Geometry

Geometry (from the Ancient Greek:

γεωμετρία; geo- "earth", -metron
"measurement") is, with arithmetic, one of
the oldest branches of mathematics. It is
concerned with properties of space that
are related with distance, shape, size, and
relative position of figures.[1] A
mathematician who works in the field of
geometry is called a geometer.
An illustration of Desargues' theorem, a result in
Euclidean and projective geometry

Until the 19th century, geometry was

almost exclusively devoted to Euclidean
geometry,[a] which includes the notions of
point, line, plane, distance, angle, surface,
and curve, as fundamental concepts.[2]

During the 19th century several

discoveries enlarged dramatically the
scope of geometry. One of the oldest such
discoveries is Gauss' Theorema Egregium
(remarkable theorem) that asserts roughly
that the Gaussian curvature of a surface is
independent from any specific embedding
in an Euclidean space. This implies that
surfaces can be studied intrinsically, that is
as stand alone spaces, and has been
expanded into the theory of manifolds and
Riemannian geometry.

Later in the 19th century, it appeared that

geometries without the parallel postulate
(non-Euclidean geometries) can be
developed without introducing any
contradiction. The geometry that underlies
general relativity is a famous application
of non-Euclidean geometry.
Since then, the scope of geometry has
been greatly expanded, and the field has
been split in many subfields that depend
on the underlying methods—differential
geometry, algebraic geometry,
computational geometry, algebraic
topology, discrete geometry (also known
as combinatorial geometry), etc.—or on the
properties of Euclidean spaces that are
disregarded—projective geometry that
consider only alignment of points but not
distance and parallelism, affine geometry
that omits the concept of angle and
distance, finite geometry that that omits
continuity, etc.
Often developed with the aim to model the
physical world, geometry has applications
to almost all sciences, and also to art,
architecture, and other activities that are
related to graphics.[3] Geometry has also
applications to areas of mathematics that
are apparently unrelated. For example,
methods of algebraic geometry are
fundamental for Wiles's proof of Fermat's
Last Theorem, a problem that was stated
in terms of elementary arithmetic, and
remainded unsolved for several centuries.

History
A European and an Arab practicing geometry in the
15th century

The earliest recorded beginnings of

geometry can be traced to ancient
Mesopotamia and Egypt in the 2nd
millennium BC.[4][5] Early geometry was a
collection of empirically discovered
principles concerning lengths, angles,
areas, and volumes, which were developed
to meet some practical need in surveying,
construction, astronomy, and various
crafts. The earliest known texts on
geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus
(2000–1800 BC) and Moscow Papyrus (c.
1890 BC), the Babylonian clay tablets such
as Plimpton 322 (1900 BC). For example,
the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for
calculating the volume of a truncated
pyramid, or frustum.[6] Later clay tablets
(350–50 BC) demonstrate that Babylonian
astronomers implemented trapezoid
procedures for computing Jupiter's
position and motion within time-velocity
space. These geometric procedures
anticipated the Oxford Calculators,
including the mean speed theorem, by 14
centuries.[7] South of Egypt the ancient
Nubians established a system of geometry
including early versions of sun clocks.[8][9]

In the 7th century BC, the Greek

mathematician Thales of Miletus used
geometry to solve problems such as
calculating the height of pyramids and the
distance of ships from the shore. He is
credited with the first use of deductive
reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving
four corollaries to Thales' theorem.[10]
Pythagoras established the Pythagorean
School, which is credited with the first
proof of the Pythagorean theorem,[11]
though the statement of the theorem has a
long history.[12][13] Eudoxus (408–c. 355
BC) developed the method of exhaustion,
which allowed the calculation of areas and
volumes of curvilinear figures,[14] as well
as a theory of ratios that avoided the
problem of incommensurable magnitudes,
which enabled subsequent geometers to
make significant advances. Around 300
BC, geometry was revolutionized by Euclid,
whose Elements, widely considered the
most successful and influential textbook
of all time,[15] introduced mathematical
rigor through the axiomatic method and is
the earliest example of the format still
used in mathematics today, that of
definition, axiom, theorem, and proof.
Although most of the contents of the
Elements were already known, Euclid
arranged them into a single, coherent
logical framework.[16] The Elements was
known to all educated people in the West
until the middle of the 20th century and its
contents are still taught in geometry
classes today.[17] Archimedes (c. 287–212
BC) of Syracuse used the method of
exhaustion to calculate the area under the
arc of a parabola with the summation of
an infinite series, and gave remarkably
accurate approximations of Pi.[18] He also
studied the spiral bearing his name and
obtained formulas for the volumes of
surfaces of revolution.
Woman teaching geometry. Illustration at the
beginning of a medieval translation of Euclid's
Elements, (c. 1310).

Indian mathematicians also made many

important contributions in geometry. The
Satapatha Brahmana (3rd century BC)
contains rules for ritual geometric
constructions that are similar to the Sulba
Sutras.[19] According to (Hayashi 2005,
p. 363), the Śulba Sūtras contain "the
earliest extant verbal expression of the
Pythagorean Theorem in the world,
although it had already been known to the
Old Babylonians. They contain lists of
Pythagorean triples,[20] which are
particular cases of Diophantine
equations.[21] In the Bakhshali manuscript,
there is a handful of geometric problems
(including problems about volumes of
irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript
also "employs a decimal place value
system with a dot for zero."[22] Aryabhata's
Aryabhatiya (499) includes the
computation of areas and volumes.
Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work
Brāhma Sphuṭa Siddhānta in 628. Chapter
12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was
divided into two sections: "basic
operations" (including cube roots,
fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter)
and "practical mathematics" (including
mixture, mathematical series, plane
figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber,
and piling of grain).[23] In the latter section,
he stated his famous theorem on the
diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral. Chapter
12 also included a formula for the area of
a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of
Heron's formula), as well as a complete
description of rational triangles (i.e.
triangles with rational sides and rational
areas).[23]
In the Middle Ages, mathematics in
medieval Islam contributed to the
development of geometry, especially
algebraic geometry.[24][25] Al-Mahani (b.
853) conceived the idea of reducing
geometrical problems such as duplicating
the cube to problems in algebra.[26] Thābit
ibn Qurra (known as Thebit in Latin) (836–
901) dealt with arithmetic operations
applied to ratios of geometrical quantities,
and contributed to the development of
analytic geometry.[27] Omar Khayyám
(1048–1131) found geometric solutions to
cubic equations.[28] The theorems of Ibn
al-Haytham (Alhazen), Omar Khayyam and
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi on quadrilaterals,
including the Lambert quadrilateral and
Saccheri quadrilateral, were early results in
hyperbolic geometry, and along with their
alternative postulates, such as Playfair's
axiom, these works had a considerable
influence on the development of non-
Euclidean geometry among later European
geometers, including Witelo (c. 1230–
c. 1314), Gersonides (1288–1344),
Alfonso, John Wallis, and Giovanni
Girolamo Saccheri.[29]

In the early 17th century, there were two

important developments in geometry. The
first was the creation of analytic geometry,
or geometry with coordinates and
equations, by René Descartes (1596–
1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601–
1665).[30] This was a necessary precursor
to the development of calculus and a
precise quantitative science of physics.[31]
The second geometric development of this
period was the systematic study of
projective geometry by Girard Desargues
(1591–1661).[32] Projective geometry
studies properties of shapes which are
unchanged under projections and
sections, especially as they relate to
artistic perspective.[33]

Two developments in geometry in the 19th

century changed the way it had been
studied previously.[34] These were the
discovery of non-Euclidean geometries by
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, János
Bolyai and Carl Friedrich Gauss and of the
formulation of symmetry as the central
consideration in the Erlangen Programme
of Felix Klein (which generalized the
Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries).
Two of the master geometers of the time
were Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866),
working primarily with tools from
mathematical analysis, and introducing
the Riemann surface, and Henri Poincaré,
the founder of algebraic topology and the
geometric theory of dynamical systems.
As a consequence of these major changes
in the conception of geometry, the concept
of "space" became something rich and
varied, and the natural background for
theories as different as complex analysis
and classical mechanics.[35]

Important concepts in
geometry
The following are some of the most
important concepts in geometry.[2][36][37]

Axioms
An illustration of Euclid's parallel postulate

Euclid took an abstract approach to

geometry in his Elements,[38] one of the
most influential books ever written.[39]
Euclid introduced certain axioms, or
postulates, expressing primary or self-
evident properties of points, lines, and
planes.[40] He proceeded to rigorously
deduce other properties by mathematical
reasoning. The characteristic feature of
Euclid's approach to geometry was its
rigor, and it has come to be known as
axiomatic or synthetic geometry.[41] At the
start of the 19th century, the discovery of
non-Euclidean geometries by Nikolai
Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792–1856),
János Bolyai (1802–1860), Carl Friedrich
Gauss (1777–1855) and others[42] led to a
revival of interest in this discipline, and in
the 20th century, David Hilbert (1862–
1943) employed axiomatic reasoning in an
attempt to provide a modern foundation of
geometry.[43]

Points

Points are considered fundamental

objects in Euclidean geometry. They have
been defined in a variety of ways, including
Euclid's definition as 'that which has no
part'[44] and through the use of algebra or
nested sets.[45] In many areas of geometry,
such as analytic geometry, differential
geometry, and topology, all objects are
considered to be built up from points.
However, there has been some study of
geometry without reference to points.[46]

Lines

Euclid described a line as "breadthless

length" which "lies equally with respect to
the points on itself".[44] In modern
mathematics, given the multitude of
geometries, the concept of a line is closely
tied to the way the geometry is described.
For instance, in analytic geometry, a line in
the plane is often defined as the set of
points whose coordinates satisfy a given
linear equation,[47] but in a more abstract
setting, such as incidence geometry, a line
may be an independent object, distinct
from the set of points which lie on it.[48] In
differential geometry, a geodesic is a
generalization of the notion of a line to
curved spaces.[49]

Planes
A plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface
that extends infinitely far.[44] Planes are
used in every area of geometry. For
instance, planes can be studied as a
topological surface without reference to
distances or angles;[50] it can be studied as
an affine space, where collinearity and
ratios can be studied but not distances;[51]
it can be studied as the complex plane
using techniques of complex analysis;[52]
and so on.

Angles

Euclid defines a plane angle as the

inclination to each other, in a plane, of two
lines which meet each other, and do not lie
straight with respect to each other.[44] In
modern terms, an angle is the figure
formed by two rays, called the sides of the
angle, sharing a common endpoint, called
the vertex of the angle.[53]

Acute (a), obtuse (b), and straight (c) angles. The

acute and obtuse angles are also known as oblique
angles.

In Euclidean geometry, angles are used to

study polygons and triangles, as well as
forming an object of study in their own
right.[44] The study of the angles of a
triangle or of angles in a unit circle forms
the basis of trigonometry.[54]

In differential geometry and calculus, the

angles between plane curves or space
curves or surfaces can be calculated using
the derivative.[55][56]

Curves

A curve is a 1-dimensional object that may

be straight (like a line) or not; curves in 2-
dimensional space are called plane curves
and those in 3-dimensional space are
called space curves.[57]

In topology, a curve is defined by a

function from an interval of the real
numbers to another space.[50] In
differential geometry, the same definition
is used, but the defining function is
required to be differentiable [58] Algebraic
geometry studies algebraic curves, which
are defined as algebraic varieties of
dimension one.[59]

Surfaces
A sphere is a surface that can be defined
parametrically (by x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ,
z = r cos θ) or implicitly (by x2 + y2 + z2 − r2 = 0.)

A surface is a two-dimensional object,

such as a sphere or paraboloid.[60] In
differential geometry[58] and topology,[50]
surfaces are described by two-
dimensional 'patches' (or neighborhoods)
that are assembled by diffeomorphisms or
homeomorphisms, respectively. In
algebraic geometry, surfaces are
described by polynomial equations.[59]
Manifolds

A manifold is a generalization of the

concepts of curve and surface. In
topology, a manifold is a topological space
where every point has a neighborhood that
is homeomorphic to Euclidean space.[50] In
differential geometry, a differentiable
manifold is a space where each
neighborhood is diffeomorphic to
Euclidean space.[58]

Manifolds are used extensively in physics,

including in general relativity and string
theory.[61]
Length, area, and volume

Length, area, and volume describe the size

or extent of an object in one dimension,
two dimension, and three dimensions
respectively.[62]

In Euclidean geometry and analytic

geometry, the length of a line segment can
often be calculated by the Pythagorean
theorem.[63]

Area and volume can be defined as

fundamental quantities separate from
length, or they can be described and
calculated in terms of lengths in a plane or
3-dimensional space.[62] Mathematicians
have found many explicit formulas for area
and formulas for volume of various
geometric objects. In calculus, area and
volume can be defined in terms of
integrals, such as the Riemann integral[64]
or the Lebesgue integral.[65]

Metrics and measures

Visual checking of the Pythagorean theorem for the

(3, 4, 5) triangle as in the Zhoubi Suanjing 500–
200 BC. The Pythagorean theorem is a consequence
of the Euclidean metric.
The concept of length or distance can be
generalized, leading to the idea of
metrics.[66] For instance, the Euclidean
metric measures the distance between
points in the Euclidean plane, while the
hyperbolic metric measures the distance
in the hyperbolic plane. Other important
examples of metrics include the Lorentz
metric of special relativity and the semi-
Riemannian metrics of general
relativity.[67]

In a different direction, the concepts of

length, area and volume are extended by
measure theory, which studies methods of
assigning a size or measure to sets, where
the measures follow rules similar to those
of classical area and volume.[68]

Congruence and similarity

Congruence and similarity are concepts

that describe when two shapes have
similar characteristics.[69] In Euclidean
geometry, similarity is used to describe
objects that have the same shape, while
congruence is used to describe objects
that are the same in both size and
shape.[70] Hilbert, in his work on creating a
more rigorous foundation for geometry,
treated congruence as an undefined term
whose properties are defined by axioms.
Congruence and similarity are generalized
in transformation geometry, which studies
the properties of geometric objects that
are preserved by different kinds of
transformations.[71]

Compass and straightedge

constructions

Classical geometers paid special attention

to constructing geometric objects that had
been described in some other way.
Classically, the only instruments allowed in
geometric constructions are the compass
and straightedge. Also, every construction
had to be complete in a finite number of
steps. However, some problems turned out
to be difficult or impossible to solve by
these means alone, and ingenious
constructions using parabolas and other
curves, as well as mechanical devices,
were found.

Dimension

The Koch snowflake, with fractal

dimension=log4/log3 and topological dimension=1
Where the traditional geometry allowed
dimensions 1 (a line), 2 (a plane) and 3
(our ambient world conceived of as three-
dimensional space), mathematicians and
physicists have used higher dimensions
for nearly two centuries.[72] One example
of a mathematical use for higher
dimensions is the configuration space of a
physical system, which has a dimension
equal to the system's degrees of freedom.
For instance, the configuration of a screw
can be described by five coordinates.[73]

In general topology, the concept of

dimension has been extended from natural
numbers, to infinite dimension (Hilbert
spaces, for example) and positive real
numbers (in fractal geometry).[74] In
algebraic geometry, the dimension of an
algebraic variety has received a number of
apparently different definitions, which are
all equivalent in the most common
cases.[75]

Symmetry

A tiling of the hyperbolic plane

The theme of symmetry in geometry is
nearly as old as the science of geometry
itself.[76] Symmetric shapes such as the
circle, regular polygons and platonic solids
held deep significance for many ancient
philosophers[77] and were investigated in
detail before the time of Euclid.[40]
Symmetric patterns occur in nature and
were artistically rendered in a multitude of
forms, including the graphics of Leonardo
da Vinci, M. C. Escher, and others.[78] In the
second half of the 19th century, the
relationship between symmetry and
geometry came under intense scrutiny.
Felix Klein's Erlangen program proclaimed
that, in a very precise sense, symmetry,
expressed via the notion of a
transformation group, determines what
geometry is.[79] Symmetry in classical
Euclidean geometry is represented by
congruences and rigid motions, whereas
in projective geometry an analogous role
is played by collineations, geometric
transformations that take straight lines
into straight lines.[80] However it was in the
new geometries of Bolyai and
Lobachevsky, Riemann, Clifford and Klein,
and Sophus Lie that Klein's idea to 'define
a geometry via its symmetry group' found
its inspiration.[81] Both discrete and
continuous symmetries play prominent
roles in geometry, the former in topology
and geometric group theory,[82][83] the
latter in Lie theory and Riemannian
geometry.[84][85]

A different type of symmetry is the

principle of duality in projective geometry,
among other fields. This meta-
phenomenon can roughly be described as
follows: in any theorem, exchange point
with plane, join with meet, lies in with
contains, and the result is an equally true
theorem.[86] A similar and closely related
form of duality exists between a vector
space and its dual space.[87]
Contemporary geometry

Euclidean geometry

Euclidean geometry is geometry in its

classical sense.[88] As it models the space
of the physical world, it is used in many
scientific areas, such as mechanics,
astronomy, crystallography,[89] and many
technical fields, such as engineering,[90]
architecture,[91] geodesy,[92]
aerodynamics,[93] and navigation.[94] The
mandatory educational curriculum of the
majority of nations includes the study of
Euclidean concepts such as points, lines,
planes, angles, triangles, congruence,
similarity, solid figures, circles, and
analytic geometry.[36]

Differential geometry

Differential geometry uses tools from calculus to

study problems involving curvature.

Differential geometry uses techniques of

calculus and linear algebra to study
problems in geometry.[95] It has
applications in physics,[96]
econometrics,[97] and bioinformatics,[98]
among others.

In particular, differential geometry is of

importance to mathematical physics due
to Albert Einstein's general relativity
postulation that the universe is curved.[99]
Differential geometry can either be
intrinsic (meaning that the spaces it
considers are smooth manifolds whose
geometric structure is governed by a
Riemannian metric, which determines how
distances are measured near each point)
or extrinsic (where the object under study
is a part of some ambient flat Euclidean
space).[100]
Non-Euclidean geometry

Euclidean geometry was not the only

historical form of geometry studied.
Spherical geometry has long been used by
astronomers, astrologers, and
navigators.[101]

Immanuel Kant argued that there is only

one, absolute, geometry, which is known to
be true a priori by an inner faculty of mind:
Euclidean geometry was synthetic a
priori.[102] This view was at first somewhat
challenged by thinkers such as Saccheri,
then finally overturned by the revolutionary
discovery of non-Euclidean geometry in
the works of Bolyai, Lobachevsky, and
Gauss (who never published his
theory).[103] They demonstrated that
ordinary Euclidean space is only one
possibility for development of geometry. A
broad vision of the subject of geometry
was then expressed by Riemann in his
1867 inauguration lecture Über die
Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu
Grunde liegen (On the hypotheses on which
geometry is based),[104] published only
after his death. Riemann's new idea of
space proved crucial in Albert Einstein's
general relativity theory. Riemannian
geometry, which considers very general
spaces in which the notion of length is
defined, is a mainstay of modern
geometry.[81]

Topology

A thickening of the trefoil knot

Topology is the field concerned with the

properties of continuous mappings,[105]
and can be considered a generalization of
Euclidean geometry.[106] In practice,
topology often means dealing with large-
scale properties of spaces, such as
connectedness and compactness.[50]

The field of topology, which saw massive

development in the 20th century, is in a
technical sense a type of transformation
geometry, in which transformations are
homeomorphisms.[107] This has often
been expressed in the form of the saying
'topology is rubber-sheet geometry'.
Subfields of topology include geometric
topology, differential topology, algebraic
topology and general topology.[108]

Algebraic geometry
Quintic Calabi–Yau threefold

The field of algebraic geometry developed

from the Cartesian geometry of co-
ordinates.[109] It underwent periodic
periods of growth, accompanied by the
creation and study of projective geometry,
birational geometry, algebraic varieties,
and commutative algebra, among other
topics.[110] From the late 1950s through
the mid-1970s it had undergone major
foundational development, largely due to
work of Jean-Pierre Serre and Alexander
Grothendieck.[110] This led to the
introduction of schemes and greater
emphasis on topological methods,
including various cohomology theories.
One of seven Millennium Prize problems,
the Hodge conjecture, is a question in
algebraic geometry.[111] Wiles' proof of
Fermat's Last Theorem uses advanced
methods of algebraic geometry for solving
a long-standing problem of number theory.

In general, algebraic geometry studies

geometry through the use of concepts in
commutative algebra such as multivariate
polynomials.[112] It has applications in
many areas, including cryptography[113]
and string theory.[114]

Complex geometry

Complex geometry studies the nature of

geometric structures modelled on, or
arising out of, the complex
plane.[115][116][117] Complex geometry lies
at the intersection of differential geometry,
algebraic geometry, and analysis of
several complex variables, and has found
applications to string theory and mirror
symmetry.[118]
Complex geometry first appeared as a
distinct area of study in the work of
Bernhard Riemann in his study of Riemann
surfaces.[119][120][121] Work in the spirit of
Riemann was carried out by the Italian
school of algebraic geometry in the early
1900s. Contemporary treatment of
complex geometry began with the work of
Jean-Pierre Serre, who introduced the
concept of sheaves to the subject, and
illuminated the relations between complex
geometry and algebraic geometry.[122][123]
The primary objects of study in complex
geometry are complex manifolds, complex
algebraic varieties, and complex analytic
varieties, and holomorphic vector bundles
and coherent sheaves over these spaces.
Special examples of spaces studied in
complex geometry include Riemann
surfaces, and Calabi-Yau manifolds, and
these spaces find uses in string theory. In
particular, worldsheets of strings are
modelled by Riemann surfaces, and
superstring theory predicts that the extra 6
dimensions of 10 dimensional spacetime
may be modelled by Calabi-Yau manifolds.

Discrete geometry
Discrete geometry includes the study of various
sphere packings.

Discrete geometry is a subject that has

close connections with convex
geometry.[124][125][126] It is concerned
mainly with questions of relative position
of simple geometric objects, such as
points, lines and circles. Examples include
the study of sphere packings,
triangulations, the Kneser-Poulsen
conjecture, etc.[127][128] It shares many
methods and principles with
combinatorics.

Computational geometry

Computational geometry deals with

algorithms and their implementations for
manipulating geometrical objects.
Important problems historically have
included the travelling salesman problem,
minimum spanning trees, hidden-line
removal, and linear programming.[129]

Although being a young area of geometry,

it has many applications in computer
vision, image processing, computer-aided
design, medical imaging, etc.[130]

Geometric group theory

The Cayley graph of the free group on two generators

a and b

Geometric group theory uses large-scale

geometric techniques to study finitely
generated groups.[131] It is closely
connected to low-dimensional topology,
such as in Grigori Perelman's proof of the
Geometrization conjecture, which included
the proof of the Poincaré conjecture, a
Millennium Prize Problem.[132]

Geometric group theory often revolves

around the Cayley graph, which is a
geometric representation of a group. Other
important topics include quasi-isometries,
Gromov-hyperbolic groups, and right
angled Artin groups.[131][133]

Convex geometry
Convex geometry investigates convex
shapes in the Euclidean space and its
more abstract analogues, often using
techniques of real analysis and discrete
mathematics.[134] It has close connections
to convex analysis, optimization and
functional analysis and important
applications in number theory.

Convex geometry dates back to

antiquity.[134] Archimedes gave the first
known precise definition of convexity. The
isoperimetric problem, a recurring concept
in convex geometry, was studied by the
Greeks as well, including Zenodorus.
Archimedes, Plato, Euclid, and later Kepler
and Coxeter all studied convex polytopes
and their properties. From the 19th century
on, mathematicians have studied other
areas of convex mathematics, including
higher-dimensional polytopes, volume and
surface area of convex bodies, Gaussian
curvature, algorithms, tilings and lattices.

Applications
Geometry has found applications in many
fields, some of which are described below.

Art
Bou Inania Madrasa, Fes, Morocco, zellige mosaic
tiles forming elaborate geometric tessellations

Mathematics and art are related in a

variety of ways. For instance, the theory of
perspective showed that there is more to
geometry than just the metric properties
of figures: perspective is the origin of
projective geometry.[135]
Artists have long used concepts of
proportion in design. Vitruvius developed a
complicated theory of ideal proportions for
the human figure.[136] These concepts
have been used and adapted by artists
from Michelangelo to modern comic book
artists.[137]

The golden ratio is a particular proportion

that has had a controversial role in art.
Often claimed to be the most aesthetically
pleasing ratio of lengths, it is frequently
stated to be incorporated into famous
works of art, though the most reliable and
unambiguous examples were made
deliberately by artists aware of this
legend.[138]

Tilings, or tessellations, have been used in

art throughout history. Islamic art makes
frequent use of tessellations, as did the art
of M. C. Escher.[139] Escher's work also
made use of hyperbolic geometry.

Cézanne advanced the theory that all

images can be built up from the sphere,
the cone, and the cylinder. This is still used
in art theory today, although the exact list
of shapes varies from author to
author.[140][141]
Architecture

Geometry has many applications in

architecture. In fact, it has been said that
geometry lies at the core of architectural
design.[142][143] Applications of geometry
to architecture include the use of
projective geometry to create forced
perspective,[144] the use of conic sections
in constructing domes and similar
objects,[91] the use of tessellations,[91] and
the use of symmetry.[91]

Physics
The field of astronomy, especially as it
relates to mapping the positions of stars
and planets on the celestial sphere and
describing the relationship between
movements of celestial bodies, have
served as an important source of
geometric problems throughout
history.[145]

Riemannian geometry and pseudo-

Riemannian geometry are used in general
relativity.[146] String theory makes use of
several variants of geometry,[147] as does
quantum information theory.[148]

Other fields of mathematics

The Pythagoreans discovered that the sides of a
triangle could have incommensurable lengths.

Calculus was strongly influenced by

geometry.[30] For instance, the introduction
of coordinates by René Descartes and the
concurrent developments of algebra
marked a new stage for geometry, since
geometric figures such as plane curves
could now be represented analytically in
the form of functions and equations. This
played a key role in the emergence of
infinitesimal calculus in the 17th century.
Analytic geometry continues to be a
mainstay of pre-calculus and calculus
curriculum.[149][150]

Another important area of application is

number theory.[151] In ancient Greece the
Pythagoreans considered the role of
numbers in geometry. However, the
discovery of incommensurable lengths
contradicted their philosophical views.[152]
Since the 19th century, geometry has been
used for solving problems in number
theory, for example through the geometry
of numbers or, more recently, scheme
theory, which is used in Wiles's proof of
Fermat's Last Theorem.[153]

See also

Lists

List of geometers
Category:Algebraic geometers
Category:Differential geometers
Category:Geometers
Category:Topologists
List of formulas in elementary geometry
List of geometry topics
 List of important publications in
geometry
Lists of mathematics topics

Related topics

Descriptive geometry
Finite geometry
Flatland, a book written by Edwin Abbott
Abbott about two- and three-
dimensional space, to understand the
concept of four dimensions
List of interactive geometry software

Other fields

Molecular geometry
Notes
a. Until the 19th century, geometry was
dominated by the assumption that all
geometric constructions were
Euclidean. In the 19th century and
later, this was challenged by the
development of hyperbolic geometry
by Lobachevsky and other non-
Euclidean geometries by Gauss and
others. It was then realised that
implicitly non-Euclidean geometry had
appeared throughout history, including
the work of Desargues in the 17th
Century, all the way back to the implicit
use of spherical geometry to
 understand the Earth geodesy and to
navigate the oceans since antiquity.
1. Vincenzo De Risi (31 January 2015).
Mathematizing Space: The Objects of
Geometry from Antiquity to the Early
Modern Age . Birkhäuser. pp. 1–.
ISBN 978-3-319-12102-4.
2. Tabak, John (2014). Geometry: the
language of space and form. Infobase
Publishing. p. xiv. ISBN 978-
0816049530.
3. Walter A. Meyer (21 February 2006).
Geometry and Its Applications .
Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-047803-6.
4. J. Friberg, "Methods and traditions of
Babylonian mathematics. Plimpton
322, Pythagorean triples, and the
Babylonian triangle parameter
equations", Historia Mathematica, 8,
1981, pp. 277–318.
5. Neugebauer, Otto (1969) [1957].
"Chap. IV Egyptian Mathematics and
Astronomy". The Exact Sciences in
Antiquity (2 ed.). Dover Publications.
pp. 71–96. ISBN 978-0-486-22332-2..
. (Boyer 1991, "Egypt" p. 19)
7. Ossendrijver, Mathieu (29 January
2016). "Ancient Babylonian
astronomers calculated Jupiter's
 position from the area under a time-
velocity graph". Science. 351 (6272):
482–484.
Bibcode:2016Sci...351..482O .
doi:10.1126/science.aad8085 .
PMID 26823423 .
. Depuydt, Leo (1 January 1998).
"Gnomons at Meroë and Early
Trigonometry". The Journal of
Egyptian Archaeology. 84: 171–180.
doi:10.2307/3822211 .
JSTOR 3822211 .
9. Slayman, Andrew (27 May 1998).
"Neolithic Skywatchers" . Archaeology
Magazine Archive. Archived from the
 original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved
17 April 2011.
10. (Boyer 1991, "Ionia and the
Pythagoreans" p. 43)
11. Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the
History of Mathematics, Saunders,
1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0.
12. Kurt Von Fritz (1945). "The Discovery
of Incommensurability by Hippasus of
Metapontum". The Annals of
Mathematics.
13. James R. Choike (1980). "The
Pentagram and the Discovery of an
Irrational Number". The Two-Year
College Mathematics Journal.
14. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and
Aristotle" p. 92)
15. (Boyer 1991, "Euclid of Alexandria" p.
119)
1 . (Boyer 1991, "Euclid of Alexandria" p.
104)
17. Howard Eves, An Introduction to the
History of Mathematics, Saunders,
1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0 p. 141: "No
work, except The Bible, has been more
widely used...."
1 . O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F.
(February 1996). "A history of
calculus" . University of St Andrews.
 Archived from the original on 15 July
2007. Retrieved 7 August 2007.
19. Staal, Frits (1999). "Greek and Vedic
Geometry". Journal of Indian
Philosophy. 27 (1–2): 105–127.
doi:10.1023/A:1004364417713 .
20. Pythagorean triples are triples of
integers with the property:
. Thus, ,
,
etc.
21. (Cooke 2005, p. 198): "The arithmetic
content of the Śulva Sūtras consists of
rules for finding Pythagorean triples
such as (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (8, 15, 17),
 and (12, 35, 37). It is not certain what
practical use these arithmetic rules
had. The best conjecture is that they
were part of religious ritual. A Hindu
home was required to have three fires
burning at three different altars. The
three altars were to be of different
shapes, but all three were to have the
same area. These conditions led to
certain "Diophantine" problems, a
particular case of which is the
generation of Pythagorean triples, so
as to make one square integer equal to
the sum of two others."
22. (Hayashi 2005, p. 371)
23. (Hayashi 2003, pp. 121–122)
24. R. Rashed (1994), The development of
Arabic mathematics: between
arithmetic and algebra, p. 35 London
25. (Boyer 1991, "The Arabic Hegemony"
pp. 241–242) "Omar Khayyam (c.
1050–1123), the "tent-maker," wrote an
Algebra that went beyond that of al-
Khwarizmi to include equations of
third degree. Like his Arab
predecessors, Omar Khayyam
provided for quadratic equations both
arithmetic and geometric solutions; for
general cubic equations, he believed
(mistakenly, as the 16th century later
showed), arithmetic solutions were
impossible; hence he gave only
geometric solutions. The scheme of
using intersecting conics to solve
cubics had been used earlier by
Menaechmus, Archimedes, and
Alhazan, but Omar Khayyam took the
praiseworthy step of generalizing the
method to cover all third-degree
equations (having positive roots). ..
For equations of higher degree than
three, Omar Khayyam evidently did not
envision similar geometric methods,
for space does not contain more than
three dimensions, ... One of the most
fruitful contributions of Arabic
 eclecticism was the tendency to close
the gap between numerical and
geometric algebra. The decisive step
in this direction came much later with
Descartes, but Omar Khayyam was
moving in this direction when he
wrote, "Whoever thinks algebra is a
trick in obtaining unknowns has
thought it in vain. No attention should
be paid to the fact that algebra and
geometry are different in appearance.
Algebras are geometric facts which
are proved."".
2 . O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund
F. "Al-Mahani" . MacTutor History of
 Mathematics archive. University of St
Andrews..
27. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund
F. "Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani" .
MacTutor History of Mathematics
archive. University of St Andrews..
2 . O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund
F. "Omar Khayyam" . MacTutor History
of Mathematics archive. University of
St Andrews..
29. Boris A. Rosenfeld and Adolf P.
Youschkevitch (1996), "Geometry", in
Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of
the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2,
pp. 447–494 [470], Routledge, London
and New York:

"Three scientists, Ibn al-

Haytham, Khayyam, and al-
Tusi, had made the most
considerable contribution
to this branch of geometry
whose importance came to
be completely recognized
only in the 19th century. In
essence, their propositions
concerning the properties of
quadrangles which they
considered, assuming that
some of the angles of these
figures were acute of
obtuse, embodied the first
few theorems of the
hyperbolic and the elliptic
geometries. Their other
proposals showed that
various geometric
statements were equivalent
to the Euclidean postulate
V. It is extremely important
that these scholars
established the mutual
connection between this
postulate and the sum of
the angles of a triangle and
a quadrangle. By their
works on the theory of
parallel lines Arab
mathematicians directly
influenced the relevant
investigations of their
European counterparts. The
first European attempt to
prove the postulate on
parallel lines – made by
Witelo, the Polish scientists
of the 13th century, while
revising Ibn al-Haytham's
Book of Optics (Kitab al-
Manazir) – was
undoubtedly prompted by
Arabic sources. The proofs
put forward in the 14th
century by the Jewish
scholar Levi ben Gerson,
who lived in southern
France, and by the above-
mentioned Alfonso from
Spain directly border on Ibn
al-Haytham's
demonstration. Above, we
 have demonstrated that
Pseudo-Tusi's Exposition of
Euclid had stimulated both
J. Wallis's and G. Saccheri's
studies of the theory of
parallel lines."

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Raags: 3-Manifolds, Right-Angled Artin
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093439-6.
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Geometry: A Guided Tour Through Real
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The Everything Cartooning Book:
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Sources
Boyer, C.B. (1991) [1989]. A History of
Mathematics (Second edition, revised
by Uta C. Merzbach ed.). New York:
Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8.
Cooke, Roger (2005). The History of
Mathematics. New York: Wiley-
Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-44459-6.
Hayashi, Takao (2003). "Indian
Mathematics". In Grattan-Guinness, Ivor
(ed.). Companion Encyclopedia of the
History and Philosophy of the
 Mathematical Sciences. 1. Baltimore,
MD: The Johns Hopkins University
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7396-6.
Hayashi, Takao (2005). "Indian
Mathematics". In Flood, Gavin (ed.). The
Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell. pp. 360–375.
ISBN 978-1-4051-3251-0.
Nikolai I. Lobachevsky (2010).
Pangeometry. Heritage of European
Mathematics Series. 4. translator and
editor: A. Papadopoulos. European
Mathematical Society.

Further reading
 Jay Kappraff (2014). A Participatory
Approach to Modern Geometry . World
Scientific Publishing. ISBN 978-981-
4556-70-5.
Leonard Mlodinow (2002). Euclid's
Window – The Story of Geometry from
Parallel Lines to Hyperspace (UK ed.).
Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9634-0.

External links

Geometry
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions
from
Wiktionary
Media
from
Wikimedia
Commons
News from
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Quotations
from
Wikiquote
Texts from
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 Textbooks
from
Wikibooks
Resources
from
Wikiversity

Wikibooks has more on the topic of:

Geometry

"Geometry"  . Encyclopædia Britannica. 11

(11th ed.). 1911. pp. 675–736.

A geometry course from Wikiversity

Unusual Geometry Problems
The Math Forum – Geometry
 The Math Forum – K–12 Geometry
The Math Forum – College
Geometry
The Math Forum – Advanced
Geometry
Nature Precedings – Pegs and Ropes
Geometry at Stonehenge
The Mathematical Atlas – Geometric
Areas of Mathematics
"4000 Years of Geometry" , lecture by
Robin Wilson given at Gresham College,
3 October 2007 (available for MP3 and
MP4 download as well as a text file)
Finitism in Geometry at the
Stanford Encyclopedia of
 Philosophy
The Geometry Junkyard
Interactive geometry reference with
hundreds of applets
Dynamic Geometry Sketches (with some
Student Explorations)
Geometry classes at Khan Academy

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