurtace toa 20 medium paper o

a computer screen. Different projectionsare usied for ditferent ypes of mmps becaue
cachprojection is particulariy appropriate to certain uses For cxample, a projection t
accurately represents the shapesof the continents n likely to distort their relatve sas
The Gls can be used to apply or change the projectioti of gcographic data within alc
seconds (or minutes) and get maps ot ditterent projechons.

14.5.6 Data Structures

A property ownership map which is related to a satellite image, a timely indicator of a
usCs. But, because digital data are collected and stored in various ways, ne

sources may not be entirely compatible. Hence, a GIS mist be able to comvert data r o
one structure to
anothecr
Data restructuring can be performed by a GlS to convert data into different t
For example. aGS may be used to convert asatellite image map to ture
a vecto
gencraling lnes around.al cels with the same classification. while detcrin
the cs

spatial relationsthips, such as adjacency or mclusion

14.5.7 Spatial Analysis

Data tniegration and conversion hat is requre
are
only a part of the input phase of GIS. Wn
nexti5 the ability to interpret and to analyse the collected information quan
d
qualitatively. spatal analysis is the most important function of GlS whc
from other systems, such as
CAD. Dhe spatial ch
analysis provides the lunc
spattalr tntc polon, btertng.and overlay operations (discussed in Chaplo
 Functons and Adtantages cof GS 75

14.5.8 Data Modelling

that data, allowing us to
AGIS goes beyond mining data to give us the tools to interpret
serelationships,patterns,or trends intuitively that are not possible to see with traditional
charts, graphs,
and spreadsheets.
Spatialdatamodellingisaprocess ofrepresentingthe phenomena of the realworldin
aspatial database. However, these representations are simplificd depending upon the
requirements of a certain context. The abstraction includes only those features or
phenomena which are of interest to a particular application Two different views of the
real world phenomena, the field view and the object view, are used in spatial modelling.
The field view considers the earth's surface as a spatio-temporal continuum, The
phenomenaare represented as attributes. The values of these attributes can be determined
atany location in space such as temperature, elevation, etc. Field type data are represented
bytessellation or raster approach where the attribute values are evaluated for each point
or cell.
The object view considers information space as populated by discrete and clearly
distinguishable objects like buildings. Each object has a location and shape and several
othernon-geometric characteristics. Theobjects are represented by means ofan identifier
towhich the geometric data and thematic data are linked. The space outside of an object
IS Considered to be void. Vector approach is used for object type data.
Spatial data models allow to describe spatial characteristics of a set of real world
phenomenaand their relationships. A complete spatial data model identifies the conceptual
structures (static parts) as well as describes the behaviour (dynamics) of the observed
phenomena. Thiscomplete description of structureand behaviouris called a conceptual
data for
model. These are implemented in computer systems using spatial
representingthe objects,and algorithms for operations on them. Furthermore, a GIS allows
structures
and to See visually
outcomes
Odel scenarios to test various hypotheses to rainfall amounts recorded at different
rOrexample, it is difficult to relate wetlands maps stations, and
television high schools. A GIS,
pe 1ocations or points such as airports, characteristics of the earth's surtace, subsurface,
ver, can be used to depict 2D and 3D can quiCkIy generate a continuous
from information points. For example, a GS
osphere the observed locations).
(from
amount for any location
C e map that indicates rainfall methods can estimate
Such a rainfall map. Many sophisticated
dap can be thought of
as a
number of point
measurements. A 2D isoline
cteristies of surfaces from a limited measurements may be overplayed
rainfall point
from the surface modelling of
a ated same area.
Thus one can relate the
GIS covering the
with any other map in a
w sed at difterent poinis.
cands with the rainfall amounts recorded
4.5.9 Presenting Results in which the
the variety of different ways
of GIS is tabulating
most exciting aspects 1raditional
methods
ot
e it has been processed.
nformati On can be presented
once
 GlS
Ae NensTR and

21D and. s 9 maps.

These capabilit
bilities o GiS
can be supplemented
by
and graphing data catograpuy
alnd scientuficvisualizah
have given rise to
new ields such
as
exploralo of a l s lor communicatine
aspects
most fascinating
is one of the
VISual presentation
results of analysis

14.6 LIMITATIONS OF GIS

fike ofther ccnnological systems, the
bencficinl applications: however,
AGIShas many usc. The foloWing
are some exampies.
some limitations to its
arealso spatial temporat
or contimuity.
Data for a specitic area may lack data.
than traditional
GIS data are relatively expensive imit distribution of data
18Sues c a n s o m e t i m e s
privacy and securnity
Additionally,
Collecting the data can be vey me coSng data ( e . existing hardcopy maps
quality of avallable
GIS often relies on theserious
introduce crros.
which may
misinterpretation.
GIS data may also subject to misuse
or
be
but does not necessarnly explain them or provide
Gls showS only spatual relationships
is the actual necd ot the u s e
absolute solutions, which science. Therefore, solubm
in the earth science and connputer
GS has its orngin
GIS may not be appropriate for humanities SCienceresearch.
d derived trom
Learning time on GIS sotware and systems can be long, because it casiiyoc
t h e objective of the study rather than Just a tool
individual subjects, which demands propsrknawicdge OL
e a n sntcgrates several
f oUntegated disciplines
and software (although this is increasn
*Gs needs specialized compuler.cquipment
Decomingless important).

EXERCISES
Descriptive Questions
1 Explain the functions of GIS
GIS?
han an CADD or other mapping oftware?
4. Why should we use GIS instead of conventional DBMS? Explain with examples
5. What are the limications of GIS?

Short Notes/Definitions
Write
short notes on the following topic
AMIEM
ategratio

3 Data CaApture