Unit II

Syllabus
• Introduction to systems, properties of systems, classification of
systems, mathematical model for systems, normal form of system
equations, initial conditions – Laplace transform – system transfer
function.
System

• A system is defined as a physical device that generates a response or

output signal, for a given input signal.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

CONTINUOUS TIME AND DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS

A continuous time system is one which
operates on a continuous time input signal and
produces a continuous time output signal.

A discrete time system is one which operates

on a discrete time input signal and produces a
discrete time output signal.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

LUMPED PARAMETER AND DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER SYSTEMS

A lumped system is one in which the dependent variables of interest
are a function of time alone. This involves solving a set of ordinary
differential equations.

A distributed system is one in which all dependent variables are

functions of time and one or more spatial variables. This involves
solving partial differential equations.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

STATIC AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

A system is called static or memoryless if its output at any instant
depends on the input at that instant but not on the past or future
values of input. Otherwise, the system is said to be dynamic or with
memory.

Static Continuous time 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2(𝑡)

Discrete time 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥(𝑛)
Dynamic Continuous time 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
Discrete time 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

CAUSAL AND NON CAUSAL SYSTEMS

A causal system is one for which the output at any time t depends on
the present and past inputs but not future inputs. These systems are
also known as anticipative systems.
A non causal system is one whose output depends on future values.

Causal systems Continuous time 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)

Discrete time 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥(𝑛 − 3)
Non causal systems Continuous time 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 3 + 𝑥 2(𝑡)
Discrete time 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥(2𝑛)
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

LINEAR AND NON LINEAR SYSTEMS

Superposition principle states that the response to a weighted sum of
input signals be equal to the weighted sum of the outputs
corresponding to each of the individual input signals. A system that
satisfies the superposition principle is said to be a linear system.
𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑇 𝑥1(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑇 𝑥2(𝑡)

𝑇 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑇 𝑥1(𝑛) + 𝑏𝑇 𝑥2(𝑛)

 Check the linearity of the system
𝑑𝑦
𝑖) + 3𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦1 𝑡
𝑥1 𝑡 → + 3𝑡𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑡 2𝑥1(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦2 𝑡
𝑥2 𝑡 → + 3𝑡𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑡 2𝑥2(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑎 + 3𝑎𝑡𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏 + 3𝑏𝑡𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 2𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡 2𝑥2(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑
𝑦3 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡) + 3𝑡 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

System is linear
 Check the linearity of the system
𝑑𝑦
𝑖𝑖) + 2 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦1 𝑡
𝑥1 𝑡 → + 2𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑥12 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦2 𝑡
𝑥2 𝑡 → + 2𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑥22 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑦2(𝑡)

𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥12 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥22 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2
𝑦3 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡) + 2 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡) = a𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

System is non linear

 Check the linearity of the system

𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥(𝑛)

𝑥1 𝑛 → 𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥1(𝑛)

𝑥2 𝑛 → 𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥2(𝑛)

𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑛) = 𝑛𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑏𝑥2(𝑛)

𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑏𝑥2(𝑛)

System is linear
 Check the linearity of the system
1
𝑖𝑣)𝑦 𝑛 = 2𝑥 𝑛 +
𝑥(𝑛 − 1)

1
𝑥1 𝑛 → 𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 +
𝑥1 (𝑛 − 1)
1
𝑥2 𝑛 → 𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥2 𝑛 +
𝑥2(𝑛 − 1)

𝑎 𝑏
𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 = 2𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + + 2𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 +
𝑥1 𝑛 − 1 𝑥2(𝑛 − 1)

1
𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 = 2 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑛) +
𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑛 − 1)

System is non linear

CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
TIME INVARIANT AND TIME VARIANT SYSTEMS

A system is said to be time invariant if its input – output characteristics

do not change with time.
x(t ) y (t )
Time invariant
system

x(t  t0 ) y (t  t0 )

t0 t0
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
TIME INVARIANT AND TIME VARIANT SYSTEMS

The output due to delayed input x(t-T) for a time invariant system is
given by
𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)

Time invariant Time variant

𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 ≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑇)
𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 = 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑇)

Discrete time systems

𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = 𝑇 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) 𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘)
For the following systems, determine whether or not the system is time invariant.
𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡)
𝑖) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑥(𝑡)

The delayed output is

The delayed output is
𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 = t − T x(t − T)
𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑇 = 𝑒 𝑥(𝑡−𝑇)
The output due to delayed input is
The output due to delayed input is
𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)
𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇) = 𝑒 𝑥(𝑡−𝑇)

𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 ≠ y(t − T)
𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 = y(t − T)
Time variant system
Time invariant system
For the following systems, determine whether or not the system is time invariant.
𝑖𝑣) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥(2𝑛)
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 2(𝑛 − 1)

The delayed output is

The delayed output is
𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = x(2n − 2k)
𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑥 2(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑘)
The output due to delayed input is
The output due to delayed input is
𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = x(2n − k)
𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = T 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑘 ] = [𝑥 2(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑘)

𝑦 𝑡, 𝑇 ≠ y(t − T)
𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = y(n − k)
Time variant system
Time invariant system
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
STABLE AND UNSTABLE SYSTEMS

A system is said to be bounded input and bounded output stable if

and only if every bounded input produces a bounded output.
SYSTEM MODELLING
MECHANICAL ELEMENTS

𝑑 2𝑥
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀𝑎 = 𝑀 2 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐵𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 2𝑥1 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2

𝐹=𝑚 2+𝐵 + 𝑘𝑥 𝑢 = 𝑚1 + 𝑏 − + 𝑘1𝑥1 + 𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥1
0 = 𝑚2 + 𝑏 − + 𝑘2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 + 𝑘3𝑥2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
𝑡
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
𝑉𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + 𝐿 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 −∞

𝑑𝑖1 (𝑡)
v 𝑡 =𝐿 + 𝑅(𝑖1 𝑡 − 𝑖2 𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡

𝑡
1
𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑅 𝑖2 𝑡 − 𝑖1 𝑡 =0
𝐶 −∞
DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM
𝐏𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐥
Let y(n) be the population of India in a year n
b(n) is the birth rate
d(n) is the death rate
u(n) is the net number of immigrants entering India
y(n+1) be the population in year (n+1)

𝑦 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑑 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑢 𝑛 = 1 + 𝑏 𝑛 − 𝑑 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑢(𝑛)

The above system is time variant.

If the values of b(n) and d(n) are constants, then
𝑦 𝑛 + 1 = 1 + 𝑏 − 𝑑 𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑢(𝑛)

The above system is time invariant.

TRANSFER FUNCTION
A Transfer Function is the ratio of the output of a system to the input of a system, in
the Laplace domain considering its initial conditions to be zero .
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹=𝑚 2+𝐵 + 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑚𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐵𝑠𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑘𝑋(𝑠)

𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝑘)𝑋(𝑠)

𝑋(𝑠) 1
=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝑘
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 𝑢 = 𝑚1
𝑑 2𝑥1
+ 𝑏
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2
− + 𝑘1𝑥1 + 𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥1
0 = 𝑚2 +𝑏 − + 𝑘2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 + 𝑘3𝑥2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑈(𝑠) = 𝑚1 𝑠 2𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝑠 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑋2 𝑠 + 𝑘1𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑘2(𝑋1 (𝑠) − 𝑋2 (𝑠))

0 = 𝑚2𝑠 2𝑋2 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝑠 𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑘2 𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑘3𝑋2 (𝑠)

𝑋1 (𝑠) (𝑀2𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )
=
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑀2𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 − 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2 2
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

𝑡
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
𝑉𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + 𝐿 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 −∞

1
𝑉𝑠 𝑠 = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) + 𝐿𝑠𝐼(𝑠) + I(s)
𝐶𝑠

𝐼(𝑠) 𝐶𝑠
=
𝑉𝑠 𝑠 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
INVERTIBILITY AND INVERSE SYSTEMS

• A system is called invertible if it produces distinct output signals for

distinct input signals.
• If an invertible system produces the output y(t) for the input x(t),
then its inverse produces the output x(t) for the input y(t).