Center for War Studies

sdu.dk
Military Drones

#sdudk
in Europe
Research Report by
Dominika Kunertova

The European Defense Market and the

Spread of Military UAV technology

Spring/Summer 2019
Center for War Studies

Military Drones
in Europe
Photo from www.unmannedsystemstechnology.com
4 · Center for War Studies / Military Drones in Europe

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 Military Drones in Europe / Contents · 5

Contents
05 Contents

07 Tables

08 Abstract

10 Executive Summary

14 Acknowledgments

15 Abbreviations

16 Section One: Report Context

17 Conceptual Note

22 Section Two: European Military Drone Landscape

23 High Altitude Long Endurance UAVs
24 Medium Altitude Long Endurance UAVs
30 Tactical and Small UAVs

36 Section Three: NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy

38 Enabling Mechanisms
42 Funding Mechanisms
45 Networking Mechanisms

48 Section Four: UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation

48 Future Unmanned Technology
49 Drone as Force Multiplier
50 Drone as Weapon
52 Drone as Threat
53 Unmanned Technology Spill-Over
53 Transatlantic Framework of Cooperation

61 Conclusions

64 Annex I Database of European Military Drones

 Military Drones in Europe / Tables · 7

Tables
11 TABLE 1 Key dynamics on the European defense market

17 TABLE 2 Unmanned Aerial Systems Classification

19 TABLE 3 UAS per armed service

23 TABLE 4 Drone clubs in Europe

30 TABLE 5 The most popular foreign TUAV and SUAV platforms in Europe

31 TABLE 6 Selected TUAV platforms developed in Europe

32 TABLE 7 Selected SUAV platforms developed in Europe

37 TABLE 8 NATO and the EU: comparing strengths and weaknesses

38 TABLE 9 NATO and EU institutional mechanisms

Figures
25 FIGURE I European MALE drone landscape

30 FIGURE 2 European MALE drone clubs

8 · Abstract / Military Drones in Europe

Abstract
This report provides the critical insights that national the category of smaller UAVs. The next-generation UAV
governments and defense companies need in order to technology driven by the increasing level of autonomy
navigate the European military drone landscape and and the concepts of manned-unmanned teaming and
offers a guide to their strategic planning and investment. swarming, together with the development of counter-
Observing the international proliferation of military drone systems, will characterize the future drone race on
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), also known as drones, the European defense market.
the report puts together a comprehensive overview of
military drones in Europe to conceptualize the diffusion The report proceeds in three steps. First, it maps the
of UAV technology and the competition dynamics on military drone capabilities in selected seventeen European
the European defense market. This political-strategic countries with respect to all three main classes of drones:
comparative analysis identifies and qualitatively assesses advanced, tactical, and small. The resulting drone clubs
the key developments in the European military drone are based on countries’ procurement strategies and
landscape. The report puts forward that despite the defense cooperation patterns. Second, the report adds
continuing proliferation of military drones in Europe, an institutional layer to the analysis. It assesses the
significant differences in military drone capabilities persist strengths and weaknesses of both NATO and the EU in
among European countries. Importantly, no European terms of existing institutional channels central to the
indigenous advanced drone has achieved full operational development of UAV capability, especially in the context
capability yet. In this respect, the North Atlantic Treaty of the emerging EU-wide regulatory framework and its
Organization (NATO) and the European Union (EU), each growing role in the defense and security domain. Third,
via its own institutional logic, act as facilitators of the the concluding analysis of future trends in the military
military technology diffusion through various enabling, UAV technology further elaborates on drone warfare and
funding, and networking mechanisms. The commercial defense cooperation in Europe.
sector further animates the European defense market in
Military Drones in Europe / Abstract · 9

Photo from schiebel.net

10 · Executive Summary / Military Drones in Europe

Executive Summary
This report provides a close look at the diffusion of is the only European country which has used armed
military UAV technology in Europe. It identifies the key drones in lethal operations. France will become the
developments on the European defense market with second European weaponizer of MALE drones.
respect to all main categories of military drones, based
on their aerodynamic characteristics (advanced HALE 3. 
European countries have kicked off several
and MALE, tactical, and small), and assesses the role of projects aimed at developing advanced drones,
NATO and the EU in shaping the European military drone as the acquisition of foreign technology goes against
landscape. This institutional add-on reflects the context European industrial interests and compromises EU’s
of the emerging EU-wide regulatory framework for drone industrial autonomy. Today the most important one
market and the EU’s growing role in defense and security. is the Eurodrone project, supported by the European
Ultimately, the report provides the critical insights that Defence Agency, that may deliver a European MALE
defense companies and national governments need in drone by 2025 and introduce more competition vis-
order to navigate the European military drone landscape à-vis the United States. France, Germany, Italy, and
and offers a guide to their strategic planning and Spain are leading these development efforts. Yet, as
investment. of now, Europeans have not moved from design
concepts and demonstrators to operational
Observing the international proliferation of military platforms.
UAVs, the report identifies the key developments on
the European defense market with respect to military 4. The continuing popularity of American small and
UAVs by assessing the following criteria: 1) innovation; tactical drones among European countries is linked
2) NATO-EU interface; and 3) transatlantic framework not only to the fact that they are readily available,
of cooperation. This report has put together an up-to- proven, and interoperable platforms, but also to the
date database that consists of open-sourced data about European countries’ experience from Afghanistan
military UAVs in seventeen European countries, which where they learnt how to operate them.
constitutes the critical sample of the European military
drone landscape. This made it possible to conduct a 5. Rapid developments and innovation driven by the
political-strategic mapping of existing national military commercial market are typical for the category
UAV inventories, procurement practices, and future of small and tactical drones. Commercialization
investment plans in unmanned technologies in Europe. and the development of dual-use drone technology
The report then analyses existing NATO’s and EU’s have changed how and where the military procures
enabling, funding, and networking mechanisms that are its equipment. This has resulted into the civilian sector
central to the development and spread of military UAV setting the trends in lower classes of unmanned tech-
technology. nology. Yet the European drone market remains
atomized and uncoordinated, with a room for
The findings indicate the following ten main take-aways: improvement with regard to civil-military relations.

1. European countries lag behind the United States 6. 

Congested European airspace poses major
in the development of military UAV technology. technical challenges to military drone operators.
They have not succeeded in producing an operational Safety regulations and standards remain an obstacle
advanced European drone yet. European countries for flying military drones in non-segregated European
continue to depend on the imports of American, airspace, affect the acquisition process of UAVs
and to a lesser extent Israeli, UAV platforms. The from outside Europe, and make the development of
unhealthy condition of the transatlantic relationship certified UAV platforms more expensive.
further strengthens the call for strategic autonomy
among the EU member countries. 7. NATO and the EU act as important enablers of
military technology diffusion, each via its own
2. No country in Europe possess the largest HALE institutional logic. On the one hand, NATO focuses on
surveillance drone and only ten European military operational needs and orients its support
countries are operating or procuring advanced towards military expertise and interoperability, in
MALE drones from abroad. The United Kingdom addition to providing the strategic ISR drone capability
 Military Drones in Europe / Executive Summary · 11

to its member countries. On the other hand, the category (cargo, transport of passengers), the military
EU concentrates on developing financial and will be getting multipurpose drones that are smaller,
regulatory tools to create, among others, a globally- stealthier, able to fly longer, and equipped with
competitive common European drone market and to stronger, multifunction sensors.
improve the (autonomy of) European technological
and industrial base. The interactions of these two 10. 
The European military and defense market will
institutional logics usually result in a competition expand in the area of counter drone technologies
for “customers”, though often the NATO and the EU and unmanned maritime systems, especially
Staffs have difficulties to get a sense of what the through NATO and the EU institutional cooperative
other side is doing, where the compatibilities lie, and mechanisms. The importance of these two regional
act upon them. security institutions will grow with the increasing
sophistication of unmanned technology that already
8. 
The proliferation of military drones, including surpasses the expertise of individual countries
their armed and armable versions, will continue (especially in case of smaller states).
in Europe. Some European countries have already
been making sure not to miss the train with respect The assessment of the key dynamics on the European
to the development of the future-generation combat defense market in the respective drone categories is
UAVs. This could lead to further pressures on the EU summarized in Table 1. The resulting “good competition”
from the civil society to adopt a common position on indicates innovation leading to more and better UAV
armed drones. capabilities in Europe, complementarity of NATO and
EU activities, and European countries thinking in a
9. 
The number of both civilian and military UAVs transatlantic context. In contrast, “bad competition”
will increase in Europe. While civil commercial users points to industrial protectionism, duplication of efforts,
will be going bigger and higher, entering the MALE and uncoordinated NATO and the EU initiatives.

TABLE 1 Key dynamics on the European defense market

UAV category Characteristics Competition

High Altitude Long • Beyond resources of a single country • No competition

Endurance • NATO as principal enabler (AGS) • Monopoly of American platforms
(HALE)
• Future procurement of Triton by Germany and the United
Kingdom

Medium Altitude Long • Clusters of countries around competing • Bad competition

Endurance multinational projects • Rivalry (national industrial policies)
(MALE)
• Interdependence • Eurodrone operational in 2025 (vs American MQ-9)
• EDA as important enabler • EU defense policy instruments and EU strategic autonomy
• Military-industrial complex

Tactical drones • Recently decreased interest in these platforms • Weak competition

(TUAV) • No mature thinking as to their future use • Potential for more NATO-EU cooperation, especially in the
• Atomized and uncoordinated market maritime domain
• Possibility to arm them

Small drones • Commercialization (market-driven, SMEs) • Good competition

(SUAV) • Growing dual-use drone market • EU regulation and funding: emerging common European
• Civil-military relations: spill over from civilian drone market
sector to military; military as end-users • American platforms remain popular
• Very dynamic but unstructured • Potential for more NATO-EU cooperation in developing
counter-drone technologies
12 · Executive Summary / Military Drones in Europe

HALE UAVs Yet, despite the new EU funding opportunities, it is unlikely

European countries continue to rely on the technology that EU countries will change the way they procure drones
from the United States as the company Northrop in a short to mid-term.1 Since Eurodrone, a European
Grumman which produces Global Hawk and Triton armable version of the American Reaper, is expected to
platforms holds the monopoly on HALE drones. be operational only in 2025, Belgium, France, Italy, the
Importantly, acquiring and operating this strategic UAV Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom continue
capability has been beyond the resources of a single to buy American MQ-9s, albeit as an interim measure.
country. The only attempt at developing this large type of Lastly, the United Kingdom is the only European country
drone – the German EuroHawk program – was eventually that flies armed drones. France has recently approved the
cancelled in 2013. Yet NATO will soon provide its member option to arm its expanding fleet of Reapers. Furthermore,
countries with a strategic UAV capability thanks to the France, Germany, and Spain are working together on a
Alliance Ground Surveillance program. NATO will own and new-generation combat drone. There are also other bi
operate a fleet of five Global Hawks on behalf of all 29 and multinational projects, such as the Franco-British,
member countries. The system is expected to be delivered Franco-German, Anglo-Swedish, and French-led nEUROn
in 2019 and be fully operational in 2020. In addition, in projects, developing combat drone prototypes; all these
the near future Germany and the United Kingdom could combat/next-generation drone projects exist outside the
become the first European countries to operate HALE EU and NATO institutional frameworks.
drones, as both have recently announced the purchase of
the American surveillance drone Triton. TUAVs and SUAVs
The situation in the categories of small and tactical drones
MALE UAVs (Class I and II) has been significantly different since the
In the MALE category, the picture is more diversified. developments are driven by the civilian market, especially
Italy, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Greece are with respect to SUAVs. Although originally UAVs are
already operating MALE drones, while the Netherlands, military technology, today they are vastly outnumbered by
Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, and Poland are at various civilian drones. These smaller drones are in general cheaper
stages of the acquisition process. Thus only 10 countries and more affordable, since the demand is higher and
in Europe have been able to afford advanced drones so the customer base is diversified. The European militaries
far. have been increasingly turning into an end-user that buys
commercial, off-the-shelf, solutions.
European countries remain dependent on the imports of
this UAV technology from the United States and Israel. The drone technology in Europe has turned into a lucrative
Despite several attempts during the 2000s and the business that keeps growing. Very often there is no clear-
early 2010s, no R&D program in Europe, either individual cut distinction between civilian and military technology,
or collaborative, led to the production of a European and the notion of dual-use drones has become popular.
MALE drone. Yet the European Council’s announcement Apart from the military, these drones are operated by
in 2013 that made a European MALE drone a capability police, firefighters, farmers, delivery services, and private
priority has been considered a game changer. Thanks hobbyists. The European drone market is dynamic but
to this political impulse, Germany, France, Italy, and atomized. The role of the EU as a policy entrepreneur has
Spain formed a consortium in 2015-16 with an intention become central to the creation of a common European
to develop together a European advanced drone – the drone market. The European Commission has been
European MALE RPAS or the Eurodrone, project – within working on a set of air space and market regulations
the OCCAR framework and supported by the EDA’s work targeting both drone manufacturers and drone service
on the air traffic integration of drones into European providers.
airspace. This effort is understood as an attempt to
prevent further purchases of MALE drones from the While American military platforms remain popular due to
United States and to allow European industries to access the legacy of the NATO mission in Afghanistan, numerous
their own European market. Furthermore, Eurodrone European countries produce and operate their own
was selected as one of the PESCO projects in November tactical drones, yet with a different success rate. Virtually
2018 and will receive funding through this European all European armed forces have experience with military-
Commission’s new financial tools that aim to strengthen grade small drones. The popularity of the smallest micro
the EDTIB. In this context, the Eurodrone project plays drones is growing among SOF in the form of personal
a crucial role in improving the European industrial and reconnaissance systems. Tactical drones are finding
strategic autonomy. their way into the maritime domain in the form of VTOL-
 Military Drones in Europe / Executive Summary · 13

capable UAVs, while several countries have expressed

their interest into armable versions of TUAVs. Although
countries would probably need an outside impetus
from the EDA and NATO to coordinate their efforts in
these two UAV categories, more market competition
and more collaboration among NATO and the EU is
expected in the future, notably with respect to counter-
drone technologies and maritime unmanned systems
(underwater, surface, and air vehicles).

The current situation in Europe points to an institutional

division of labor: on the one hand, NATO has built a
community of military experts and will acquire the
strategic UAV surveillance capability; on the other hand,
the EU has been supporting the development of European
indigenous MALE drone capability and its integration into
European airspace. However, this would be a simplistic
observation. Both NATO and the EU have become
important enablers of military technology diffusion by
sponsoring R&T and R&D projects, shaping requirements
and national standards in all UAV categories, providing
procurement support, and creating networking fora. To
improve capabilities of their respective member countries,
they do not only facilitate the exchange of information,
but they also create the knowledge that is further shared
and implemented on the national level to allow for better
cooperation and improved interoperability.
14 · Acknowledgements / Military Drones in Europe

Acknowledgments
I am indebted to the members of International Staffs at
NATO, the EU, and EUROCONTROL and to several senior
strategy analysts for pointing my research into the right
direction and helping me connect the dots in the dynamic
field of military UAVs. I thank the crew at the Center for
War Studies for their support and consultations, and Sten
Rynning and Olivier Schmitt for their inspiring guidance
throughout the research process. Lastly, this report would
not have existed without the financial support from the
SDU Light House Funding.

About the author

Dominika Kunertova is a postdoctoral researcher at the
Center for War Studies at the University of Southern
Denmark. With a PhD from the Université de Montréal,
she specializes in transatlantic security and defense
cooperation, alliances, and NATO-EU relations. Previously
she worked at NATO Allied Command Transformation in
Norfolk and at NATO Headquarters in Brussels.
 Military Drones in Europe / Abbreviations · 15

Abbreviations
A2/AD Anti-Access/Area Denial JSTARS Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar
AGS Alliance Ground Surveillance System
ATI Air-Traffic Integration LAWS Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems
ATM Air Traffic Management MALE Medium Altitude, Long Endurance
AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System MTOW Maximum Take-Off Weight
AWS Anti-Submarine Warfare MUC MQ-9 Users Community
BVLOS Beyond Visual Line of Sight NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
C2 Command and Control NAD National Armaments Directors
C4ISR Command, Control, Communications, NADREP National Armaments Directors
Computers, Intelligence, Representatives
Surveillance, and Reconnaissance NDPP NATO Defence Planning Process
CARD Coordinated Annual Review on Defence NIAG NATO Industrial Advisory Group
CDP Capability Development Plan NNAG NATO Naval Armaments Group
CMRE Centre for Maritime Research and NSPA NATO Support and Procurement Agency
Experimentation OCCAR Organization for Joint Armament
CBRN Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Cooperation, Organisation
Nuclear Conjointe de Coopération en matière
CNAD Conference of National Armaments d’Armement
Directors OPA Optionally Piloted Aircraft
CODABA Collaborative Database PADR Preparatory Action on Defence Research
CONOPS Concept of Operations PESCO Permanent Structured Cooperation
C-UAS Counter/Countering Unmanned Aerial PRS Personal Reconnaissance System
Systems R&D Research and Development
EASA European Union Aviation Safety Agency RPA Remotely Piloted Aircraft
EDA European Defence Agency RPAS Remotely Piloted Aircraft System
EDF European Defence Fund R&T Research and Technology
EDIDP European Defence Industrial Development RUAS Rotary Unmanned Air System
Programme SACEUR Supreme Allied Commander Europe
EDTIB European Defence Technological and SCAF Système de Combat Aérien du Futur
Industrial Base SEC Single European Sky Expert Community
ELINT Electronic Signals Intelligence SES Single European Sky
EU European Union SESAR Single European Sky ATM Research
EUROCAE European Organization for Civil Aviation SESAR JU Single European Sky ATM Research Joint
Equipment Undertaking
EW Electronic Warfare SHAPE Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe
FCAS Future Combat Air System SIGINT Signal Intelligence
FMS Foreign Military Sale SME Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise
FP Framework Program SOF Special Operations Forces
GCS Ground Control Station STANAG Standardization Agreement
GPS Global Positioning System STO Science and Technology Organization
HALE High Altitude, Long Endurance SUAV Small UAV
HAPS High Altitude Pseudo Satellite TUAV Tactical UAV
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization UAS Unmanned Aerial System
ISR Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
ISTAR Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, UCAV Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
Reconnaissance VTOL Vertical Take-off and Landing
JCGUAS Joint Capability Group on Unmanned
Aircraft Systems
JISR Joint Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance
16 · Report Context / Military Drones in Europe

Section One:

Report Context
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), in everyday language capacity to overcome technological and organizational
known as drones, have become an integral part of modern obstacles, and domestic political institutions in a given
warfare. Thanks to their versatile employment, UAVs country.5 Importantly, this report looks at how NATO and
have become “a key capability in today’s operational the EU have facilitated the spread of unmanned military
environment”.2 Usually deployed in “3Ds” – dull, dirty, technology in Europe over the last decade.
dangerous – missions, drones are used to keep troops
out of harm’s way. Although UAVs are often labeled as Research Questions
emerging technology, it is because since the first drone
• What are the key dynamics on the European defense market
flight during the First World War3 this technology has
regarding military UAVs?
matured, become more reliable, and is able to carry a
• How do regional institutions shape the European military drone
great variety of sophisticated payloads. While for most landscape and supply what their member countries demand?
of the 20th century drones supported artillery units, • Which trends are likely to affect the development, deployment,
today they serve as an intelligence, surveillance, and and employment of UAV capabilities by European countries?
reconnaissance (ISR) platform in all armed services.4
Especially after the 9/11 attacks, some countries have
weaponized their drones to use them in strike operations.
For a long time, Europe has been considered a laggard in a Across the globe, countries have been systematically
field of military UAVs that depends on imports of foreign integrating unmanned technology into all branches of their
technology, and the continent was largely ignored in the armed forces.6 The Global War on Terror has kicked off an
analyses of the international studies expert community. unprecedented growth in drone deployment. For instance,
However, over the past few years the EU has been as the United States increased its spending on drones from
developing regulatory tools to Europeanize the drone $363 million in 2001 to $2.9 billion in 2013, the American
market and make it globally competitive. It has also drone inventory grew by 4400% in less than a decade,
started to financially motivate member countries and accounting for one third of all military aircraft in 2012.7 This
industry into defense research and development (R&D) increasingly dronified American strategy has influenced to a
projects that would strengthen the European Defence great extent the high demand for military drones elsewhere,
Technological and Industrial Base (EDTIB). And while including Europe. In 2017, the worldwide military UAV
NATO is about to acquire a fleet of large surveillance production amounted to $2.8 billion, projected to reach
drones, rising national defense budgets of European $9.4 billion in 2025, with the United States representing
countries will allow for greater investments into national 77% of total military worldwide research and development
military capabilities, including unmanned technology. (R&D) spending on drones.8 Israel is one of the leaders in
drone technology development and the largest military
This report examines the diffusion of unmanned military drone exporter. The commercialization of UAVs has allowed
technology in Europe to provide the critical insight new industrial players to enter the military market and a
that defense companies and national governments larger number of countries to compete for technology and
need in order to navigate the European military drone innovation leadership.9 For instance, China’s role on the
landscape and to offer a guide to their strategic global UAV market is growing, especially as it has found its
planning and investment. Over the last decade both niche in countries who cannot, or prefer not to, buy drones
civilian and military drones have become very popular from either the United States or Israel (countries in the
in Europe and this report examines how their use has Middle East and Africa).10 The United States, while remaining
spread across selected European countries. It provides a leader in armed UAVs, has already lost its monopoly: in
a comprehensive overview of the current European 2017, 30 countries had their forces equipped with, or were
military drone landscape and a qualitative analysis of making efforts towards developing, armed drones11, with
the key dynamics in terms of R&D, procurement, and China becoming the largest exporter of armed drones in
investment into military UAV technology and capabilities. 2018.12
This report captures the formation of various drone clubs
in Europe, since whether the acquisition of advanced This Europe-focused report assesses the recent
drones is successful and efficient largely depends on developments in all major UAV categories and
technological availability, industrial base, expertise, conceptualizes the competition dynamics on the Europe
 Military Drones in Europe / Report Context · 17

defense market. The report provides details about the Crucially, drones come in many shapes and sizes. They
proliferation of military UAVs on the national level (drone can be divided into categories according to numerous
clubs in Section Two) and analyzes the institutional criteria, such as range, altitude, weight, endurance,
mechanisms central to the development of drone payload, function, or employment. The simplest
capability (NATO and the EU in Section Three). The classification of drones distinguishes between armed vs
final section outlines future trends in the military UAV unarmed and advanced vs basic drones.16 Most often
technology and the transatlantic defense cooperation military drones are divided into large High-Altitude
relevant to future requirements for unmanned military Long-Endurance (HALE) and Medium-Altitude Long-
capabilities in European countries. Endurance (MALE) drones,17 tactical drones (TUAV), and
small drones (SUAV). This report uses the classification of
Conceptual Note military UAVs developed by NATO and also used by the EU
NATO defines Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) as “an Military Staff (see Table 2, simplified).18 Finally, the utility
aircraft which is designed to operate with no human pilot of UAV depends on the combination of a vehicle and its
on board and which does not carry personnel.”13 The EU payload, that is the capability packages (such as video
describes drones as “any aircraft capable of initiating and communication systems, targeting mechanisms,
flight and sustaining controlled flight and navigation and missiles) attached to unmanned aircraft, and the
without any human presence on board.”14 In general, way they could be integrated into existing Command,
the EU prefers to use the term Remotely Piloted Aircraft Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence,
System (RPAS). This refers to a subset of UAS or even Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) environment.19
UAV,15 since UAS includes both the airborne unmanned
vehicle, which can be either remotely piloted or flies fully
pre-programmed, and the ground control station (GCS)
and communications.

TABLE 2 Unmanned Aerial Systems Classification

Class Category Employment Altitude Range Example

Class III HALE Strategic / National Up to 65,000 ft Unlimited (BLOS) Global Hawk
(> 600 kg)
Strike/ Combat Strategic / National Up to 65,000 ft Unlimited (BLOS) Reaper

MALE Operational /Theatre Up to 45,000 ft Unlimited (BLOS) Heron

Class II Tactical Tactical Formation Up to 18,000 ft 200 km (LOS) Hermes 450

(150 kg – 600 kg) LUNA
Watchkeeper
Patroller

Class I Small (> 15 kg) Tactical Unit Up to 5,000 ft 50 km (LOS) Scan Eagle
(< 150 kg) Fulmar

Mini (< 15 kg) Tactical Sub-unit Up to 3,000 ft Up to 25 km (LOS) Skylark

Raven

Micro (< 66 J) Tactical Sub-unit Up to 200 ft Up to 5 km (LOS) Black Widow; Black Hornet
18 · Report Context / Military Drones in Europe

Photo from www.safran-electronics-defense.com

In general, while armies mostly use TUAVs and SUAVs drone to conduct closer surveillance and reconnaissance
and special operations forces (SOF) find very useful with radars. This information is then received by a TUAV
the smallest mini and micro drones, air forces employ that provides a detailed look with electro-optical sensors
the largest Class III UAVs (see Table 2). However, using over a smaller area as part of tactical reconnaissance
only technical aspects to differentiate between small and usually refers to the commander up to the brigade
and tactical drones can be rather arbitrary. Given that level. However, the differentiation between strategic,
endurance and the maximum take-off weight (MTOW) operational, and tactical assets largely depends on
are the most significant features, the separation between who is the customer and whose decision-making will be
TUAV and MALE is more evident and important than improved (which level of command) with the information
between TUAV and SUAV. provided by the ISR drone. In general, while HALE drones
provide situational awareness over longer periods of
In case of ISR drones, as a general rule one has to look time and cover large areas fulfilling strategic needs,
at what the information collected by a drone will do and MALE drones are usually deployed for a specific theatre
where it will go. Ideally, ISR drones operate within a wider of operations. In reality, HALE drones provide mostly
system architecture: satellites send pictures of lower in-theatre situational awareness, while MALE and even
resolution to a HALE drone which can search for bigger tactical UAVs can have strategic effects if, for instance,
objects with wide-area sensors. This large drone flying at employed smartly by smaller states who do not possess
very high altitudes then can transfer information to a MALE large advanced drones.
 Military Drones in Europe / Report Context · 19

TABLE 3 UAS per armed service

Class III Class II

Platform (origin) Service Country Platform (origin) Service Country

Reaper (US) Air Force France, Italy, the Camcopter Navy Belgium, France, Norway
Netherlands, Spain, United (Austria)
Kingdom

SkyGuardian (US) Air Force Belgium Hunter Air Force Belgium

(Israel)

Protector Air Force United Kingdom Ranger Air Force Finland, Switzerland
(US/UK) (Israel,
Switzerland)

Heron Air Force Germany, Greece Patroller Army France

(Israel) (France)

Harfang Air Force France Skeldar Navy Germany

(France) (Sweden,
Switzerland)

Triton Air Force Germany (in progress) Luna Army Germany

(US) (Germany)

HammerHead Air Force Italy Searcher Army Spain

(Italy) (Israel)

Hermes 900 (Israel) Air Force Switzerland Shadow Air Force Sweden
(US)

Global Hawk (US) Air Force NATO Hermes 450 Army United Kingdom
(Israel)/
Watchkeeper (UK)

Class I Class I

Platform (origin) Service Country Platform (origin) Service Country

Raven (US) Rapid Reaction Belgium Skylark (Israel) Army Czech Republic
Forces
Army Czech Republic, Italy, the SOF France, Sweden
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden
Army, Navy Denmark

Puma (US) Army Czech Republic, Estonia, SpyRanger (France) SOF, Army France
Germany, the Netherlands,
Spain, Sweden
Army, Navy Denmark

Wasp (US) SOF France Black Hornet Army, SOF France, Spain,
Army Spain, Sweden (Norway/US) United Kingdom

Scan Eagle (US) Army Czech Republic, Poland Huginn (Denmark) Army, Navy Spain

Army, Navy Spain

BlackJack Army The Netherlands, Poland

Orbiter (Israel) Army Finland, Poland, Switzerland Fulmar (Spain) Army, Navy Spain
20 · Report Context / Military Drones in Europe

Overall, UAVs can perform various functions in military To conceptualize the developments on the European
operations. They offer numerous advantages compared defense market with respect to military UAVs, this report
to manned aircraft, since without a human element uses diverse open-sourced data: 1) official publications
on board, only physical-material constraints can limit by ministries of defense, such as national defense and
their maneuverability and performance. Drones have security strategy, future procurement plans, and official
greater endurance in permissive environments, which press releases, and NATO and the EU public materials; 2)
is ideal for surveillance missions. They can collect an information collected during interviews with NATO and
unparalleled amount of data and provide vast array of EU officials, as well as with national representatives from
intelligence that contribute to greater real-time situational several member countries; and 3) the secondary sources:
awareness (better than satellites do). A drone can provide newspaper articles (such as Jane’s, Defense News), reports
communications relays and electronic support. Their and research papers by NGOs, institutes, and think tanks.
greater precision minimizes civilian casualties (compared The findings are based on the analysis of the following
to missiles) and their acquisition costs make them less countries: Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
expensive than fighter jet or Airborne Warning and Control Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands,
System (AWACS) aircraft. However, the hidden truth Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
about drones is that they are far from being unmanned and the United Kingdom. Annex 1 summarizes the current
– they create substantial manpower burdens in terms of inventories of European military UAVs and the future
the supply of skilled teams to manage and operate drone investments into unmanned technologies per country. In
missions.20 For instance, French air force projects training addition to scanning for recent news releases, this report
of some 80-100 crews to operate its 20+ MALE drones.21 combined data from five different databases: 1) Fuhrman
Operating large drones requires also ground stations, and Horowitz (2017) – drones per country between 2014-
bandwidth (satellite time to transfer data), and a trained 2016; 2) Center for a New American Security’s Proliferated
imagery analysis team. Drones – drone manufacturers per country; 3) International
Institute for Strategic Studies’ Military Balance (2018, 2019)
– drones per country in 2017 and 2018; 4) Boosting Defence
Cooperation in Europe (2018) – future investments into
UAS; and 5) European Forum on Armed Drones – in-service
drones per country.22 Despite several divergences, these
data helped create a solid picture of the current state of
affairs on the European military drone landscape.
 Military Drones in Europe / Report Context · 21

Endnotes Section One

1 
Jack McDonald, Drones and the European Union: Prospects 13 
NATO, STANAG 4671 - Unmanned Aircraft Systems
for a Common Future (London: Chatham House, The Royal Airworthiness Requirements, Annex A (Brussels: NATO,
Institute of International Affairs, 5 February 2018), 10, February 2017), A-5. In addition, Unmanned Aircraft System
12, https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/ a) is capable of sustained flight by aerodynamic means; b)
publications/research/2018-02-05-drones-eu-mcdonald.pdf. is remotely piloted or automatically flies a pre-programmed
flight profile; c) is reusable; and d) is not classified as a guided
2 
EDA, “Interview with Dassault Aviation CEO Eric Trappier on the weapon or similar one-shot device designed for the delivery of
industrial challenges and opportunities related to unmanned munitions.
and autonomous systems in defence,” European Defence
Matters (EDM) - Remote Defence: Unmanned & Autonomous 14 
Council of the European Union, Common Military
Systems Take Hold in Military Toolboxes, Issue 6, 2018: 23, List of the European Union (Brussels: EU, 2017),
https://www.eda.europa.eu/docs/default-source/eda- https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
magazine/edm-16-a3.pdf. TXT/?qid=1521098021619&uri=OJ:JOC_2018_098_R_0001.

3 
Abigail R. Hall and Christopher J. Coyne, “The Political 15 
SESAR JU, European Drones Outlook Study: Unlocking the Value
Economy of Drones,” Defence and Peace Economics 25, no. 5 for Europe (Brussels: SESAR JU, November, 2016), 2, https://
(2014): 447. The first drone appeared in 1915. It was a pilotless www.sesarju.eu/sites/default/files/documents/reports/
aerial torpedo developed by Elmer Sperry and Peter Cooper European_Drones_Outlook_Study_2016.pdf.
Hewitt for the US Navy. Kettering Bug is another example of
unmanned aerial torpedo developed for the US Army in 1918. 16 
Advanced drones “can remain in the air for at least twenty
hours, operate at an altitude of at least 16,000 feet, and have
4 
Kristian Søby Kristensen, Flemming Pradhan-Blach, Gary a maximum takeoff weight of at least 1,320 pounds”. Matthew
Schaub, Jr., Unmanned and Unarmed: On the Future use Fuhrmann and Michael C. Horowitz, “Droning On: Explaining
of Unmanned Aerial Systems in the Danish Armed Forces the Proliferation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles”, International
(Copenhagen: Centre for Military Studies, University of Organization 71 (Spring 2017): 401-2.
Copenhagen, February 2014), III, https://cms.polsci.ku.dk/
english/publications/uav1/Unmanned_and_Unarmed.pdf. 17 
Strike and combat drones are further developed MALE
platforms with added stealth technology and armed payload.
5 
Andrea Gilli and Mauro Gilli, “The Diffusion of Drone For instance, Predator is considered a MALE drone, while its
Warfare? Industrial, Organizational, and Infrastructural spin-off Reaper is considered a strike UAV. This report refers to
Constraints,” Security Studies 25, no. 1 (2016), 50-84; Sarah strike/combat drones in the discussion about MALE UAS for the
Kreps, Matt Fuhrmann, and Michael Horowitz, “Drone sake of brevity.
Proliferation in the Twenty-First Century,” in Oxford
handbook of International Security, ed. Alexandra Gheciu 18 
A s defined in NATO, NATO Standard AJP-3.3 Allied Joint
and William C. Wohlforth (Oxford: Oxford University Doctrine for Air and Space Operations, Edition B, Version
Press, 2018), https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/ 1 (Brussels: NATO, April 8, 2016), https://assets.publishing.
view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198777854.001.0001/oxfordhb- service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
9780198777854-e-38. attachment_data/file/624137/doctrine_nato_air_space_
ops_ajp_3_3.pdf. The EU has developed its own risk and
6 
International Institute for Strategic Studies, “Domain performance-based classification of civilian drones: open,
trends,” The Military Balance 119, no. 1 (2019): 7-8, DOI: specific, and certified category (see Section Three).
10.1080/04597222.2018.1561022.
19 
Sensor packages usually represent at least one quarter of the
7 Hall and Coyne, “The Political Economy of Drones,” 453. UAV price per unit. See Hayward, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, 6.

8 J on Walker, “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) – Comparing 20 

Werner Dahm, “Drones Now and What to Expect Over the Next
the USA, Israel, and China,” EMERJ, February 3, 2019, https:// Ten Years,” in Drone Wars: Transforming Conflict, Law, and
emerj.com/ai-sector-overviews/unmanned-aerial-vehicles- Policy, ed. Peter Bergen and Daniel Rothenberg (Cambridge:
uavs/. Cambridge University Press, 2014), 348, 356.

9 
Keith Hayward, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: A New Industrial 21 
Frédéric Lert, “French Air Force introduces new UAV pilot
System? (London: Royal Aeronautical Society, November, 2013), training Scheme,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, May 23, 2019,
3, https://www.aerosociety.com/Assets/Docs/Publications/ https://www.janes.com/article/88729/french-air-force-
DiscussionPapers/UASDiscussionPaper.pdf. introduces-new-uav-pilot-training-scheme.

10 
Interestingly, the world-wide monopoly on the commercial 22 
Matthew Fuhrmann and Michael C. Horowitz, “Droning On:
drone market belongs to a Chinese private company DJI and Explaining the Proliferation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles,”
their successful Phantom Drone platform (80% of all sold International Organization 71 (2017): 397–418; Center for the
commercial drones). Study of the Drone, “Drone Database”, Center for a New
American Security, accessed May 15, 2019, http://drones.cnas.
11 
Elisa Catalano Ewers, Lauren Fish, Michael C. Horowitz, org/drones/; International Institute for Strategic Studies, The
Alexandra Sander, and Paul Scharre, Drone Proliferation: Policy Military Balance 119, no. 1 (2019) and The Military Balance 118,
Choices for the Trump Administration (Washington: Center for no. 1 (2018); Alessandro Marrone, Jean-Pierre Maulny, Daniele
New American Security, June 2017), 2, http://drones.cnas.org/ Fattibene, and Andrea Aversano Stabile (eds.), Boosting
wp-content/uploads/2017/06/CNASReport-DroneProliferation- Defence Cooperation in Europe: An Analysis of Key Military
Final.pdf. Capabilities (Paris: IRIS, June 2018), https://www.iris-france.
12 
Zhenhua Lu, “China sells arms to more countries and is world’s org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Defence-Cooperation-
biggest exporter of armed drones, says Swedish think tank Europe_2018.pdf.; “Countries”, European Forum on Armed
SIPRI,” South China Morning Post, March 12, 2019, https://www. Drones, accessed April 25, 2019, https://www.efadrones.org/
scmp.com/news/china/military/article/2189604/china-sells- countries/.
weapons-more-countries-and-biggest-exporter-armed.
22 · European Military Drone Landscape / Military Drones in Europe

Section Two:

European Military
Drone Landscape
This section provides a fine-grained qualitative analysis Most European countries cannot afford buying and
of the diffusion of military UAV technology in Europe. operating advanced drones due to lacking expertise and
Using the open-source data about seventeen European infrastructure, let alone developing their own platform.
countries, it examines procurement practices and future Although the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy,
investment plans with respect to all main military UAV and Spain (and to some extent Poland) have the industrial
categories (advanced, tactical, small). The report’s base and expertise to produce the full spectrum of military
findings indicate that most European countries have drone capabilities, even today they have to be team
already used and are interested in acquiring more players when it comes to large drones, mainly due to
military drones in the short to mid-term. However, there economic reasons. Although the primary function of UAVs
are significant differences in drone capabilities among for European countries has been to provide surveillance
European countries. While most of them have operational and reconnaissance,23 several countries are now looking
experience with small and tactical drones and some have into armable MALE drones or arming tactical UAVs.
industrial capacity for their production, only a handful
of countries have acquired large advanced drones. These differing ambitions and resource limitations pushed
While American (General Atomics Aeronautical Systems some European countries to form various drone clubs
Inc, AeroVironment, Northrop Grumman Corporation) (see TABLE 3). These mostly informal groupings offer
and Israeli (Elbit Systems, Israel Aerospace Industries) numerous advantages to their participants, including but
companies remain the key and largest international not limited to sharing of best practices, pooling resources,
vendors of military drones, the European companies and discussing capability requirements. They facilitate
Airbus Defence and Space, BAE Systems, Dassault knowledge sharing and mentoring relations between
Aviation, Leonardo, Thales, and to a lesser extent the have and the have-nots and enhance multinational
Schiebel, ETM Penzberg, Safran, and WB Electronics, are solutions; some of them exist within either NATO or the
the main industrial players in the region. EU frameworks.
 Military Drones in Europe / European Military Drone Landscape · 23

TABLE 4 Drone clubs in Europe

Drone Club Members

Strategic enablers NATO Alliance Ground Surveillance

15 countries acquiring the AGS system: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and the United States

EDA drone clubbers France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland and Spain
(officially known as the European MALE RPAS Community at the EDA)

Eurodrone developers France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Czech Republic (since 2018); Belgium (observer since 2017)

Future Combat Drone Visionaries France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, United Kingdom

Cooperative projects:
• nEUROn: France, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Greece, Switzerland
• Future Combat Air System (FCAS): France, United Kingdom
• Système de Combat Aérien du Futur (SCAF): France, Germany, Spain
• Tempest: United Kingdom, Sweden

Solo project:
• Taranis: United Kingdom

MUCs France, Italy, United Kingdom; observers: Netherlands, Spain, Belgium

MALE Weaponizers United Kingdom, France (Italy?)

Third way goers Germany, Greece (lease instead of purchase)

NSPA clubbers Spain, Poland, Luxembourg, Italy, Belgium, Czech Republic, Greece
(members of the NSPA UAS Support Partnership)

High Altitude Long Endurance UAVs RQ-4E Global Hawk drone to European requirements,
Only a handful of countries in the world have developed but it was eventually cancelled in 2013 due to problems
HALE UAV technology – namely, the United States with with flight certification, without which the German HALE
its Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk, which was drones could not fly in Europe.26 Recently Canada has
the first HALE developed in 2001, and Northrop Grumman shown interest in buying the German EuroHawk to explore
MQ-4C Triton as the naval equivalent of the land-based the High North and monitor icebergs in the Arctic.27
Global Hawk; Israeli upgraded Eitan UAV, and China, who
has several platforms of this category in development European NATO member countries will soon acquire this
(Soaring Dragon and Cloud Shadow; CASC CH-7, strategic ISR UAV capability thanks to the NATO Alliance
expected in 2019; and Shenyang Divine Eagle, expected Ground Surveillance (AGS) program. The fleet of five
in 202024). Russia is not there yet. American platforms NATO RQ-4D is based on the United States Air Force
continue to dominate this category of the largest drones. Block 40 Global Hawk adapted to NATO requirements
Opportunities to procure HALE drones and resources for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
required to operate them are very limited. Notably, at capability to protect ground troops and civilians, control
the moment no European country possess, operates, or borders, provide maritime safety, contribute to the fight
develops HALE drone on its own. This strategic capability against terrorism and crisis management, and assist
remains beyond the resources and operational needs of in humanitarian missions. These assets will be owned
by all 29 NATO countries and operated by the Supreme
Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE).
a single European country. There were few attempts at
developing this strategic UAV capability in the past. For Due to political and economic reasons there are fifteen
instance in the 2000s, Thales made some HALE trials in the acquisition nations (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark,
form of optionally piloted aircraft (OPA).25 The infamous Estonia, Germany, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
German EuroHawk program tried to adapt the American Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and the
24 · European Military Drone Landscape / Military Drones in Europe

United States) and two provide in-kind contributions Medium Altitude Long Endurance UAVs
(France and the United Kingdom).28 However, all NATO In the MALE category of drones the main division line
members contribute to the enabling infrastructure – AGS in Europe runs between the have (and aspiring) and
Main Operating Base, communications, and life-cycle the have-nots, as Figure I illustrates. There are currently
support of the AGS fleet. NATO should have this system five European states – France, Germany, Greece, Italy,
delivered in 2019, which will be followed by a system-level and the United Kingdom – operating MALE drones. Four
performance verification phase in 2020. other countries – Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, and
Switzerland – are at various stages of the procurement
Although Global Hawk/ NATO AGS is presently the only process. Despite general expectations, Poland has not
HALE platform flying in Europe, this situation might taken an official decision on getting MALE drones yet,
change soon. Germany has announced that it would but Poland’s acquisition plans include a ZEFIR program
acquire four MQ-4C Triton, a Northrop Grumman’s for procuring this platform by 2022.36 While only three
broad area maritime surveillance HALE drone,29 probably countries prefer Israeli drones (Germany and Greece
to replace its maritime patrol aircraft performing ISR have Heron while Switzerland is acquiring Hermes 900),
operations (not ASW missions since Triton will not the rest operates (the United Kingdom, Italy, France) or
be armed). The agreement with the United States is is about to acquire (Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain)
expected to be signed at the end of 2019. Triton would various versions of American MQ-9 made by General
then become the core of the German project Pegasus, Atomics.
or Persistent German Airborne Surveillance System, with
Airbus developing signal intelligence (SIGINT) sensors.30 Most of European countries remain reluctant towards
If the final contract is concluded in 2019, Germany would arming these drones and use them uniquely for ISR
receive its first Pegasus drone in 2025.31 Triton is the most purposes. As of today, the United Kingdom is the only
developed version of Global Hawk and is used by the European country that flies the armed version of Reaper
United States Navy; it will achieve its initial operational Syria deployed from Kuwait). However, in March 2019
capability in 2021.32 Several other countries had already (in Afghanistan, strike missions against ISIS in Iraq and
showed interest in ordering it, among others the United France decided to arm its Reapers too in the context of
Kingdom, Australia, and Norway. The British Royal Air its ongoing operation in Mali.37 Paris has pledged to use
Force intents to procure Triton as part of their ongoing it only in the context of armed conflicts where France is
replacement of the cancelled Nimrod maritime patrol engaged and in a way that respects international law.38
aircraft for maritime surveillance.
Although Italy was the first European country to buy the
While developing European-made HALE drones is less American Predator, it has been waiting for the munition
probable and less urgent from the perspective of military to arm its Reapers since 2015.
operational needs, companies like BAE Systems and
Airbus have ongoing capability development projects
for a solar-powered UAV, also called a stratospheric UAV
or HAPS (High Altitude Pseudo Satellite) in the form
of PHASA-35 and Zephyr programs respectively.33 In
a similar vein, the Thales Alenia Space (a joint venture
between Thales and Leonardo) has been developing a
stratospheric balloon demonstrator together with the
Spanish satellite communication company Hispasat.34
These UAVs can stay airborne for a year to deliver services
like surveillance and communications relay. The British
Ministry of Defence has already ordered three Zephyr S
vehicles.35
 Military Drones in Europe / European Military Drone Landscape · 25

FIGURE I European MALE drone landscape

Importantly, no flyable “made in Europe” advanced drone (see below), this would already be thirty years after the
has been developed yet. In the meantime, apart from United States deployed a Predator for a surveillance
the usual suspects like the United States and Israel, these mission in Bosnia.39 However, European countries would
drones proliferated to China, Turkey, India, Iran, Pakistan, have needed to operate large drones long before that.
the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, or Russia, To overcome this capability shortfall, European countries
and many more are making serious efforts to develop or have developed various procurement strategies to
purchase MALE platforms. Although several R&D projects acquire large MALE drones in short to mid-term.
on a MALE UAV have started more than a decade ago,
even major European powers have been laggards in Procurement strategies and future acquisitions of
the advanced drone technology. Put plainly, even if the MALE platforms in Europe
Organization for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR) Several European countries decided to import foreign MALE
manages to produce the first operational European MALE UAVs mainly due to their pressing military requirements
UAV in 2025, a European equivalent of American Reaper for a full spectrum of capabilities to perform ISR and ISTAR
26 · European Military Drone Landscape / Military Drones in Europe

missions in Mali (France, Germany), in the Mediterranean The German and Greek cases are different as they
area (Italy), and in the Middle East (the United Kingdom). have decided to lease large drones, instead of buying
The American MQ-9 Reaper has been the only ready-to-use them. For instance, Germany has leased five Israeli
interoperable MALE platform on the market. For instance, Heron TP until 2027. This more cost-effective alternative
the French MALE UAV Harfang (based on Israeli Heron) took fulfils its operational needs for lesser money, until the
a long time to develop and had not been very successful Eurodrone project, with Germany in lead (see below),
as the four remaining Harfangs are now used only for is completed.48 The Italian case is also particular. Apart
training purposes. France is further strengthening its fleet from operating a fleet of American Reapers, the Italian
of Reapers with six new MQ-9s by the end of 2019 and aims government has recently decided to procure eight P.1HH
at having 24 MALE drones operational by 2030.40 The French “HammerHead” MALE drones from the Italy-based
Reapers also support the permanent surveillance of the company Piaggio Aerospace, even though the Italian Air
French territory for national security purposes.41 Force is not interested in the HammerHead platform.49
This constitutes a politically motivated purchase to save
Belgium is procuring four unarmed SkyGuardian drones the company, as this only commercial manufacturer
by 2025 to conduct persistent surveillance missions over of military drones in Europe announced insolvency in
the North Sea and the English Channel, to provide ISTAR November 2018 after the United Arab Emirates canceled
contribution to national, NATO, and coalition operations.42 the order of 8 P1HH (and bought Chinese drones instead),
This purchase was approved as foreign military sale (FMS) as well as after Italy’s Ministry of Defence cancelled
by the United States’ State Department in March 2019.43 its request for 20 P.2HH.50 The company might also be
SkyGuardian is a new version of MQ-9 Reaper, certified bought by the largest Italian defense firm Leonardo,
by General Atomics to fly in European airspace. Spain though Leonardo is no longer interested in Piaggio’s work
and the Netherlands will have their unarmed MQ-9 on drones.51
Reaper drones delivered by 2020 for homeland security,
peacekeeping/enforcement and counterterrorism Given the numerous acquisition plans in several European
operations44 and to contribute to NATO missions with this countries, the number of MALE drone operators is about
ISR capability.45 Switzerland expects six unarmed Hermes to increase in Europe – the existing drone clubs should
900 from Israel by 2020. expect some newcomers. These drone clubs are informal
groupings of countries who want to share best practices,
Having operated American MALE drones since 2007, the enhance interoperability, pool resources regarding
United Kingdom now aims to double the number of its training and maintenance of UAV platforms, and mentor
MALE drones by 2025. Through the Protector program the the future operators of MALE UAVs.
United Kingdom has adapted the American Reaper to
European standards (in essence, it is an armed version of First, the MQ-9 Users Community, also called MUC, is
SkyGuardian) and aims to acquire 16 certified Protectors formed by members from Italy, France, and the United
for its Royal Air Force by 2024 and armed them with British Kingdom; and observers from Belgium, the Netherlands
Brimstone 2 missiles.46 The British Tornado pilots from the and Spain. Although the formation of a Reaper Users
31st squadron are being retrained to operate Protector Group was first announced at the NATO Wales Summit
RG1 UAVs, since London has decided to eliminate Tornado in 2014, the countries decided to keep this group
jets from its air forces inventory. format at a national level (on the French and American
insistence). The MUC working group meets twice a year
However, fulfilling these urgent operational needs to share best practices, while its steering committee
resulted in a political trade-off situation – the acquisition of senior officers and program directors meets once
of an American platform often goes against national a year. Their objective is to focus on existing synergies
strategic and industrial interests. The limitations of and capabilities to enhance interoperability and reduce
relying on United States technology are especially visible overall costs. This informal community also serves as a
in terms of the eroded sovereignty as sensor packages, tool of defense diplomacy for the Europeans vis-à-vis the
maintenance, and training are dependent upon United States and in negotiations with General Atomics.
American industry, which results in significant operating However, since each country has a separate bilateral FMS
costs and the loss of skills and jobs for European industry, agreement with Washington, these European countries
not mentioning the loss of sovereignty as the United are contractually blocked from pooling the costs among
States Government retains some control over their themselves, though they do not need the US approval
deployment.47 These arrangements, disadvantageous before the deployment in operations and their respective
to European customers, could further strain the current MALE drones can operate together while on mission.
poor status of transatlantic relations.
 Military Drones in Europe / European Military Drone Landscape · 27

Photo from www.p1hh.piaggioaerospace.it

Second, the so-called European MALE RPAS User Eurodrone project

Community was created in 2013 by France, Germany, The long-term procurement strategy of France, Germany,
Greece, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and Poland.52 In its Spain, and Italy, at least, is to develop a European
function as a custodian of this European drone club, the indigenous MALE drone. Yet, there is a significant difference
European Defence Agency (EDA) provides a platform for between developing design concepts and demonstrators
European countries to share their operational experience (research and experimentation) and manufacturing
with MALE drones (doctrines, procedures), exchange operational platforms. While prototypes are easily built,
information and best practices on such systems, and turning them into products is much more complicated
identify options for pooling and sharing such as training, as it takes both resources and political capital.53 At the
logistics, or maintenance. The EDA supports this same time, the attempts of these European countries
community through the work on safety, regulation, and were plagued by competing national interests, differing
air traffic integration (ATI) into non-segregated space, capability requirements, and industrial rivalry, especially
detect and avoid sensors projects, and the study on joint between France, the United Kingdom, and Germany
production of MALE drones. during the 2000s and 2010s.54 The major unsuccessful
28 · European Military Drone Landscape / Military Drones in Europe

MALE UAV projects include Euromale (EADS, later another member – the Czech Republic.64 This is rather
renamed to the Advanced UAV initiative, 2004-2009),55 unusual, since Czechia does not have clear operational
Mantis (BAE Systems, 2007-2010),56 Barracuda (EADS needs for this type of drones; its motives probably
Germany and Spain, 2006-?),57 Talarion (EADS France, combine industrial interests, experience in cooperating
Germany, Spain, 2010-2012),58 Telemos (BAE Systems on electronic warfare (EW) with Germany, and to certain
and Dassault Aviation, 2010-2012),59 or HammerHead extent, “drone envy”.65
(Piaggio Aerospace, no commercial success). This points
to the oligopoly of established defense aerospace centers The first prototype flight of Eurodrone is planned for
on the European defense market. 2023. The operational Eurodrone in 2025 is expected to
represent a counter-weight to American platforms and
Major European industrial players in the military drone business introduce more competition on the MALE UAV market.
However, even though the program symbolizes the
• Airbus Defence and Space
EU strategic autonomy, the future of Eurodrone could
• BAE Systems
become uncertain due to potential cost overruns that
• Dassault Aviation
• Leonardo might imperil the competitiveness of this platform –
• Thales French Armed Forces Minister Parly even warned that
“the program will not be pursued unless they [OCCAR]
reduce their financial ambitions”.66

The United Kingdom leaving the EU in 2019 will have

Although France suggested that Europe should have its own negative consequences for the development of a stronger
version of American Predator already in 1995,60 the breaking and integrated EDTIB and will undermine achieving
point in this long development process of European greater strategic autonomy for the EU.67 Yet, when it
indigenously produced advanced drone arrived in December comes to UAVs, the United Kingdom has not been the
2013 when the European Council approved a European MALE leader in multinational R&D. It does not participate in
UAV project with an intention to have this new MALE drone either the Eurodrone project or any of the EDA studies
operational by 2025. Back in 2014 called “Future European on enabling capabilities for MALE UAVs. This is mostly
MALE project” or FEMALE,61 this project became one of the because the British armed forces have a high degree of
military capability priorities, since the European Council interoperability with the American systems and have
considered advanced drones an urgent capability that been using American drone platforms, for which the
would increase the EU strategic autonomy. Consequently, United Kingdom managed to secure the transfers of
in May 2015, Germany, France, and Italy signed a letter key technologies from the United States in the late
of intent to jointly develop a European MALE drone. After 1990s.68
Spain joined the project in 2016 and all participants agreed
on their respective industrial shares, they launched a two- Developing European combat drones
year definition study within the OCCAR framework and with Apart from procuring American or Israeli drones and
the EDA supporting the work on ATI and certification. The developing (in a more or less cooperative way) the first
main industry participants are Airbus (Germany, in lead), European MALE surveillance drone, some countries also
Dassault (France), and Leonardo (Italy). work on unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAVs). These
bi- and multinational projects are kept secret and mostly
This Eurodrone project aims to develop an advanced outside NATO and EU frameworks. Since their main
armable drone, a European equivalent to the American features include stealth and autonomy, not the ability
Predator/Reaper, mainly for ISR purposes and to to fly in non-segregated airspace, the EDA’s mandate in
support ISTAR missions. It should be fully certified to fly the ATI field does not cover the development of UCAVs.
in non-segregated airspace 62 and be able to operate These projects also aim to enhance both technological
worldwide and independently from foreign technology. and industrial independence from the United States.
For instance, this platform will be supported by the
European navigation system Galileo, since “UAVs are First, in 2003 France launched the nEUROn project,
only as autonomous as the satellite navigation links which was later joined by Greece, Italy, Spain, Sweden
they use”.63 Having completed the definition phase, the and Switzerland and their contractors (Dassault
Eurodrone project is entering the development phase and Aviation, Alenia Aermacchi, Saab, Airbus Defence and
since November 2018, it has also a status of a Permanent Space – Spain, RUAG, and Hellenic Aerospace Industry).
Structured Cooperation (PESCO) project. With Belgium This project aims to develop a European technological
as observer since 2017, this multinational project gained demonstrator of a future combat drone.69
 Military Drones in Europe / European Military Drone Landscape · 29

Second, the joint Anglo-French Future Combat Air System

(FCAS) project launched in 2014 with the two main
contractors BAE Systems and Dassault Aviation aimed
to develop a joint combat drone demonstrator as part
of the sixth-generation technology. The United Kingdom
had previously worked on its own UCAV demonstrator
prototype Taranis, developed by BAE Systems, which was
meant to contribute to the advancement of the FCAS
project, similarly as Dassault nEURON demonstrator
(though the position of other countries participating
in the nEUROn project is not known). While both
governments were supposed to invest around 2 billion
EUR in the next development phase,70 due to the Brexit
crisis, this project has been recently “downgraded to a
technological demonstration”.71

Third, in April 2018 France (Dassault) turned to Germany

(Airbus) with the intention to collaborate on a new
Système de Combat Aérien du Futur (SCAF, or Future
Combat Air System, also abbreviated as FCAS). This
program aims to develop strategic capability by 2040 by
combining a sixth-generation manned fighter aircraft
and unmanned vehicles. While France leads SCAF,
Germany remains in lead of the European MALE drone
project. Spain has joined this program in February 2019.72
In turn, the SCAF framework agreement that includes
the legal commitment of three participating countries
and their industrial counterparts Airbus and Dassault
was signed in June 2019.73 SCAF will eventually replace
German Eurofighter, French Rafale, and Spanish F-18
Hornet. Despite the initial enthusiasm, the program
has been delayed due to disagreements over licensing
and arms export policies of participating countries and
national defense industrial grabbing.74

At the same time, after negotiations with France and

Germany to join SCAF broke down, the United Kingdom
launched a “Tempest” sixth-generation fighter program
to replace its Typhoons with the new fighter jets by
2040.75 Tempest’s technology includes optional manning,
i.e. the ability to fly unmanned if required, and the
capacity to direct swarms of drones.76 According to the
latest developments, in July 2019 Sweden joined Tempest,
thus partnering BAE Systems and Saab.

To summarize, the core development efforts in the

MALE drone category in Europe is formed by France,
Germany, Italy, and Spain (see Figure 2). Furthermore,
the current projects developing fighter aircraft of the
future, FCAS, SCAF, and Tempest point to the trend of
optional manning and/or manned-unmanned teaming:
unmanned technology is becoming an integral part of
the next generation combat capabilities.
30 · European Military Drone Landscape / Military Drones in Europe

FIGURE 2 European MALE drone clubs

Sweden*

United Kingdom

Italy* Belgium

Eurodrone
France*
EDA MALE RPAS Club
Czech Republic Netherlands
Spain* Mq-9 User Community

Germany SCAF
FCAS
Tempest
Poland
Greece* Armed/Arming
Switzerland*
* nEUROn

Tactical and Small UAVs Apart from operational needs, the other main factor
While large surveillance HALE and MALE platforms are in deciding on what kind of UAV to procure and from
used by Air Forces, European armies and navies mostly which country is whether 1) the technology is verified
operate Class I and II (tactical and small) drones. In and proven, and 2) it can be quickly integrated into the
contrast to the situation in the advanced drone category, existing systems and connected through datalinks, i.e. it
a larger number of countries in Europe possess domestic has a high level of interoperability with the already built
industrial base to produce TUAVs and SUAVs. Yet the infrastructure and interface. This is what the American
American and Israeli platforms remain popular in Europe drones usually do have in contrast to Israeli drones. Lastly,
(Table 4). countries make their procurement decision considering
the overall costs of the unmanned system in view to find
a cost-saving solution. For instance, Raven and Wasp
TABLE 5 The most popular foreign TUAV UAV platforms use the same GCS, both manufactured
and SUAV platforms in Europe by the American company AeroVironment.

United States RQ-11 Raven, RQ-20 Puma, RQ-21 Blackjack

TUAVs developed and produced in Europe are not rare,
(former ScanEagle), RQ-7 Shadow
since this category of drones does not necessitate complex
Israel Skylark, Searcher, Hunter, Ranger, Hermes 450 intelligence management and integration systems (in
contrast to advanced MALE UAVs). Nevertheless, there
are still only few indigenous European military tactical
The reason for this can vary, but most often the drones (see TABLE 5).
preference for the American technology has been related
to countries’ operational experience in Afghanistan. For
instance, the United States command would donate small
UAVs to several countries through the Foreign military aid
(for instance the case of ScanEagles for Czechia in 2015).77
Apart from financial and time-related reasons, European
countries might purchase drone technology outside the
EU to by-pass EU defense procurement regulation and
get better off-set deals, which the EU regulation prohibits
to eliminate distortion on the EU market.
 Military Drones in Europe / European Military Drone Landscape · 31

TABLE 6 Selected TUAV platforms developed in Europe

Country Platform Company

Tactical drones Austria Camcopter S-100 Schiebel

(Class II)
France Patroller Sagem

Germany LUNA EMT Penzberg

Greece HAI Pegasus II Hellenic Aerospace Industry

Italy Falco; AWHERO Leonardo

Spain Atlante Airbus

Sweden Skeldar V-200 Saab (together with Swiss UMS)

United Kingdom Herti BAE Systems

Watchkeeper78 Thales

There are currently no politically visible multinational because these UAVs were considered just too big (such
capability development projects in these smaller UAV as the program Sojka in Czechia). Nowadays they are
categories. Rare examples of cooperation include mostly used for training. However, one of their main
binational production, such as UMS Skeldar (a joint advantage in comparison to SUAVs is that since they are
venture between UMS Aero Group and Saab) and Ranger bigger, they can carry larger payloads and thus can be
(a Swiss-Israeli joint venture between RUAG Aviation and armed. Countries like Poland and Czechia are already
Israel Aerospace Industries), or joint procurement through looking into this option.82
NSPA (see Section Three). Belgium, the Netherlands,
and Luxembourg cooperated closely to purchase RQ- The military wants to find a more effective role for TUAV
11 Raven together in 2016, and in 2018 Belgium and platforms. The recent trend points to the rising popularity
the Netherlands declared their interest in cooperative of tactical drones in the maritime domain. Popular
development of tactical unmanned capabilities.79 In other maritime platforms include ScanEagle, BlackJack and,
cases, countries missed the opportunity to act jointly, Skylark-C (fixed wing) and Camcopter S-100, Skeldar, and
such as when the Netherlands and Poland each procured MQ-8C FireScout (rotary wing/ unmanned helicopter).
separately RQ-21 Blackjack without coordinating their For instance, France’s Safran has been developing its own
respective purchases, or when Denmark bought Puma Patroller tactical drone for maritime surveillance.83 Safran
drone shortly after Sweden purchased the same system.80 also cooperates with Airbus Helicopter and the Naval
However, there might be further tactical opportunities Group to develop a naval drone system that could be used
for multinational cooperation on the European level, for coastal border surveillance, policing, and infrastructure
especially in training. Indeed, the EU’s first Coordinated protection. This is part of France’s larger plan to equip its
Annual Review on Defence (CARD) trial showed that Navy with unmanned systems, the Système de Drones
almost half of EU member states were interested in Aériens de la Marine, or SDAM, program.84 This increasing
working together on tactical and small drones.81 interest in tactical vertical take-off and landing (VTOL)
drones may result in a new category of drones in making:
The current lack of cooperative initiatives in multinational Rotary Unmanned Air System (RUAS), such as Leonardo’s
capability development projects could be related to AWHERO unmanned helicopter for both land and naval
the lack of clarity about the utility of tactical drones. operations,85 as they are more easily operated from a
Although countries remain interested in TUAVs, their ship deck. Both Leonardo and Safran are involved in the
thinking is not matured enough. While the demand in the OCEAN2020 program financed by the EU. The EU already
2000s was concentrated on TUAV and MALE drones, in uses these tactical VTOL drones for border control. In
the past years there has been less operational need for addition, VTOL drones with their speed and endurance
TUAVs. The military deem them as flying either too high could also be interesting for the army. TUAVs usually need
or too close (and are thus large and visible) and because catapult and landing runway, while VTOL-capable drones
of their requirements for take-off and landing. Some are not limited by requirements for conventional take-
national projects of TUAV development were cancelled off and landing. Despite the growing utility of tactical
32 · European Military Drone Landscape / Military Drones in Europe

VTOL drones, endurance and payload remain the most tactical drones, the developments and spread of Class
important features. These also determine the trade-off I UAVs, small, mini, and micro/nano drones, have been
between size and noise: smaller the payload, smaller the driven by the commercial entities. These dynamics
size, smaller the noise. And smaller is getting popular. are characterized by the highest diversity of users and
services as the barriers to entry on the small drone
In 2018, out of more than existing 200 drone projects market are significantly lower than in case of larger
in Europe, more than 60% focus on SUAVs.86 The use of UAVs. This has been facilitated through the development
SUAVs is growing among the European armed forces. of dual-use drone technology, economic opportunities,
While some European countries continue to buy American and opening of regulation on the emerging common
systems, aerospace companies across Europe, especially European drone market. SUAVs have become ubiquitous
in cooperation with small and medium-sized enterprise since technologies with more than just military purpose
(SMEs), have produced different types of SUAVs in the tend to spread more quickly.87
recent years (see TABLE 6). In contrast to advanced and

Table 7 Selected SUAV platforms developed in Europe

Country Platform Company

Small drones Denmark Heidrun; Huginn SkyWatch

(Class I)
France SpyRanger Thales

Germany Aladin EMT Penzberg

the Netherlands HEF32 High Eye

Poland FlyEye WB Electronics

Portugal AR4 Tekever Autonomous Systems

Spain Fulmar Wake Engineering

Atlantic; Tucan SRC Everis

Switzerland eXom; eBee SenseFly

This has resulted into an important change in how and of drones by the private companies themselves who
where the military procures its equipment. Although produce drones. However, very often private commercial
UAVs come originally from the military, today it is industry is reluctant to directly cooperate with defense
the civilian sector which sets the trends in unmanned ministries on R&D of military technology due to ethical
technology. In the past, the military usually defined concerns and security restrictions. There is a large room
requirements and industry in turn delivered prototypes. for improvement on the defense market when it comes
The situation in the Class I drones has reversed: drones to the coordination between national governments and
are produced commercially, the unit cost is reducing, and competitive manufacturers.
the pace of innovation is very high. The military is being
surpassed by a private sector that is faster, cheaper, more Although SUAVs are not armed and can carry
innovative, and stronger in nano-technologies. This is not minimum payload, the current trend points towards
surprising since innovation and research in the military the development of even smaller UAS with higher
is slow, expensive and requires higher sophistication performance. They remain extremely useful in providing
and a greater range of functions, not to mention the situational awareness and thus reducing risks to troops.
process of testing, validation, and verification against The American Puma and Blackjack platforms are
cyber threats. The import of commercial technology extensively used in expeditionary missions among SOF,
into the military is usually done through militarization paratroopers, and rapid reaction forces. Currently, more
 Military Drones in Europe / European Military Drone Landscape · 33

militaries are equipping their troops with “spy drones”, the

smallest SUAVs, which are operated on the platoon and
squad level. To detect threats, SOF use tiny pocket-sized
helicopter drones with Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS)
capability that are also called personal reconnaissance
system (PRS).88 Nano-UAV Black Hornet, produced by
American company FLIR (originally manufactured by a
Norwegian company Prox Dynamics, which was acquired
by FLIR in 2016), is the only military-grade and military-
certified drone in this category and its use has spread to
already 30 countries, including France, Norway, Spain,
the United Kingdom89 or the United States army who is Photo from www.umsskeldar.aero
currently procuring 9,000 of Black Hornets.90

Endnotes Section Two

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34 · European Military Drone Landscape / Military Drones in Europe

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 Military Drones in Europe / European Military Drone Landscape · 35

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75 
Andrew Chuter, “Sweden to join British ‘Tempest’ next-gen drone-is-a-modular-micro-machine/.
fighter push,” Defense News, July 7, 2019, https://www. 89 
Kelsey D. Atherton, “The Black Hornet became indispensable.
defensenews.com/global/europe/2019/07/07/sweden-to-join- Now the UK is ordering more,” C4ISRnet, April 18, 2019, https://
british-tempest-next-gen-fighter-push/. www.c4isrnet.com/unmanned/2019/04/18/black-hornet-
76 
Kyle Mizokami, “U.K. Introduces New Fighter Jet: The drones-return-to-the-uk/.
Tempest,” Popular Mechanics, July 16, 2018, https://www. 90 
Sydney J. Freedberg Jr., “Army Buys 9,000 Mini-Drones,
popularmechanics.com/military/research/a22168844/uk-new- Rethinks Ground Robots,” Breaking Defense, June 17, 2019,
fighter-jet-tempest/. https://breakingdefense.com/2019/06/army-buys-9000-mini-
77 
”Drony české armády nalétaly v Afghánistánu 3 tisíce hodin. drones-for-squads-rethinks-ground-robots-for-2020/?utm_
Střeží základnu Bagrám,” ECHO24, December 26, 2018, https:// source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=EBB%20
www.echo24.cz/a/SV7B2/drony-ceske-armady-naletaly-v- 06.18.19&utm_term=Editorial%20-%20Early%20Bird%20Brief.
afghanistanu-3-tisice-hodin-strezi-zakladnu-bagram. Unsurprisingly, DARPA has been developing insect-inspired
micro drones since 1993. In 1999 it had developed its first-
78  he Watchkeeper program is based on an Israeli platform
T generation micro drones able to fly reconnaissance missions.
Hermes 450, but is still having operational problems. Tim The original 40-gram insect-prototype Black Widow was built
Ripley, “UK safety watchdog highlights Watchkeeper UAV by AeroVironment. These drones could carry micro-explosive
shortfalls,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, April 18, 2019, https://www. bombs able to kill moving targets. See Annie Jacobsen, The
janes.com/article/87976/uk-safety-watchdog-highlights- Pentagon’s Brain: An Uncensored History of DARPA, America’s
watchkeeper-uav-shortfalls. Top-Secret Military Research Agency (New York, Boston,
London: LB, 2015), 409.
79 
International Institute for Strategic Studies, ”Chapter Four:
Europe,” The Military Balance 119, no. 1 (2019): 127, DOI
10.1080/04597222.2018.1561029.

80 
Zach Rosenberg, “Denmark signs deal for handheld Puma
UAVs,” Flight Global, June 12, 2012, https://www.flightglobal.
com/news/articles/denmark-signs-deal-for-handheld-puma-
uavs-372950/.

81 
Roland Van Reybroeck, What’s in the CARDs? (Brussels:
EGMONT Royal Institute for International Relations, February
2019), 3.

82 
The Polish Armed Forces Modernisation Plan for 2017-2026
includes the development of ISR TUAVs that could be armed:
a mid-range platform GRYF and a short-ranged Orlik for the
army; and a VTOL Albatros for Navy and SOF. Robert Czulda,
“Poland’s Modernisation Plans Upgraded,” Military Technology
XLIII, no. 6 (2019): 7.

Czechia is looking into armable tactical drones by 2024. ”Drony

české armády nalétaly v Afghánistánu 3 tisíce hodin. Střeží
základnu Bagrám,” ECHO24, December 26, 2018, https://
www.echo24.cz/a/SV7B2/drony-ceske-armady-naletaly-v-
afghanistanu-3-tisice-hodin-strezi-zakladnu-bagram; see also
Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic, Koncepce výstavby
Armády České republiky (Prague, 2015), http://www.mocr.
army.cz/images/id_40001_50000/46088/KVA__R_ve__ejn___
verze.pdf;.
36 · NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy / Military Drones in Europe

Section Three:

NATO vs the EU
– Defense vs Economy
The two most important security institutions in Europe – has been directly targeting the defense and security
NATO and the EU – can qualitatively shape the European domain. The EU’s main goal is to strengthen the defense
military drone landscape and help their member countries technological and industrial base, create common
close their capability gaps. Each of the two institutions European drone market to maximize its economic
has a specific set of strengths that derives from a potential, and decrease the EU’s dependence on foreign
distinctive institutional logic (see Table 7): while NATO is military technology, i.e. the overall goal of strategic and
driven by defense interests and military operational logic, industrial autonomy. To do so, the EU has been developing
the EU follows economic interests and market logic. On an EU-wide regulatory framework addressing both drone
the one hand, NATO works on military standards for manufacturers and drone operators. In innovatively
all types of military UAVs, builds expert communities, combining product legislation and aviation legislation,
provides procurement support, and acquires a fleet of the EU aims to develop a common European drone
HALE UAVs. On the other hand, the EU finances drone- market, thus ensuring product safety and ATI regulation
related R&D projects, focuses on air traffic integration of for operating drones in European airspace. The tendency
drones into European airspace, supports countries using of ever-expanding Euro-competencies also plays role in
MALE UAVs, and facilitates contacts between civilian and the development of the EU drone policy.
military experts.
Moreover, since 2016, the EU has tried to align its
In this context, NATO’s core function is to improve economic interests with the defense needs. The European
interoperability of the allied armed forces. Its advantage Commission has made available large sums of money
lies in the detailed, systematically performed strategic from the EU budget for defense related projects, ideally
defense planning – NATO Defence Planning Process linked to the Capability Development Plan (CDP) and with
(NDPP) – that clearly identifies military requirements high participation of SMEs. This represents an important
that the Alliance needs from each member country. alternative for European NATO member countries.
Following the military operational logic, NATO makes sure However, the EU does not deal with the development
that capability development projects, either individual of military standards. This has to do with industrial and
or multinational, are linked to the NDPP that defines market interests: introducing civilian and dual standards
capability targets required from each member country. in the aviation community means to be one step ahead
The NDPP is the backbone of all capability development of the military and to create advantage for the European
programs, including ad hoc multinational projects. airspace industry. In addition, the EDA acts as a unique
interface for civilian-military coordination, thanks to its
In contrast, the EU offers a range of funding opportunities research and technology (R&T) projects.
to incentivize innovative R&D projects; since 2016, it
 Military Drones in Europe / NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy · 37

Table 8 NATO and the EU: comparing strengths and weaknesses

NATO European Union
Defense, military operational logic Economy, market logic

Military expertise Financial resources and institutional incentives promoting

-- Long tradition and trust multinational cooperation
-- Science and Technology Organization -- New EU defense funding to develop more European-made
-- NATO Support and Procurement Agency capabilities
-- Military standards -- PESCO as politically attractive and legally binding
multinational cooperative framework
Transatlantic links
-- The American intellectual leadership Regulatory tools
-- European market consolidation to build a competitive
NATO Defence Planning Process European industrial base
-- Clearly defined military requirements -- macroeconomic benefits
-- Hook for multinational projects -- one regulatory framework for civilian drone manufacturers
and service providers
Prestige and high political visibility
-- Improved mechanisms for creating ad hoc collaborative projects Civil-military interface
-- dialogue on standards, and ATI and UTM/ATM regulation
Acquisition of NATO-owned strategic UAV capability
-- HALE UAS for 29 countries Custodian of the MALE drone community
-- Backbone ISR architecture -- EDA supports information exchange among MALE-operating
countries, works on ATI of drones

Weaknesses:

Lack of resources Lack of military expertise and experience

-- NATO does not fund multinational projects -- heavy focus on civilian and hybrid standards and R&D projects
-- Understaffed capability development personnel
Transparency issues
Culture of secrecy -- Project selection and restrictive scope of eligible projects
-- over-classification causes limited sharing with non-NATO (PESCO and PADR,EDIDP)
countries and the EU -- Follow-up procedure for tangible deliverables (PESCO)

Perception problems Institutional stovepipes

-- NATO is not involved only in HALE-type UAVs -- communication problems among European institutions
(Council, Commission, European External Action Service, EDA)
Missing interoperability mechanisms
-- no NATO-level verification procedure for certification and
STANAG implementation

While the EU builds its attractiveness on financial less active than the EU in the field of R&D activities,
incentives, NATO scores high with its seventy-year long NATO’s NSPA provides a large portfolio of procurement
tradition and experience in military cooperation and services. NATO itself is procuring a fleet of strategic
standards. This is especially important for smaller states ground surveillance drones. In contrast, the EU does not
that often lack military expertise and industrial capacity. possess own military capabilities; its agencies like Frontex
The transatlantic link to the American technological lease them from member states.91
and military know-how is another important asset
that NATO provides to European countries. However, Multinational cooperative projects further crystalize
while NATO is a stable and reliable organization with the difference between these two institutions. NATO’s
integrated command structure and a clear set of military defense logic encourages multinational cooperative
requirements, it does not have resources, time, or risk- projects based on military requirements drawn from
tolerance to be innovative. On the other hand, although the NDPP. The incentives are therefore explicitly linked
38 · NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy / Military Drones in Europe

to capability shortfalls and priorities (NATO tells The rest of the section further details the institutional
countries which capabilities they need). In contrast, the mechanisms in both NATO and the EU that facilitate the
EU’s economic logic uses financial incentives such as spread of military drone technology and help member
grants and co-financing mechanisms and then expects countries meet their national capability needs, see
project proposals from consortia of states and defense TABLE 8.
companies (the EU tells countries how much money they
can save).

TABLE 9 NATO and EU institutional mechanisms

Mechanism NATO European Union

Enabling STANAGs (all types of UAVs, JISR) Airspace regulation (including ATI of military drones)
NSPA UAS Support Partnership European drone market regulation (civil UAVs)
Air Traffic Integration of HALE UAV (together with
EUROCONTROL)

Funding AGS R&D projects funded through PADR and EDIDP, EDA
NIAG Study Groups operational budget

Networking STO, industry, HALE experts European MALE RPAS User Community, industry exchange
National military experts platform, civil-military dialogue

Enabling Mechanisms the NATO Naval Armaments Group (NNAG), one of the
CNAD main armament groups. It further collaborates
with Military Committee’s Air Standardization Board,
NATO
NATO Standardization Office, Aviation Committee that
regroups both civilian and military stakeholders and its
Military expertise subgroup Air Operations Support Working Group.
All the work related to military capabilities in the NATO
structures is geared towards improving interoperability, JSGUAS is composed of technical syndicate and
i.e. the ability to use national assets jointly in NATO operational syndicates. The former deals with the
missions. NATO produces knowledge that drives standardization of platform airworthiness and command
nations’ own activities. It does so in various ways, such and control (C2) infrastructure, while the latter works
as developing military standards (both technical and on doctrines for employment and terminology. Both
operational) and doctrines, organizing exercises to components are marked by a heavy American presence.
validate against standards (for instance, Unified Vision), The Maritime Tactical Joint UAS Working Group led
assisting with capability roadmaps (international staff by Canada is located in-between the syndicates.
members known as Capability Area Facilitators). When it The Flight in Non-Segregated Airspace Subgroup of
comes to capability development, the central governing JCGUAS is led jointly by the United States and France.
NATO entity is the Conference of National Armaments The main NATO JCGUAS/NNAG work streams include
Directors (CNAD), where National Armaments Directors capability integration (technology development), UAS
(NADs) and their representatives (NADREPs) oversee the interoperability (C2, functional and technical STANAGs),
work of the three main armament groups (air force, navy, operational integration (force architecture), and UAS
and army). acceptance (partner countries). For instance, the set
of UAV airworthiness STANAGs is more than 600 pages
NATO has a long tradition and experience with developing long.93
military standards; its Standardization Agreements
(STANAGs) are used and widely respected by both Regarding intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
military and industry.92 The UAS standardization work (ISR), NATO started to develop joint ISR architecture –
is centered in the Joint Capability Group on Unmanned aimed at developing a common situational awareness
Aircraft Systems (JCGUAS), historically located under picture based on different sources – only after the 2011
 Military Drones in Europe / NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy · 39

Unified Protector operation in Libya. This included Some 1370 NATO employees with industry and military
formulating a NATO JISR policy (doctrine development, background help the Alliance, the Allies, and partner
transfer of authority) and capability development countries with acquisition and design of systems (new
(infrastructure, standards for interoperability). NATO’s helicopters, air-to-air refueling), prepare procurement
work on ISR thus informs member countries on which contracts with industry and maintenance packages
national assets the Alliance needs and how countries on future upgrades, support training (navy and land
can plug them into the common architecture to enable helicopter simulators), provide operational and systems
data and intelligence sharing. The acquisition of a HALE support and services,94 and assist with decommissioning
unmanned system, the Alliance Ground Surveillance and destroying old equipment. The NSPA also function
program, is an important step ahead and a central part as a “military eBay” for spare parts. Over 90% of NSPA
of NATO JISR as it will provide SACEUR with own ISR assets activities comes from the NATO member countries, but
in a similar way as NATO’s AWACS fleet does. SHAPE tends to be the NSPA’s largest customer (mainly
logistics planning support to NATO military authorities).
NATO creates environment and conditions for In general, smaller countries rely on the help of NSPA
interoperability and STANAGs underpin these peacetime experts with acquisition contracts, while larger countries
efforts. There are however many obstacles on both use the NSPA for in-service support.95
institutional and national level. First, if STANAGs are
too tight, national industry might ignore them and go Over the last decade the countries’ interest in NSPA
their own way, while countries are not incentivized to services has increased considerably. In 2017 the NSPA
implement them. The fragmented state of European worked on contracts of an overall value of 4.8 Bn EUR and
defense market also hurts the STANAG implementation. supported more than 90 different weapon systems.96 This
Second, if a standard is too loose, it misses its purpose as is due to several factors. First, since the adoption of the
it opens the room for wide interpretation. The result of NATO Defence Investment Pledge, the governments have
this vicious circle is that even though there is consensus been putting more money into the defense budgets. Yet,
on having a standard, it does not necessarily translate spending defense money effectively is not easy, it is usually
into maximized interoperability. NATO does not have logistics-heavy and time-consuming. Second, buying
the capacity or mandate to verify whether STANAGs sophisticated military technology requires complex
are properly implemented and followed – validation and acquisition process; since the post-Cold War downsizing
certification is a national responsibility. included also personnel at ministries of defense,
countries suffer from the lacking expertise. Third, the
Apart from standardization, NATO further promotes NSPA has become very useful for the growing number of
interoperability through enabling the creation of multinational contracts as it achieves lower per unit cost,
multinational projects. CNAD, although without simplifies the multinational acquisition process and the
decision-making power, provides a forum for policy level communication between the participants, and facilitates
discussion on NDPP targets and priorities and informal the transfer of technological knowledge to the whole user
meetings of specific subsets of NADs and NADREPs from group of countries. Fourth, the NSPA assists with foreign
interested countries. Contrary to the popular perception military sales from the United States. In this context, the
of CNAD being just a talk shop, high-level letters of intent NSPA also facilitates sharing of weapons among allies. In
and memoranda of understanding signed by defense the case of the precision guided munitions multinational
ministers are born in CNAD during these discussions. The project led by Denmark, the NSPA acts as a lead buyer
recently created Multinational Capability Cooperation for twelve participating countries.97 And fifth, the NSPA
Unit in the Defence Investment Division at the NATO protects its customers from unreliable companies on the
HQ aims to channel the national efforts and facilitate market, secures a good price, and help them avoid costly
these projects. The NDPP is a backbone and serves mistakes in procurement.
as an important justification for creating potential
multinational capability development projects. The growth in the popularity of the UAV led to the
creation of the Unmanned Aerial Systems Support
Procurement support Partnership in 2012. Support Partnerships are groups
NATO has consolidated and centralized logistics of countries paying for a pool of NSPA experts chosen
management functions into one procurement agency. to work on a specific project (support partnerships are
The NATO Support and Procurement Agency (NSPA) is an not a common funded project). They can be open also
acquisition agent with over 60 years of experience that to partner countries. The NSPA provides these countries
does not offer but provides services; it is a fully customer- with services that can cover most of their logistical and
funded agency, operating on a “no profit–no loss” basis. operational needs: system acquisition, equipment and
40 · NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy / Military Drones in Europe

spare parts procurement, repairs, maintenance and European Airspace” in 2010 that define procedures for
overhauls, on demand services (engineering services, faster accommodation through creation of the segregated
modifications/ upgrades), on-site technical assistance, space.103 The short-term goal is to accommodate HALE
training and manuals, and transportation. (and MALE) UAVs to support the military for regular and
non-regular missions (the flexible use of airspace allows
At the very beginning the NSPA helped Germany and for segregation). The main long-term goal aims at the
Turkey with the acquisition of Heron in 2012. Over the full integration into the European airspace (as opposite
time this UAS Partnership has grown to include the to accommodation), because while reconnaissance
support of smaller drones like Raven UAV (for Spain, missions performed by drones are temporary and more
Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Czech Republic), Orbiter focused, surveillance requires continuous observation
UAV (for Poland), and even the Joint Tactical Intelligence and persistent scanning that cannot be made possible
Systems. Currently, the NSPA through this Support only through short-term segregation.
Partnership provides services to at least eight NATO
member countries on drones like Raven, Orbiter, Sperwer, The full air traffic integration means that drones need
FlyEye, PASI Searcher Mark III, Huginn, Wasp, ScanEagle, to abide a whole set of civilian flight rules. However, the
Black Hornet, and AR 180. For instance, the Portuguese detect and avoid systems, on which most of ATI-related
Army has recently ordered Raven B drones for their R&D is focused, are important but not sufficient and
ISTAR systems through NSPA.98 When the Spanish Army have a poor record of success. As they are not a primary
procured Israeli Searchers for ISR missions, delivered means of safety, only a safety net, communication C2
in July 2018, the NSPA managed the upgrade of those links and drones’ connectivity to air traffic management
systems.99 (ATM) networks are the most important and effective
safety measures.
Getting HALE up in European Airspace
The military need to use European airspace for training
and deployment to and from the operational theatre
abroad. Operating UAVs heightens the competition for EU
already congested European airspace; the proliferation of
small drones in the lower airspace limits the availability of European Airspace and Market Regulation
segregated military airspace and can affect the operation For more than a decade, the EU has acted as a political
of military airbases. The military does not use much of entrepreneur in the domain of civilian and dual-use
airspace during the peacetime – military drones usually drone technology. Most of the European Commission’s
fly at high altitudes above regular civilian air traffic and activities have dealt with financing R&T and R&D
SUAVs and TUAVs are usually used once they are deployed projects, regulating the European drone market, and
in the theatre. However, as civil aviation is looking into integrating drones into European airspace. The 2016 EU
the possibility to fly even higher (above 30,000 feet), this Global Strategy has opened the door for new roles of
can affect the deployability of HALE UAVs in Europe as the European Commission in the defense and security
well. sector, especially in terms of new financial opportunities.
However, it is important to remember that military drones
NATO liaises with EUROCONTROL100 to enable its future remain under the national control and regulation, as they
AGS to fly in European airspace and to facilitate the fly in segregated airspace under the national authority.
military cross-border air mobility, the so-called Rapid The EU has no direct competence in regulating military
Air Mobility initiative.101 NATO-EUROCONTROL technical drones of any size.
and operational collaboration dates back to the 2003
Memorandum of Cooperation. It is believed that achieving To better deal with continued air traffic growth, the
civil-military interoperability in the area of air traffic European Commission launched in 2010 the Single
management and control, navigation, and surveillance is European Sky (SES) initiative that aims to reform
key to finding a balance between civil predictability and European ATM and create a Schengen for airspace.
military airspace needs and thus enhancing the flexible The SESAR Joint Undertaking (SESAR JU), sponsored by
use of airspace, based on “the idea of area modularity in European Union, EUROCONTROL, and industry partners,
airspace design”.102 currently implements the SESAR 2020 Program (2016-
2024) worth 1.6b EUR. With the arrival of the commercial
EUROCONTROL supports HALE flights accommodation unmanned aerial technology, the European aviation
in Europe. To this end it has published “EUROCONTROL expert community introduced the drone dimension into
Air Traffic Management Guidelines for Global Hawk in the “Master Plan” on European Air Traffic Management in
 Military Drones in Europe / NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy · 41

2015,104 which is the backbone of SES, to, among others, not have any objections, the legislation will be published
facilitate cross-border air mobility. Since 2016 the RPAS before the summer of 2019. By 2022 the transitional
ATI Single European Sky Expert Community has been period will be completed, and the regulation will be fully
working on the ATI roadmap on RPAS regulation with the applicable.
goal to implement integration of large RPAS into non-
segregated airspace by 2025. The EU, through the work of the European Commission
and EASA, aims to establish one EU-wide regulatory
The European Commission with its market-oriented framework for both drone manufacturers and drone
logic has recently broadened its competencies in the service-providers to develop European product safety
drone regulation area. Until few months ago, the EU standards for drones, to open a common European
could regulate only drones of less than 25 kg; the rest drone services market, and to facilitate cross-border air
fell under the national competence, as member states mobility. This EU drone policy informed by a market-
were responsible for all drones lighter than 150 kg. The oriented logic should ensure economy of scale, widen the
new Basic Regulation (EU) 2018/1139, introduced on 11 EU market, improve employment by involving SMEs as
September 2018,105 extends the scope of the European the main driver for innovation and employment, create
Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) mandate regarding competitive environment for service provider, and improve
civilian UAVs at the EU level – EASA can propose to the the EU position on the global drone market. Finally, the
European Commission technical regulation on aviation EU policy also aims to improve public acceptance of
safety to regulate drones of all sizes. It is the first EU-wide drones and point to their social value. However, even
regulation for civil drones that harmonizes operational though the EU decides the rules, influences standards,
regulations in Europe. It further creates a common EU and creates a common regulatory framework, it is the
market for drone design requirements for small drones national (even local, in case of U-Space) authorities in
(up to 25kg), through the label “Conformité Européenne”. the member states who enforce regulatory rules. They
Using a new risk and performance-based approach that must take the responsibility for non-compliance and pay
is technology neutral and flexible to accommodate the for the damages caused by accidents.
rapid pace of innovation unseen in aviation, EASA has
created three categories for civilian drone operations: EDA and military aviation
a) open (no pre-authorization required even for BVLOS While the European Commission focuses on integration
operations; CE marking for safety and security – less of civilian and dual-use drones, the EDA deals with
than 25kg and within 120m); b) specific (requires an aspects related to military drones. In 2010, the EDA was
authorization; transport of goods); and c) certified (need tasked to work on the implications of SES and SES ATM
of specified license for the pilot and certification of UAS; research program (SESAR) for the European air forces. In
human transportation – urban air mobility).106 2013, the European Council gave the EDA a mandate to
facilitate ATI of military drones into European airspace.107
Furthermore, the European Commission has been To this end, an RPAS Regulatory Framework Working
working on a so-called “U-space” – an umbrella Group was established in the EDA in 2014. Furthermore,
concept for developing an institutional, regulatory, and the Agency works towards the harmonization of national
architectural framework that would allow a new business airworthiness and certification processes. The EDA is
model for drones flying below 120 meters. This is part a member of a high-level Coordination Mechanism
of a Commission’s wider plan to support innovative composed by EASA, European Commission (EU RPAS
multimodal solutions integrating the third dimension Steering Group, DG MOVE), and SESAR JU. On the
into urban planning processes, called Urban air mobility working level, the EDA coordinates with EUROCONTROL,
Initiative of the European Innovation Partnership–Small EUROCAE, and a world-wide group of experts from the
Cities & Communities. It aims to be operational by 2025 Joint Authority for rulemaking and Unmanned Systems on
and increase the level of drone connectivity in four stages airworthiness standards and ATM Concept of Operations
by 2030. (CONOPS) for large and smaller drones. The EDA’s goal is,
together with all stakeholders including the military, to a)
At the moment, this Regulatory Framework that will develop common military airworthiness and certification
regulate the operations of UAS in Europe and the requirements for military RPAS by 2020; and b) fully
registration of drone operators and of certified drones integrate large RPAS in non-segregated airspace by 2025,
was approved by the EASA committee on 28 February preceded by an accommodation phase in 2020-2025.108
2019 and by European Commission on 12 March 2019. It The EDA has an important role in managing R&D
has been sent to the EU Parliament and to the EU Council projects related to drone ATI, aimed at enabling MALE
for the mandatory 2 months scrutiny period. If they do drones to fly in Europe. There are three types of projects
42 · NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy / Military Drones in Europe

at the Agency. First, projects fully paid from the EDA’s Funding Mechanisms
operational budget, such as DeSIRE (Demonstration
of Satellites enabling the Insertion of RPAS in Europe)
that looks into the integration of drones using SATCOM EU
Command and Control (C2) links; Remote Pilot Station
Standardisation that was launched by the EDA in 2017 Reseach and Development
with a consortium of Airbus and GMV as its industrial The EU public research funding channeled into civilian and
partners109; or accommodation of MALE-type RPAS that dual-use drone technologies goes back to the 2000s under
was launched in 2018 to allow military RPAS to flight programs such as Horizon 2020 (EU’s framework program
under civil ATC. There are currently eight projects related for Research and Innovation for 2014-2020) or Framework
to RPAS R&T and training at the EDA. Program (FP) 5, 6 and 7. For instance, through the FP7
the European Commission invested 50m EUR for projects
Second, the EDA manages pilot projects funded and on the adaption of military surveillance techniques to
governed by the European Commission (see below). The Europe’s borders, out of which at least six included the use
UAV-related projects are for instance TRAWA on the of drones for border control. Even though many projects
Detect and Avoid Standardization. developing drone technology financed through the FP7
did not deliver tangible results (such as patents), there
Third, the EDA manages ad hoc projects that are have been a substantial increase in both the number
funded and managed by contributing Member States of projects and the amount of money invested into
representatives; the EDA only helps states with initial drone research in the H2020 financial framework. More
program and contract arrangements and provides than producing actual results, these investments of the
rather technical support. There are several UAV-related European Commission into dual-use drone technology
projects. For instance, MIDCAS SSP (MID-Air Collision projects meant to get the defense industry community
Avoidance System Standardisation Support Phase) accustomed to sharing technological expertise and
aims to develop the sense and avoid function for drones working in multinational setting, which resulted into a
and is funded and managed by Sweden (lead nation), gradual spill-over from civilian to military domain.112
France, Germany, Italy and Spain; or ERA (Enhanced
RPAS Autonomy/Automation), launched in 2015, tries to Defense has become a new industrial policy of the
establish the technological baseline for automatic take- European Union. The European Defence Fund (EDF) is a
off and landing and is funded and managed by Germany continuation of this tendency except for this time the
(in lead), France, Poland, Sweden and Italy. EU money are explicitly available for funding projects
in the defense area. Through the EDF, the European
The EDA can propose this ad hoc type of project to its Commission provides financial incentives to member
members: its Collaborative Database (CODABA) is states and European industry, especially SMEs, to
designed to support the EDA’s Member States in sharing develop collaborative cross-border projects in order to
information on their defense plans and capability amplify national investments into defense R&D, create
development programs. It contains almost 7,000 opportunities for multinational projects to consolidate
records on in-service capabilities and future plans.110 This the fragmented European market, and to strengthen
enables EDA to identify opportunities for multinational EDTIB. This European Commission’s initiative ultimately
cooperative projects, as through CODABA each EDA aims to improve the competitiveness of European
member country can signal its interest in collaboration. defense industries and increase EU’s strategic and
Currently, around fifteen CODABA-based activities industrial autonomy, i.e. to help the EU member states
are related to RPAS. The access to this comprehensive develop truly European military capabilities and enable
overview of capability plans and programs is restricted them to conduct operations autonomously. EDF of 13b
to the EDA staff and EDA member states’ government EUR will be financed out of the Multiannual Financial
authorities.111 Framework 2021-2027. In February 2019, the European
parliament, Council, and Commission reached a
Lastly, the Agency is active also in the MALE RPAS provisional agreement on EDF, which now needs a formal
development program run by OCCAR on behalf of approval from the European Parliament and the Council.
Germany (in lead), France, Italy, and Spain. Under the The discussion on the terms of reference is ongoing.
EDA-OCCAR arrangement, EDA provides support in
terms of ATI work - integration of this next-generation Launched in June 2017 as part of the European
military MALE UAV in SES. Commission’s European Defence Action Plan, the EDF
currently goes through a testing, or preparatory, phase
 Military Drones in Europe / NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy · 43

Photo from airbus.com

until 2020 with a budget envelope totaling 590m EUR. Second, the capability window that aims to support the
The EDF in its testing phase is divided into the research joint development of equipment and technology is, in
and capability windows. First, the research window this testing phase, operated by the European Defence
runs under the Preparatory Action on Defence Research Industrial Development Program (EDIDP). It uses the
(PADR) program and uses a grant approach to finance system of co-financing and the public-private partnership
defence R&T cooperative activities. Its EU budget of 90m approach, meaning that the available budget of 500m
EUR is managed and implemented by EDA until 2019 EUR (until 2020) from the European Commission is
thanks to the mandate delegated from the European supplemented by national investment of the member
Commission. states participating in a given project. This window is
open also to companies controlled by non-EU states. The
The eligibility rules are strict. Applications must be first set of nine calls for proposals was published in 2019
submitted by consortia made up of at least three and the second set of 12 calls is expected in 2020. The first
European companies from three member states and projects will be known at the end of 2019.114 These calls
under the condition that the knowledge has to stay on look for projects in the domain of Counter-Unmanned
the EU territory. Non-EU entities are not eligible for PADR Air Systems capabilities and unmanned ground systems
grants. After the call for proposals in 2017 and 2018, (13.5m and 30.6m EUR respectively), sensor suite for
member states and the European Commission selected integration of tactical drones into air-traffic management
several projects dealing with the use of unmanned (43.7m EUR), and maritime surveillance capabilities (20m
systems in the air, maritime surface and underwater EUR).
domain. For instance, in 2017 the very first PADR grant
went to the research project Ocean2020 that consists of As to the rules and eligibility, research projects should
42 entities from 15 EU states, including NATO Centre for receive 100% funding from EDF, while capability and
Maritime Research and Experimentation (CMRE) and the prototype development projects will be co-funded to
defense ministries of five countries.113 The project is led by 20% and testing and certification projects up to 80%;
Leonardo and explores maritime surveillance technology. additional amount of money will be awarded to projects
Other PADR projects include PYTHIA, GOSSRA, VESTLIFE, with SMEs’ participation. The collaborative projects must
and ACAMSII. In the 2019 period the European Commission include at least three eligible entities from at least three
has earmarked under PADR 1.5m EUR into the research Member States or associated countries and entities not
on interoperability standards for military UAS. controlled by third countries. The applicants who are not
44 · NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy / Military Drones in Europe

based in the EU will not receive any EU funding, though

they can be member of the applying consortia. As it
stands now, the European Commission would not object
funding the development of lethal drone capability if in
conformity with international law.

The multinational projects created through the PESCO

mechanism, a treaty-based legally binding framework
that enhanced multinational cooperation between
participating EU member states, are eligible for the EU
funding: PESCO projects can received a financial bonus
of 10%. As to the UAV capability, the second batch of
PESCO projects released in November 2018 includes the Photo by NATO
development phase of the Eurodrone project that will
address a common use of system of the European next
generation MALE UAV, including training, exercises, and
logistics. It is already planned that the Eurodrone project and Target Attack Radar System (JSTARS) that provided
would receive 100m EUR from EDIDP. the United States-led coalition with ground situation
information through communication via secure data
The EU member states with large national industry mainly links.115 In this context, HALE is the continuation of this
push against the inclusion of third states. However, both Revolution in Military Affairs. Building the whole program
military and industry consider it important to keep the door on American Global Hawk was a natural choice for the
open to non-EU entities. For the military, it is necessary Alliance, since at that time there was no other HALE UAV
from an interoperability point of view; for instance, the EU available out there and the concept development of a new
needs the industrial R&D base of the United Kingdom (after platform would be both time and resource consuming. AGS
Brexit) and Norway. Keeping the EU market closed is not is meant to enable the Alliance to monitor the wide North
in the industry’s interests as companies compete on the Atlantic territory and to give NATO more flexibility (AGS
global market. For the industry it is also important to keep is easier to deploy, less costly, and requires less personnel
access to the American companies – there is a fear that than JSTARS). AGS will be NATO’s prime JISR capability.
the EDF could impede the transatlantic link. Furthermore,
the current EDF regulation is too restrictive, top-down, The framework of the AGS program is flexible: although
and member-states driven in terms of the scope of eligible there are only fifteen countries that are contributing
projects. In addition, since the capability window does not directly to the acquisition of the core system (a fund of 1.5b
fund 100% of the project costs, a company interested in USD), all 29 member countries finance the infrastructure on
EDIDP needs first to consult its national authorities to gain the ground in Sigonella airbase through the NATO Security
national co-investment before it could benefit from the Investment Programme. Furthermore, annual costs
EU money. This can turn to be problematic for states with for operating system are covered by the NATO military
smaller R&D budgets. budget, and the United Kingdom and France will provide
in-kind contributions (contribute comparable national
assets, still under negotiations). AGS main industrial
participants are Airbus Defence and Space (Germany),
NATO Leonardo (Italy) and Kongsberg (Norway). Participation
in the AGS program offers countries numerous benefits;
Procuring strategic assets for instance, training of national experts who then bring
In 2009 NATO Allies agreed to collectively procure five back home knowledge, industrial benefits to national
RQ-4D Global Hawk Block 40 aircraft. Procuring this subcontractors, access to information without owning the
most advanced ISR HALE UAV platform is a project of a asset, and technology transfer.
political-level and strategic importance and a result of
military requirements identified by commanders from These five Global Hawks should be delivered to Sigonella
NATO countries. in 2019 and then undergo a six-month testing phase.116
The permanent facilities for the AGS Main Operating
The idea of the AGS program was born at NATO already Base should be put in place by 2021. Once completed,
during the Persian Gulf War in 1991 when the United the unmanned aircraft will be owned by the Alliance
States demonstrated the abilities of its Joint Surveillance and operated by the NATO AGS Force at the AGS
 Military Drones in Europe / NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy · 45

Main Operating Base in Sigonella and at the Allied Air Thanks to the AGS program, NATO has brought together
Command in Ramstein under the responsibility of SHAPE the community of HALE and ISR experts. The core,
in Mons.117 around 60 staff, works in the NATO Alliance Ground
Surveillance Management Agency and Organization
NATO is not interested in acquiring the MALE-type drone (representing 15 AGS acquisition countries), but in total
since several of its member countries already have more than 600 people are involved in the AGS program.
them.118 The principle for acquiring common capabilities The base in Sigonella will host 550 personnel, in addition
owned by NATO says that only a capability that is “over to smaller staff in Mons and Ramstein. Furthermore,
and above” one nation can be provided by NATO (like the NATO Training Center in Sigonella will train around
AWACS). Also, during peacetime, NATO asks its members 80 AGS pilots, Joint ISR analysts, sensor operators and
for situational awareness information that is collected maintainers per year.
nationally with MALE drones already in their possession.
Since AGS sensors package cannot cover all types of NIAG study groups bring together national industrial
intelligence data collection, the rest is expected to be experts and together with the high-level NATO-
provided by national MALE drones. Industry Forum, hosted by the Commander Supreme
Allied Command Transformation and the Assistant
Industrial expertise Secretary General Defence Investment, and the NATO
NATO directly invests money from its civilian budget Communications and Information Agency’s annual
(approx. €2,25 million) into defense research. The NATO industry conference NITEC, are the NATO’s tools to
Industrial Advisory Group (NIAG) is NATO’s tool to engage improve NATO-industry collaboration.
with industry in view to obtain industrial advice. NIAG
representatives are national as they represent the voice The NATO’s Science and Technology Organization (STO)
of industry in their respective countries, rather than maintains a community of more than 5,000 scientists.
the interest of a single company. Since NIAG operates The STO has created a network of subject-matter experts
on a pre-competitive basis, the advice sought from the from academia and industry that pool knowledge.
industry does not always have to be the best available: These experts are not paid by NATO, but they come
while not selling anything to NATO, industry might fear either directly from national Science and Technology
revealing commercially sensitive information. Despite units at ministries of defense. In this context, NATO’s
certain disadvantages of this model, thanks to its 50 transatlantic character gains on importance since
years of experience, NIAG has built a network of 5000 thanks to the STO it provides its member countries the
companies, 80% of which are SMEs that collaborate access to the United States’ expertise and know-how
on future capabilities. Industry is interested in knowing (approx. 25% of experts are from the United States).
what NATO needs and what the military thinks in terms There are around 250 projects at any time in different
of capabilities. In case of drones, NIAG studies have in phases of development within STO. They usually reflect
general focused more on concept development, such as national priority projects, but NATO offers them the
autonomy, and more concrete technical work has been opportunity to collaborate internationally (there must
done on low, small and slow UAS. Many NIAG studies be at least four countries per project). In addition, the
initiated by JCGUAS/NNAG have resulted in STANAGs. STO Staff prepares own research priorities derived from
the NDPP – they are of a particular interest to smaller
nations with no science and technology base. Projects
Networking Mechanisms are nation-driven; the participating nations decide which
projects to fund and with whom to share the results.
Usually, 70% of the projects are open to the Partnership
NATO for Peace nations, Australia, Finland, and Sweden. No
STO expert panel focuses exclusively on drones or ISR.
The networking function of international organizations UAVs can be discussed in six out of STO’s seven technical
has been often undervalued. Yet NATO has helped form teams (the Applied Vehicles panel is probably the most
an unprecedented community of scientific experts and relevant), which makes it a challenging platform as UAVs
the network of industry representatives. Moreover, it hosts aggregate more priority areas. In 2018, top 5 countries
29 delegations under one roof. Most of those entities date participating in STO studies were the United States, the
back to the 1950s and 1960s; these long-lasting fora for United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Canada,
informal meetings and socializing have contributed to the France, Turkey, Italy, and Norway; the projects included
development of close relations, the creation of trust, and also a study on swarm systems for ISR.119
their understanding of the Alliance’s tasks and systems.
46 · NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy / Military Drones in Europe

Furthermore, NATO represents the military community in The EDA and NATO have been improving their staff-to-
its advocacy role with other stakeholders. It has succeeded staff coordination. Especially after signing the EU-NATO
in establishing working links with the SES representatives Joint Declaration, NATO and EDA experts worked closer
to communicate the military view on airspace regulation, on problems related to military aviation. Although the
although the regulation of the airspace for military military and the civilians share the same airspace, the
operations and training is formally outside of the SES SES regulation does not apply to military operations and
mandate. This has also led to the promotion of military training. This civil-military cooperation has been key to
regulation for non-EU nations. In addition, the NATO developing the overarching document “The Military
Aviation Committee brings civilians on board with similar Aviation Strategy in the context of SES”, approved by
objectives. NATO also represents military in the meetings both the EDA Steering Board and the North Atlantic
with EUROCONTROL, EASA, and International Civil Council in 2017, which provides guidelines to some 11,000
Aviation Organization (ICAO). On behalf of the military military aircraft stationed in Europe where military flights
drone community, it facilitates negotiating over-flight represent 25% of all flights across European airspace.120
permissions or liability issues, since NATO requirements The EDA also serves as an information hub or a gateway
for airspace is a collective policy. for industry. The Agency has tools to navigate companies
through various funding opportunities offered by EU
institutions. The EDA has also established an industrial
exchange platform to coordinate industry efforts
EU to fill the gaps in R&D, and a specific “EDA Industry
Exchange Platform on RPAS Air Traffic Insertion” in 2017
On the EU side, the EDA serves as an interface for civil- to strengthen and formalize a dialogue with European
military relations. Since 2010, the EDA has developed industry and a community of military users.
ways to engage the military in the SES initiative and to
connect them with the European institutions, thanks Last but not least, since 2013, the EDA has been
to EU funds for military projects on SES/SESAR related facilitating cooperation and networking among
technology and RPAS ATI activities. Among others, the countries that currently operate large MALE drones or are
EDA is supporting the EU Member States in identifying interested in acquiring this capability in the near future
military projects and in preparing bids to obtain EU – the so-called European MALE RPAS User Community
co-funding. It has mechanisms for bringing military (see Section Two). Although this community was not very
perspective into the work on reforming the ATM in the active the first three years, one of its recent milestones
European airspace; for instance, the EDA’s Military includes the development of the MALE RPAS desktop
Airworthiness Authorities, or MAWA, translates civilian training simulator for European military RPAS schools.121
regulations from EASA into the military world. EDA The EDA Staff and EDA’s MALE Community liaise regularly
also liaises with civilian stakeholders in other units and with the European Air Group (EAG),122 whose members
organizations: the European Commission (DG MOVE), also include Belgium and the United Kingdom, to assure
EUROCONTROL, EASA, the SESAR Joint Undertaking, and interoperability of future MALE drone capabilities. This
EUROCAE (responsible for the development of worldwide EDA platform contributes to building a shared operational
recognized industry standards for aviation). culture among MALE drone capable countries.

Endnotes Section Three

91 
For instance, Frontex uses Italian UAS platform Falco 92 
Interoperability means the measures necessary to work
produced by Leonardo to monitor migration within the EU together effectively with the different national organizations
Border Surveillance System (a framework for the exchange of and equipment as they are; in contrast, standardization means
information to improve situational awareness). Tom Kington, the measures necessary to avoid the mess in the first place.
“Leonardo launches new drone ahead of Paris Air Show,” Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern
Defense News, June 10, 2019, https://www.defensenews.com/ World (London: Penguin Books, 2005), 316.
digital-show-dailies/paris-air-show/2019/06/10/leonardo-
launches-new-drone-ahead-of-paris-air-show/?utm_ 93 
John E. Mayer, State of the Art of Airworthiness Certification
source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=EBB%20 (NATO Science and Technology Organization, STO-MP-AVT-273,
06.11.19&utm_term=Editorial%20-%20Early%20Bird%20Brief. 2017), 6. The STANAGs in question are: STANAG 4671, 4702 (for
rotary wing), 4703 (for light UAS) and still to be ratified 4746
(for small VTOL UAS).
 Military Drones in Europe / NATO vs the EU – Defense vs Economy · 47

94 
The NSPA has a world-wide reach. For instance, it supports 800 108 
EDA, The Military in the Single European Sky: Partnering for
ports for ship docking and has its contractors in Afghanistan, Excellence in Global Aviation (Brussels: EDA, 2018), 12, https://
Mali, and Kosovo. Because only member states can ask the www.eda.europa.eu/docs/default-source/brochures/eda-ses-
NSPA to support their deployment in operations, the NSPA brochure-2018-final.
sometimes provides support within the framework of EU-
led operations (for instance in Kosovo or in the anti-piracy 109 
Yet, this project on Civil standard for RPS-RPA interface risks
mission). duplicating parts of the already existing NATO’s STANAG 4586.
EDA, Standardisation of Remote Pilot Stations of RPAS - an
95 
The NSPA and the EDA are very different in nature. The EDA European Defence Agency project developed by Airbus and
does not have comparable resources and expertise to NSPA to GMV (Brussels: EDA, 2019), 6, https://www.gmv.com/export/
execute the amount of procurement contracts, The EDA has sites/gmv/DocumentosPDF/Folletos/Brochure_Remote_Pilot_
only some 150 persons, small operating budget of 28m EUR, Stations_of_RPAS.pdf.
functions more like a defense think-tank. However, its board is
composed of Defense Ministers gives it a political standing and 110 
Data come from four types of sources: input directly from
allows it to see further ahead. member states, open-source information compiled by the EDA
staff, the NATO’s NDPP, and official governmental documents.
96 
Out of which 1.1 Bn EUR relate to the acquisition of NATO
multi-role tanker transport aircraft. NSPA, Annual Report 111 
For instance, the NATO Staff does not have access to EDA’s
2017 (Capellen: NSPA, 2018), 5, 16, https://www.nspa.nato.int/ CODABA, nor do the EU member states that are not members
leaflets/Docs/AnnualReport2017.pdf. of EDA, such as Denmark. “Collaborative Database,” EDA, June
12, 2017, https://www.eda.europa.eu/what-we-do/activities/
97 
“NATO helps Allies speed up sharing of weapons,” NATO, March activities-search/collaborative-database.
27, 2019, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_164961.
htm; https://www.dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/nato-support- 112 
Oliveira Martins and Küsters, “Hidden Security,” 17.
and-procurement-agency-precision-guided-munitions. 113 
“Pilot Project and Preparatory Action on Defence Research,”
98 
Victor Barreira, “Portugal orders Raven B UAS,” Jane’s EDA, July 8, 2019, https://www.eda.europa.eu/what-we-do/
Defence Weekly, September 14, 2018, https://www.janes.com/ activities/activities-search/preparatory-action-for-defence-
article/82986/portugal-orders-raven-b-uas. research

99 
“Two PASI Searchers Mk III Class II Tactical UAVs Delivered to 114 
European Commission, EDIDP and PADR – factsheet, March 19,
Spanish Army,” Defense-aerospace.com, July 9, 2018, http:// 2019, https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/34510.
www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/release/3/194591/ 115 
The Persian Gulf War represented a “critical point in the
nspa-delivers-pasi-searcher-uavs-to-spanish-army.html. development of UAV industry” – in this sense, drones represent
100 
EUROCONTROL is an intergovernmental organization that acts the further continuation of revolution in military affairs in
as a network manager – it organizes the air traffic in Europe airpower. Søby Kristensen et al, Unmanned and Unarmed, 3.
and provide sources for route changes. It also supports EASA, 116 
Allies signed the core acquisition contract in May 2018.
who proposes regulations on ATM to the European Commission. “Alliance Ground Surveillance (AGS),” NATO, last modified June
101 
“NATO Secretary General thanks EUROCONTROL for continued 21, 2019, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_48892.
Cooperation,” NATO, January 18, 2019, https://www.nato.int/ htm.
cps/en/natohq/news_162475.htm. 117 
NATO, The Secretary General’s Annual Report 2018 (Brussels:
102 
”From Start to Finish”, AIRSPACE 41 no. 2 (2018): 18-19, https:// NATO, March 2019), 48, https://www.nato.int/nato_static_
issuu.com/canso/docs/airspace_41_quarter_2__2018_digital. fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_publications/20190315_sgar2018-en.pdf.

103 
It establishes a set of minimum ATM requirements for HALE 118 
NATO cannot acquire an armed drone like Reaper or Predator.
flight in European airspace that should be used to negotiate The general consensus maintains that lethal force must
access to national airspace within Europe. These guidelines be controlled by the member countries, not international
isolating HALE drones into segregated airspace during climb- organizations due to liability reasons.
out and recover, and to cruise in non-segregated airspace at 119 
NATO, The Secretary General’s Annual Report 2018, 44-45.
high altitudes above manned aviation. See “EUROCONTROL Air
Traffic Management Guidelines for Global Hawk in European 120 EDA, The Military in the Single European Sky, 3, 11.
airspace,” EUROCONTROL, December 1, 2010, https://
www.eurocontrol.int/publication/eurocontrol-air-traffic- 121 
“Latest News: EDA sets-up collaborative RPAS training,” EDA,
management-guidelines-global-hawk-european-airspace. January 18, 2018, https://www.eda.europa.eu/info-hub/press-
centre/latest-news/2018/01/18/eda-sets-up-collaborative-
104 
SESAR, European ATM Master Plan: The Roadmap For Delivering rpas-training.
High Performing Aviation For Europe (Brussels 2015), https://
ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/modes/air/sesar/ 122 
Formally created in 1998, EAG currently includes member
doc/eu-atm-master-plan-2015.pdf. countries: Belgium, Germany, Spain, France, Italy, the
Netherlands, the UK; partner countries: Norway, Sweden;
105 
“Safe operations of drones in Europe,” EASA, September 28, associate countries: Canada, Poland, the US, Australia.
2018, https://www.easa.europa.eu/newsroom-and-events/ “Organization,” European Air Group, accessed May 3, 2019,
news/safe-operations-drones-europe. http://www.euroairgroup.org/about-eag/organisation/.

106 
“Civil drones (Unmanned aircraft),” EASA, accessed April 27,
2019, https://www.easa.europa.eu/easa-and-you/civil-drones-
rpas.

107 
The European Council in 2013 tasked EDA to support four
capability development programs: Air-to-Air Refuelling,
Governmental Satellite Communication, Cyber Defence, and
Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems. “Capability Programmes,”
EDA, accessed December 12, 2018, https://www.eda.europa.eu/
what-we-do/our-current-priorities/capability-programmes.
48 · UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation / Military Drones in Europe

Section Four:

UAVs, Future Warfare,

and Multinational Defense
Cooperation
Most European defense ministries have included at least will continue. While today’s drones are predominantly
one type of UAVs in their future acquisition plans, which conceived for counterterrorism missions, the next
unequivocally indicates a continuing drone proliferation generation will have better capabilities especially with
in Europe. The UAV inventories of European countries respect to the last of the three Ds – dangerous mission
will include more large advanced drones, especially to in hostile environment without air superiority. This will
counter threats from the East and South and out of the require improving i) survivability of UAVs in high-threat
fear of “not falling behind” – some countries will acquire environment and extreme weather conditions; ii) self-
drones to improve their status and become members protection measures and resilience to cyber threats;
of drone clubs.123 This concluding section outlines major and iii) information gathering and data processing
future trends in the development of UAV technology and capabilities.128
drone warfare and draws implications for the European
defense market and its main stakeholders (national The overall trend shows that drones are getting
governments, industry, and military) in terms of the “stealthier, speedier, and smaller”.129 They are increasingly
technological innovation and the transatlantic framework lethal, quieter, and multi-capability-based by design,
of cooperation. It aims to inform smart choices leading will fly longer and soon in cooperation with manned
to the development of the right UAV capabilities for the aircraft (manned-unmanned teaming) or other drones
future requirements of European armed forces. (swarming). Their improved flexibility and adaptation
will allow the armed forces to employ a single drone for
Future Unmanned Technology multiple tasks, especially in the niche area where manned
Drones do not win wars today – they are too vulnerable aircrafts face limitations.
and cannot achieve a decisive victory.124 The current-
generation drones still face numerous problems and The advancements in autonomy will be determinant
limitations.125 In general, they are not useful in contested for the shape of the next-generation drones. While
environment without air superiority, i.e. when it is likely automation and/or autonomy already exists in auto-
they will be shot down, as the recent cases of downed pilot functions, anti-collision systems, real-time flight
MQ-9 Reaper in Yemen126 and Global Hawk in the Strait plan adjustment systems, or take-off and landing in
of Hormuz127 have shown. The probability that a drone emergency situations,130 autonomy of future UAVs will be
crashes is high because UAVs do not have air defense enhanced for instance in the situation with no modern
capabilities, their maneuverability and stealth capability communication infrastructure, such as Global Positioning
remain poor, and they usually fly at low altitudes and slow System (GPS) signal.131 Yet, as the level of autonomy is
speeds. They are also prone to accidents due to technical function-specific, the most important improvements are
failures and severe weather, affecting the operational expected in the area of data collection and processing,
range of data links between the UAV and the control pushing forward the data-driven warfare. In this sense,
station. If the information and cyber security of drone- drones may “symbolize a shift in the nature of warfare”.132
related C4ISR systems is insufficient, drones run the risk As much more data is being collected than can be
of jamming, hacking, and spoofing. effectively processed, UAV operators will need more
comprehensive data analysis software to make sense
Drones are flying dull (long surveillance), dirty (CBRN of what is actually being collected, increasing, among
detection), and dangerous (high risk for manned aircraft) others, the “reliance on automated methods as guidance
missions. The existing practice of deploying drones in for attacks”.133 The second related problem with the
low cost, low-risk conflict engagement and with an data surge is the question of access to information
objective to minimize the number of boots on the ground and preservation of military effectiveness. In situations
 Military Drones in Europe / UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation · 49

when drones are collecting vast amount of information adversary’s air defense systems in the future, drones
from the battalion level down to the squad, it might be with multifunction sensors could provide important EW
prudent to ask who should get the information and how countermeasures to suppress/disable enemy air defenses
little information is enough to accomplish the given task. by blinding air defense radars., such as the United
Finally, in contrast to mainly improving effectiveness on States Navy’s Remedy Project that develops unmanned
the tactical and sub-tactical level in case of the current electronic warfare platforms for radar detection and
armed drones, the development of new-generation UAVs electronic attack by jamming.137
such as advanced supersonic drones, swarm-based air
defense systems, or autonomous combat drones could Logistics is the next area that will experience further
alter the strategic balance of military capabilities. On the increase in the use of UAVs, such as cheap unmanned
other hand, while innovation in unmanned technology cargo gliders or unmanned refueling tankers like the
will leverage advancements in artificial intelligence, American MQ-25 Stingray.138
machine learning, and big data, the next generation
drones will also include drones with lower production Apart from the domain-specific trends, two prominent
and acquisition cost and simplified operating C2 systems concepts have started to guide innovation that aims to
(including the possibility of developing one platform for enhance the force-multiplier effect of drones: manned-
army, navy, and air force). Yet the growing reliance on unmanned teaming (MUT) and swarming. MUT
unmanned systems (not only by the military) runs the conceptualizes drones as loyal wingmen where a piloted
risk of falling into the technological determinism trap. aircraft commands one or more drones that perform
Prudent assessment is required as to which functions functions transferred from its manned counterpart. This
could be safely and efficiently delegated to unmanned force-multiplier role of UAVs will be one of the central
machines.134 features in the future air combat systems, mainly in
the form of UCAVs. The main defense players in Europe
Drone as Force Multiplier understood this as Tempest, SCAF, and FCAS projects
The most important function of drones continues to be will include an important unmanned element. Other
that of a force multiplier, especially as the capability example includes Boeing’s Airpower Teaming System that
delivered by fewer personnel decreases the risk of human will manufacture a loyal drone wingman for the manned
cost.135 Military drones of all three main classes have been fighters in the Australian air forces and other ”Five Eyes”
predominantly used in the ISR domain, where they are countries.139 Similarly, Russian Aircraft Corporation MiG is
becoming one of the most popular equipment, providing trying to develop drones for its future combat aircraft.140
information superiority thanks to, among others, Unmanned combat drones will not be advanced
real-time imagery of higher resolution than satellites, enough yet in the near future to replace manned strike
supplying mobile communication relays, and improving aircraft or fighters,141 but they will be able to expand the
the observe, orient, decide, act loop. UAV deployments capabilities by carrying additional payloads; for instance
that combine ISR and strike missions help shorten the they can operate as “flying missile magazine” to boost
kill chain and reduce collateral damage. From large the combined firepower with long-range weapons for
surveillance HALE drones to pocket-sized undetectable direct engagement or carry crucial ISR/ISTAR sensors.142
drones with powerful sensors, the proportion of In the similar vein, the future strategy of light attack
unmanned technology operated by armed forces will might well combine ”fixed wing, rotary wing, manned
steadily increase. This will prove challenging in terms and unmanned aircraft, drones and helicopters.”143
of the availability of bandwidth due to high number of Another scenario is the pilot commanding swarms of
drones flying in a constrained airspace.136 Lastly, the smaller drones that fly ahead of the manned aircraft and
HAPS technology using renewable solar energy may perform reconnaissance over vast areas, resembling to
foster further innovation in unmanned autonomous an airborne aircraft carrier concept.
surveillance platforms.
While today’s standard is still one pilot per drone,
Airborne electronic warfare is another domain with a the swarming technology opens the possibility of a
potential for a greater use of UAVs, mainly as electronic multivehicle control: deploying multiple drones to
support measures. For instance, the Pegasus program perform tasks with a high degree of autonomy. Inspired
aims to meet Germany’s SIGINT aircraft requirement, the by swarms of insects, the swarm of drones consists of
UK will equip its MQ-9 Protector with electronic support many low-cost, expendable machines working together.
measure in the form of an advanced radar detection Its key feature is self-organization and the machines’
system that turns Protector into an electronic signals ability to decide among themselves. 144 While still at
intelligence (ELINT) capability. With the advances in an experimental stage, swarming can have significant
50 · UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation / Military Drones in Europe

implications for the weapon delivery, including nuclear, In Europe, the Airbus Group has been testing a “drone
chemical, and biological, and for air and missile defenses escort system” for combat aircraft over the Baltic Sea
(for instance drone swarms acting as air mines or with the objective to overwhelm enemy radar and
decoys).145 The swarming technology, once it achieves communication systems.149 The EDA’s pilot research
reliable operational capacity, could become also very project EuroSWARM, completed in 2018, aimed to
useful for medical assistance or logistics resupply in demonstrate the transformative effect of the swarm
natural disaster and humanitarian missions. technology on warfare, such as deploying swarms
instead of lethal capability can produce the same results.
The United States leads the development of swarm Out of European countries, the United Kingdom is the
technology. For instance, Pentagon’s Perdix experiment most vocal about acquiring swarms of drones – already
using micro-drones for aerial surveillance that have by 2022.150 London plans to invest 2.5m GBP (some say
already been successfully dropped out of F/A-18 Super even 7m GBP) from the new Transformation Fund into
Hornets, or the United States Navy’s LOCUST project developing a “swarm squadron of drones” that would
developing drone swarms since 2016.146 Most interestingly, accompany the British F-35s and that would be capable
the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency has of “confusing” enemy air defense.151
been working on ways to launch and recover drone
swarms with autonomous docking system from C-130 Drone as Weapon
military transporter, the Gremlins program.147 Gremlins Improving Anti-Access/Area Denial (A2/AD) systems
will be able to carry electro-optical sensors for ISR/ISTAR and surface-to-air missiles with ever longer range and
missions, perform electronic attack, and even engage higher speed are challenging Western air superiority. The
targets with small warheads.148 large surveillance drones were considered invulnerable

Photo from flir.eu

 Military Drones in Europe / UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation · 51

until Iran shot down American Global Hawk in June tactical drones in the form of loitering munition, known
2019. Even the leading strike UAVs – GA MQ-1 Predator as suicide drones, have already been deployed in Iraq and
and MQ-9 Reaper – are designed to counter terrorists in Syria. Apart from the most famous Israeli Harop (also
the non-contested airspace over Afghanistan and Iraq. operated by Germany) or Harpy drones, the United States
The current-generation drone technology is not ready Army has been using for some years Lethal Miniature
for high intensity combat air missions in contested Aerial Missile System that offers a low-cost “soldier-
airspace. To survive those conditions, drones would need carried, soldier-launched” munition, which can loiter for
more stealth, higher speed, and better maneuverability. 15 minutes and engage BVLOS targets.158
Armed forces will need drones able to operate in hostile
environment where the threat of being shot down Swarming has becoming a technique to enhance the
is extremely high. Not technically limited to human lethality of UAVs. Drones in large numbers can simply
performance or physiological characteristics, future swarm enemy defenses. For instance, the United States
UCAVs with deep strike capabilities would be capable of Marine Corps aims to develop a swarm of suicide
penetrating adversary’s EW and delivering weapons in drones carrying different payloads for close air support
A2/AD environment. However, as no autonomous UCAV (warheads) and electronic attack (counter-radar
is close to becoming operational yet, these UCAVs will capability), with as much as 15 drones per operator.159
assume the role of a loyal wingman (see above) within an Russia’s company Kalashnikov has been looking into Kub-
air combat cloud or a network of integrated manned and bla, a suicide drone, which, although less performing
unmanned systems. than Israeli Harpy, can serve as a weapon to suppress
enemy air defenses if deployed in swarms.160 On the other
The trend points to the development of cheaper, simpler, side of the spectrum, non-lethal drones armed with laser
and attritable (replaceable and even expendable) weapons causing only temporary damage might turn to
combat drones that could serve as air-to-air dogfighters be an alternative for those countries reluctant to acquire
as well as bomb carriers.152 The XQ-58A Valkyrie developed conventional armed drones.161
by Kratos Defense is the first a low-cost combat drone
demonstrator. The project is financed through the The last and most controversial trend concerns the
United States Air Force Research Laboratory’s Low Cost technological advancements in ever-increasing degree
Attritable Aircraft Technology program that looks into of autonomy that have gained the label ”killer robots”.
the ways to decrease the development, procurement, These lethal autonomous weapon systems (LAWS) are
and operating cost by using advanced commercial “weapons that can select, detect and engage targets
techniques.153 The United States Air Force is already with little to no human intervention.”162 On the one hand,
considering buying 20-30 aircraft for 2m USD per vehicle defenders of LAWS argue that autonomous weapons
for further experimentation.154 In contrast to MQ-9 can improve countries’ compliance with international
Reaper, Valkyrie is jet-powered and can fly at (near) humanitarian law thanks to LAWS higher degree of
supersonic speeds, which enables it to become a loyal precision and effectiveness. On the other (and bigger)
drone wingman to F-15EX or F-35 fighter jets, carrying hand, critics call for a ban on LAWS (particularly the fully
either precision-guided munition or surveillance sensors. autonomous ones) because of the danger of misuse and
The most important programs developing combat drone the absence of human judgment. In addition, as former
capability in Europe are nEUROn and Taranis, both above chief scientist of the United States Air Force put it, there
all demonstrators for stealth (low observability) and for is no expectation that “fully autonomous systems would
technical solutions for future military requirements. improve the strategic deployment of force”.163

Furthermore, with respect to the future operations in The European Parliament belongs to the latter group
A2/AD environment, the United States, China, France, and has recently managed to adopt a joint position that
Russia, Turkey, and the UK have been working, or have calls for an international ban on LAWS.164 Furthermore,
plans to work, on hypersonic drones for strike operations. for several years the European Parliament, concerned
For instance, the French V-MaX project aims to develop about the increase in targeted killing and questionable
an autonomous, remotely operated hypersonic glider,155 compliance with international law, has been consistently
while the Turkish Aerospace Industries are developing a urging the European Council to adopt a common position
supersonic drone Goksungur.156 on the use of armed drones in order to address the issues
transparency and accountability. Although the European
The improving performance of smaller drones makes Parliament passed a resolution in 2014, the Council has
them a suitable means for carrying munition, such as not decided yet on any common EU position or developed
firearms, explosives or even grenade launchers.157 Armed a policy response that would better regulate and restrict
52 · UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation / Military Drones in Europe

the proliferation and development of armed drones and technology with yesterday’s means: NATO and coalition
their use outside declared war zones.165 forces “are struggling to stay ahead of the malicious
use of small unmanned aerial vehicles by terrorist
Several international agreements, both binding and groups, rogue states, and other actors”, mounting
declaratory, already exist to control armed unmanned specialized squadrons of ground troops to defend bases
aerial technology: the Wassenaar Arrangement, the against drones.174 The effective C-UAS measures require
Missile Technology Control Regime, the Joint Declaration technology that is able to detect, disable, and intercept
for the Export and Subsequent Use of Armed or Strike- hostile drones, and even enforce no-fly zones for UAVs.
Enabled Unmanned Aerial Vehicles,166 and Arms Trade Although current commercial technologies are “easily
Treaty.167 The expectation is that more countries will be vulnerable to even basic counter-measures as they are not
developing and acquiring armed UAVs, as in the next designed for combat”,175 these small drones are difficult
ten years, “over 40% of the UAV market value will be to detect (they usually have a small profile on radars)
armed, with some 90% of these armed UAVs falling in the and intercept or even destroy (one can only try to shoot a
Class III category”. 168 However, because i) several main dynamic low-flying hobbyist drone with a firearm).
armed drones exporters are not members to the Missile
Technology Control Regime (China, Israel), ii) there are To detect drones, the current C-UAS technology uses
different interpretations as to whether armed drones radars, electro-optical, infra-red, or radio-frequency
fall under the Arms Trade Treaty, and iii) the United measures, while jamming is the most frequent interdiction
States intention behind initiating the Joint Declaration technique.176 In addition to protecting military bases,
for the Export and Subsequent Use of Armed or Strike- soldiers can also use portable drone detection gadgets to
Enabled Unmanned Aerial Vehicles was actually to increase their individual protection.177
loosen the export control to compete with China, new
and/or improved mechanisms would be needed to ensure The recent trend points to the use of directed energy
effective arms control of weaponized drones. This is weapons, lasers and radio-guided weapons to engage
where the EU can act as norm entrepreneur to advance and disable the enemy drone. For instance, Spain has a
the international dialogue on legal and ethical questions Rapaz program that includes C-UAS R&D projects and
surrounding the use of drones for lethal purposes. Italy has created a Joint C-UAS Center of excellence in
Latina. The German Army plan to counter hostile drones
Drone as Threat with electronic signals, small grenades, and shoulder-
The recent incidents at major European airports mounted jammers.178 The United Kingdom has been
(Gatwick, Heathrow, Frankfurt), the failed drone strike in developing a laser prototype to counter drones, the
an assassination attempt on the Venezuelan president,169 Dutch Government is looking into lasers to destroy drones
and the current conflicts in the Middle East (civil wars in endangering public safety, while the United States
Yemen and Syria, activities of the Islamic State) show Marines have their first ground-based Compact Laser
that unmanned systems in the hands of hostile actors Weapons System prototype approved by the Defense
pose threat to both civilian and military installations and Department.179 In addition, since 2015 the United States
personnel.170 Marines have been building their own counter-drone
defense system – Marine Air Defense Integrated System
Drone threats can take the form of the adversarial use – that will be installed on their new Joint Light Tactical
of UAVs as airborne improvised explosive devices delivery Vehicles to detect and neutralize hostile UAVs by non-
platform or as hostile spy drones stealing sensitive kinetic measures (radars, sensors, optics, jammers)
data (such as the position of armed forces).171 Militant while its upgraded version should also include a kinetic
groups weaponizing cheap commercial drones for lethal countermeasure in the form of another drone able
suicide and strike missions that affect effectiveness of to intercept large MALE UAVs.180 At the same time, the
coalition troops in Syria and Iraq has become an acute United States Army has been testing a non-lethal drone
problem.172 Modifying commercial drone technology into countermeasure: a grenade launcher to counter drones
flying weapons has become a serious concern also for with a net.181 Russia also plans to counter drones with
intelligence services in European countries.173 another drone: an unmanned interceptor built around a
rifle.182
Until recently, there were no defense requirements for
counter-drone technology (C-UAS) in the military. Given It has been already mentioned above that swarming
the rapid pace of change in this sector and the speed with can enhance lethality especially by overwhelming kinetic
which non-state adversaries exploit commercial drones, countermeasures. Countering swarms of drones therefore
the military has found itself countering tomorrow’s must take the form of electronic and cyber measures,
 Military Drones in Europe / UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation · 53

jamming radio frequency and GPS signals. Tracking standards lag behind those in the air domain. Another
drone swarms also requires a dedicated detection pressing challenge is the problematic communication
software.183 However, drones in swarms could operate on between land/urban and maritime environments. The
different frequency, making it very difficult to neutralize future unmanned systems need to contain technological
the whole swarm with individualized soft kills (disabling solutions for hybrid communication navigation network.
the drone without destroying it). Furthermore, soon these The maritime unmanned autonomous systems are
drones could be able to fly without a control link or GPS expected to be employed in anti-submarine warfare,
navigation. Countering drones with another combat mine-countermeasures, underwater communications,
drone probably seems like the most sensible option and undersea surveillance, in addition to already existing
for the future.184 Lastly, the saturation of airspace by efforts in incorporating UAVs for maritime surveillance
drones makes it difficult to distinguish between friendly, as the ships built today are designed to accommodate
neutral, and potentially hostile drones. The current C-UAS UAVs on their deck. For instance, France has refurbished
technology is not able to produce a single local air picture its aircraft carrier to be able to carry armed drones
yet. and developed a maritime version of its tactical drone
Patroller to locate and track ships.190
Although the global market with C-UAS technology is
rapidly growing,185 it remains underdeveloped. Already Future maritime unmanned technology could include
yesterday both military and civilian authorities needed large unmanned robot ship/surface vessels, unmanned
integrated C-UAS sensors able to effectively detect, warships, or submarine drones for autonomous
tract, and identify non-cooperative drones. In addition, operations on the deep ocean seafloor.191 The United
the C-UAS market is also lacking standards, which will States Navy is even preparing to create an unmanned
complicate the upcoming counter-drone technology race. “Ghost Fleet”, already projecting to acquire two large
The emerging C-UAS market in the EU would necessitate unmanned-surface vessels in 2020 through a Sea Hunter
a regulatory framework for counter-drone technology Program.192 In addition, Since 2011, Northrop Grumman
that would address practical, legal, and policy challenges has been developing a X-47B for the United States Navy
and set standards, especially if counter-drone systems aircraft carriers. This UCAV should enter service in 2020 to
would protect critical infrastructure, governmental support aerial refueling, ISR, and strike missions.193
buildings, or large public events and to be integrated into
local ATM networks. The possible side effect might be In Europe, France’s Naval Group will deliver to Belgian
that the improvements in the counter-drone technology and Dutch navies mine-hunting ships and autonomous
would make the military UAVs more complex and their underwater drones for defending their territorial waters
unit cost will rise.186 and the English Channel.194 In the United Kingdom, BAE
Systems has been testing an autonomous boat, a Pacific
At the same time, the civil sector (government and 950 Rigid Inflatable Boat (RIB) demonstrator, while
commercial use) will generate the majority of the drone London’s future plans contain unmanned submarine for
market. According to the SESAR study, the European intelligence gathering as well.195
drone market will grow by €10 billion by 2035 and then
by €15 billion through the 2050s with almost twenty per As to the land domain, the recent NATO exercise Trident
cent of all flights to be remotely or optionally piloted.187 Juncture 18 tested, among others, the unmanned
It is also expected that civil commercial users would systems to improve logistics and protect expeditionary
enter the MALE category soon. Given the growth and bases.196 Other example of an increased interest into
technological innovation opening multiple possibilities land or ground unmanned autonomous vehicles is the
for using unmanned aerial technology, the European Estonian-led PESCO project “Integrated Unmanned
Commission should look not only into the development Ground System” that aims to produce new autonomous
of regulation and standards, but also the adaptation of transport and navigation capability. There is no indication
physical airspace infrastructure.188 that the two organizations would plan to collaborate on
any of these unmanned systems.
Unmanned Technology Spill-Over
Building on the experience with aerial vehicles, Transatlantic Framework
unmanned technology has been spreading to other of Cooperation
operational environments. This spill-over effect concerns NATO and the EU act as important enablers of military
above all the maritime domain, and to a lesser extent, technology diffusion. On the one hand, NATO focuses
land and space189 domains, like surface, underwater and on military operational needs and interoperability, in
ground unmanned systems. Yet, interoperability and addition to providing the strategic ISR drone capability
54 · UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation / Military Drones in Europe

Photo from www.dassault-aviation.com

to its member countries. On the other hand, the EU emerging role in the defense domain), there can be more
concentrates on developing financial and regulatory tools potential for multinational cooperation in the future. The
to create, among others, a globally-competitive common recent example of successful cooperation includes the
European drone market and to improve the (autonomy Multi Role Tanker Transport project that was initiated in
of) European industrial base. These two institutional EDA and executed by OCCAR and NSPA (the acquisition
logics usually result in a competition for “customers”, and in-service support) with first deliveries scheduled in
though often the NATO and the EU Staffs have merely 2020-24.
difficulties to get sense of what the other side is doing, to
identify compatibilities, and to act upon them. There is a potential for complementarity between NATO
and the EU in the domain of military UAVs: namely
The NATO-EU relations do not have to be competitive. maritime unmanned systems and counter-drone
Since both CDP/CARD and the NDPP are closely technology. To implement NATO’s reinforced maritime
coordinated and synchronized, their lists of capability posture, fourteen NATO member countries have decided
priorities are not that dissimilar. This could lead to more to pool their resources and collaborate on interoperable
cooperation as there might be synergies in projects maritime unmanned systems, developing their joint
of common interest, furthering the joint EU-NATO requirements.197 Launched in October 2018, the Maritime
declaration on enhanced cooperation. Importantly, the Unmanned Systems initiative explores detecting and
2018 CDP includes integration of military air capabilities clearing mines, finding and tracking submarines, as well
in a changing aviation sector. If the two organizations as introducing UAVs for maritime surveillance and patrol.
manage to keep their cooperative frameworks pragmatic, The initiative thus consists of several work streams, such
flexible, and practical (especially in case of the EU as autonomy countermeasures (protect maritime assets
 Military Drones in Europe / UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation · 55

and secure seaways and ports from lethal autonomous looks at both lethal and non-lethal countermeasures, as
assets), maritime cyber, JISR, data fusion, and big data well as proportionality and swarm attacks. These efforts
analysis.198 are led by the Emerging Security Challenges and Defence
Investment Divisions and overseen by the Air and Missile
At the same time, at least three PESCO projects now Defence Committee. The output would influence for
involve maritime unmanned technology. For instance, instance the acquisition of C-UAS for the NATO’s Resolute
within the first batch of PESCO projects chosen in March Support Mission in Afghanistan.
2018, the Maritime (semi-) Autonomous Systems for Mine
Countermeasures led by Belgium and with participation of Pursuing the objective of building a Counter UAS
Greece, Latvia, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania community, the NATO Staff held a workshop with
aims to develop (semi-) autonomous underwater, the European Commission’s DG HOME. The workshop
surface and aerial technologies for maritime mine included EU member states and Interpol drone expert
countermeasures. These assets are expected to counter forum to exchange knowledge on C-UAS requirements.
the threat of sea mines by protecting maritime vessels, On the EU side, one of the November 2018 batch of
harbors, and off-shore installation and safeguarding the PESCO projects already focuses on C-UAS. The “Counter
freedom of navigation. Unmanned Aerial System (C-UAS)” project, led by Italy
(which already has a Joint C-UAS Center of Excellence in
Since not all NATO allies/ EU member states participate Latina) and with participation of Czechia, will deal with
in those respective projects, some countries might system development and C2 to counter micro and mini
apply for the EDF capability window for one or more drones in both operational theatres and for homeland
of NATO’s maritime unmanned systems work streams. defense and security and dual use tasks.
One of potential synergies between NATO and the EU
could be found in the ASW capability area. Other non- Yet, NATO cooperation with the EU remains sensitive. Most
participating countries do not have veto power over the of the obstacles to the inter-institutional cooperation
participation and execution of the projects; for instance, are derived from the fact that their members are not
Austria participates in one NATO multinational project identical. Namely, the Turkey-Cyprus issue prevents the
because Turkey is not involved in it. The first step in the creation of official communication channels between
right direction, which could set a positive precedence, is NATO staff and the EDA on the working level due to the
the Ocean2020 project financed under the EDF’s research impossibility of agreeing on a new security agreement.
window PARD – this project includes 42 entities, one of As a result, for instance, JCGUAS cannot share with
which is NATO’s CMRE (although CMRE does not receive EDA military requirements and STANAGs on UAVs. The
any EU money). lack of regular information exchange is particularly
challenging in the context of new EU defense financial
The second area for NATO-EU cooperation is the mechanisms. Existing parallel discussions on the national
development of counter-drone measures. Indeed, C-UAS level represent another challenge: bureaucracy units in
is in one of priority areas in the CDP and the joint work on the capitals on NATO and the EU agendas respectively
counterterrorism is outcome of NATO-EU joint declaration rarely talk to each other. Yet the seventy years of NATO’s
on enhanced cooperation. Defense against drones could expertise in developing STANAGs is considered a bedrock
be conceptualized as air defense, army defense, and/ for multinational cooperation in the transatlantic area.
or force protection. The EU puts emphasis on force In case the political relations deteriorate, and the fragile
protection and protection of critical infrastructure information exchange and coordination disappear, the
against a drone threat. At NATO, an important strand EU would develop standards and military capability
of work concerns a Practical Framework for Countering requirements that would differ from NATO ones.
Unmanned Aerial Systems that would provide missing Consequently, countries would be forced to make a
policy, doctrine, and tactics, techniques, and procedures choice as to which institution (each with own differing
with an objective to build and offer guidance to employ requirements) they would assign which forces. In this
capabilities to counter small Class I drones. As part of scenario, there would be no winners, only losers.
enhancing the Alliance’s role in the fight against terrorism
and endorsed by Defense Ministers in February 2019, the On a more general note, both NATO and the EU have
ambition of the C-UAS Practical Framework is to develop the mechanisms to further facilitate multinational
and deliver a coherent, standardized, and interoperable cooperation on capability development. The common
NATO C-UAS capability within 24 months. The Framework knowledge says that “cooperation in defence programmes
covers three areas (countering threat networks, is still seen as the best way to rationalise spending and
protecting the force, and building partner capacity) and generate economies of scale”199 and to address “the
56 · UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation / Military Drones in Europe

prohibitive costs of purely national approaches to the batch of PESCO projects). It also remains to be seen
development and production of large complex weapons how disciplined the PESCO countries will be as they need
systems in Europe”.200 According to the recent EDA data, to report annually on the progress of the projects and
the proportion of collaborative capability development submit national implementation plans.
projects has risen to one-third in twelve EU member
states.201 Furthermore, multinational cooperative More time is needed to see whether the EDF would
initiatives can help both EU member states and NATO represent a real shift. Especially for the central and eastern
countries avoid “unmanageable interoperability issues in European countries NATO still takes over the EU when it
the future.”202 Yet the European defense market still lacks comes to military capability development. In addition,
joint defense programs and investments in advanced when put into perspective, money offered through the
military capabilities. EDF (not to mention by NIAG) seems insignificant in
comparison to the numbers the private industries invest
The international staffs in both institutions can help into R&D in the United States. The Fund is therefore not
overcome the initial difficulties with creating cooperative expected to have an overwhelming impact on R&D in
projects and facilitate solving the collective action Europe any time soon.
problem in at least four ways: 1) channel political will,
develop mutual trust, and point to shared interests; 2) The position of the United States Administration represents
identify common operational needs by avoiding over- another hurdle for the EDF success. The EU member
specification and by linking them to long-term budgetary states have recently refused the United States’ demand
commitment; 3) design the project framework based to access the EU funding within the EDF framework.205
on state-industrial governance and divide the labor Washington replied with a hostile and confrontational
in accordance with competences rather than with tone after the EU declared that the American companies
national industrial policy of industrial return; and 4) help would not be eligible for the EU money. The United States
participating countries define an export policy at the consider the restrictions imposed on the third-country
early stage of the project. participation unfair especially because it would prevent
its industry from competing on the EU defense market.
The number of multinational projects might increase, yet In reaction to the EU refusing the United States a full
their actual delivery is more questionable. The recently access to the EU defense money, the United States has
created Multinational Capability Cooperation Unit in the already resorted to countermeasures against the EDF:
Defence Investment Division at the NATO HQ opened Washington has set up a new tool to subsidize European
the doors for a more active role of the NATO staff in countries that decide to buy American equipment.206
facilitating multinational cooperative projects through The European Recapitalization Incentive Program aims
networking at the level of NADs, NADREPs, and national to help former Warsaw Pact countries to transition
delegations and through regular briefings to CNAD. from the Soviet equipment to American-made products
Although it gives NATO more active role in promoting (and effectively locking them within the American
multinational cooperation in the capability development equipment over the long-term). The first planned 190
process, the Unit remains severely understaffed. million USD should go to six countries with two focus
areas: helicopters in Albania, Bosnia, and Slovakia; and
With PESCO and the EDF, the European Commission’s infantry fighting vehicles in North Macedonia, Croatia,
intention is to insert multinational solutions early on and Greece. The second round will target also Poland,
in the R&D, procurement, logistics, maintenance, and Hungry, and the countries in the Baltic region. European
use of capabilities. In short, it earmarks the European defense contractors see behind this initiative “an industry
money to influence national political decisions on how power grab from American companies”.207
to develop European capabilities (however, PESCO is
not only about capability development). Some skeptical The EU argues that the EDF is “not defined as an
voices are already suspicious that “the main output will instrument for partnership”208 and aims to boost the
be lots more bureaucracy”203 and that PESCO may even European military-industrial complex, not the American
delay capabilities due to yet unspecified funding and one. Especially the European countries with large defense
delivery time lines in case of several PESCO projects.204 In industrial base prefer the strict regulations on the
addition, the PESCO selection procedure remains highly technology and intellectual property transfers outside
politicized, though some informal meetings between the the EU. Their efforts to decrease the dependence on the
EU Military Staff and DG GROW do connect PESCO to American technology will thus continue, not least due
the CDP priorities (the EU Military Staff was not invited to their frustration with the United States’ reluctance to
to participate in the selection of process of the first share their technological know-how, which has already
 Military Drones in Europe / UAVs, Future Warfare, and Multinational Defense Cooperation · 57

widened the interoperability gap between the partners

on the battlefield, and with the United States government
restrictions regarding defense exports between EU
member states in case of some defense technologies.209
While the United States wants to keep an open access
to the contracts on the European defense market,
the EU considers urgent to improve its ETDIB and to
integrate military supply chains. Especially when many
of the EU member states have found themselves at “a
major turning point,” as “a cycle of major [armaments]
programs is coming to an end,”210 the choices over future
technology providers will have direct long-term impact
on the competitiveness of European industries.

Endnotes Section Four

123 
Vilmer, “The French Turn to Armed Drones.” 132 
Daniel Rothenberg, “Drones and the Emergence of Data-Driven
Warfare,” in Drone Wars: Transforming Conflict, Law, and
124 
Michael C. Horowitz, Sarah E. Kreps, and Matthew Fuhrmann, Policy, ed. Peter Bergen and Daniel Rothenberg (Cambridge:
“Separating Fact from Fiction in the Debate over Drone Cambridge University Press, 2014), 442-43.
Proliferation,” International Security 41, no. 2 (Fall 2016): 7–42.
133 
Although the human stays in the loop, the targets are
125 
Horowitz et al., “Separating Fact from Fiction,” 17-19. generated by the drone and its data processing software,
126 
“CENTCOM: MQ-9 Reaper shot down over Yemen last week,” as apart from identifying, tracking and locating known
Military Times, June 16, 2019, https://www.militarytimes.com/ individuals, metadata analysis contributes to construct
news/your-military/2019/06/16/centcom-mq-9-reaper-shot- the so-called “signature strikes” (in contrast to personality
down-over-yemen-last-week/. strikes of clearly identified persons), based on identifying
anomalous patterns of behavior. Consequently, rather than a
127 
It was the first shooting down of RQ-4 in its operational passive executor, the drone is a crucial part of the surveillant
history. Chad Garland, “Iran attack marks first known assemblage as it produces the target list of individuals to
successful strike on highflying Global Hawk drone,” Stars and eliminate. Rothenberg, “Drones and the Emergence of Data-
Stripes, June 20, 2019, https://www.stripes.com/news/iran- Driven Warfare,” 445-46.
attack-marks-first-known-successful-strike-on-high-flying-
global-hawk-drone-1.586854 134 
Jacquelyn Schneider and Julia Macdonald, “Why Troops Don’t
Trust Drones - The ’Warm Fuzzy’ Problem,” Foreign Affairs,
128 
Kim Hartmann and Christoph Steup, The Vulnerability of UAVs December 20, 2017, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/
to Cyber Attacks – An Approach to the Risk Assessment, 5th united-states/2017-12-20/why-troops-dont-trust-drones.
International Conference on Cyber Conflict, Tallinn, 2013 NATO
CCD COE Publications. 135 
Force multiplier is “a capability that, when added to and
employed by a combat force, significantly increases the
129 
Kreps et al., “Drone Proliferation in the Twenty-First Century.” combat potential of that force and thus enhances the
probability of successful mission accomplishment”. US
130 
EDA, “Change is in the Air,” European Defence Matters (EDM) Department of Defense, Joint Publication 3-05.1, April 26, 2007,
- Remote Defence: Unmanned & Autonomous Systems Take GL-11, https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp3_05_01.pdf.
Hold in Military Toolboxes, Issue 6, 2018: 15, https://www.eda.
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 Military Drones in Europe / Conclusion · 61

Conclusions
This report provided a close look at the diffusion of • 
Some European countries have formed various
military UAV technology in Europe and qualitatively informal groupings, or “drone clubs”, to facilitate
assessed the key developments on the European military knowledge sharing and to develop mentoring relations
drone landscape. The political-strategic analysis of between the have and the have-nots, and to enhance
military UAV inventories with respect to all main classes multinational solutions.
in seventeen European countries revealed that despite
the continuing proliferation of military drones in Europe, • In contrast to the situation in the advanced drone
significant differences in military drone capabilities persist category, a larger number of countries in Europe
among European countries. While most of them have possess domestic industrial base to produce TUAVs
operational experience with small and tactical drones and SUAVs. Yet, American and Israeli TUAV and SUAV
and some have industrial capacity for their production, platforms remain popular in Europe.
only a handful of countries have acquired large advanced
drones. Importantly, since no European indigenous • 
Although countries remain interested in tactical
advanced drone has achieved full operational capability drones, there is a lack of clarity about their utility.
yet, the European countries have to rely on American and Yet, the recent trend points to the rising popularity of
Israeli UAV platforms. European countries thus continue tactical VTOL-capable drones.
to lag behind the United States in the development of
military UAV technology. The analysis of the institutional • 
Commercialization of smaller drones has changed
layer also showed that both NATO and the EU, each with how and where the military procures its equipment.
their own set of strengths and weaknesses derived from Although UAVs come originally from the military,
their respective institutional logics, facilitate the diffusion today it is the civilian sector which sets the trends in
of military UAV technology. Lastly, although UAVs come unmanned technology.
originally from the military, today it is the commercial
sector which sets the trends in unmanned technology. • 
SUAV is the most dynamic class of drones,
characterized by the highest diversity of users and
The findings with respect to the three guiding research services, due to the development of dual-use drone
questions further indicated that: technology, economic opportunities, and opening of
regulation on the emerging common European drone
What are the key dynamics on the European defense market.
market regarding military UAVs?
• The United States continue to hold the monopoly in • The current trend points towards the miniaturization
the category of HALE drones (Global Hawk and Triton of small drones in the form of personal reconnaissance
platforms). system to increase troop protection capabilities.

• Only ten European countries are operating (France, • Although the primary function of UAVs for European
Germany, Greece, Italy, and the United Kingdom) countries has been to provide ISR capabilities several
or procuring (Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, countries are now looking into armable MALE drones
Switzerland, and probably Poland) advanced MALE or arming tactical UAVs. The United Kingdom is the
drones from either the United States or Israel. only European country which has used armed drones
in lethal operations. France will become the second
• 
Despite several competing multinational projects, European weaponizer of MALE drones.
run by the oligopoly of established defense aerospace
centers on the European defense market, no flyable,
competitive “made in Europe” advanced MALE drone
has been developed yet. The most promising of them,
Eurodrone, is expected to produce an operational
MALE ISR drone, a European equivalent to the
American Reaper, by 2025.
62 · Conclusion / Military Drones in Europe

How do regional institutions shape the European cooperative frameworks pragmatic, flexible, and
military drone landscape and supply what their practical, they could combine their efforts to
member countries demand? cooperate on future maritime unmanned systems
• NATO and the EU shape the European military drone and counter-drone technology.
landscape in their role of facilitators of military
technology diffusion, each via its unique institutional • 
The unhealthy condition of the transatlantic
logic with a set of strengths and weaknesses. relationship further strengthens the call for strategic
autonomy among the EU member countries. In turn,
– NATO, driven by defense interests and military the EU’s effort to achieve strategic autonomy while
operational logic, works on military standards the United States want to preserve the full access to
for all types of military UAVs, builds expert the European defense market may negatively affect
communities that capitalize on transatlantic already strained transatlantic relations.
link to the American technological and military
know-how, provides procurement support, and Which trends are likely to affect the development,
acquires a fleet of HALE UAVs. NATO makes sure deployment, and employment of UAV capabilities by
that capability development projects, either European countries?
individual or multinational, are linked to the • The next-generation UAV technology is driven by the
NDPP that defines capability targets required increasing level of autonomy and the concepts of
from each member country. manned-unmanned teaming and swarming, as the
innovation in unmanned technology will leverage
– The EU, following economic interests and market advancements in artificial intelligence, machine
logic, finances drone-related R&D projects, learning, and big data.
focuses on air traffic integration of drones into
European airspace in view to build a globally- • 
The development of new-generation UAVs such as
competitive common European drone market, advanced supersonic drones, swarm-based air defense
supports countries using MALE UAVs, and systems, or autonomous combat drones could alter
facilitates contacts between civilian and military the strategic balance of military capabilities.
experts. The EU’s main goal is to strengthen the
defense technological and industrial base and • In the context of challenged Western air superiority,
to decrease the EU’s dependence on foreign future UCAVs would need to perform better in high
military technology by financially incentivizing intensity combat air missions in contested airspace. For
multinational cooperation among its member this reason, the next-generation drones will also include
countries. simplified attritable drones with lower production and
acquisition cost. As no autonomous UCAV is close to
• A more simplified observation points to an institutional becoming operational yet, these UCAVs will assume
division of labor: on the one hand, NATO’s community the role of a loyal wingman to manned aircraft.
of experts develops a body of military standards
and acquires the strategic HALE UAV surveillance • From large HALE drones to pocket-sized undetectable
capability; on the other hand, the EU supports the drones with powerful sensors, the proportion of
development of European indigenous MALE drone unmanned technology as ISR capability will steadily
capability and its integration into European airspace. increase. The HAPS technology using renewable solar
energy may foster further innovation in unmanned
• Both organizations facilitate the diffusion of military autonomous surveillance platforms.
technology through various enabling, funding, and
networking mechanisms to sponsor R&T and R&D • As much more data is being collected than can be
projects, shape requirements and national standards processed by human operators, the data surge will
in all UAV categories, provide procurement support, result in a greater reliance on data analysis software
and create networking fora (see TABLE 8). and may in fact negatively influence military
effectiveness (who should get the information, how
• 
Since both CDP/CARD and the NDPP are closely little information is enough).
coordinated and synchronized, there is a room for
improvement for the inter-institutional NATO-EU • UAVs will be more used as electronic support measures
cooperation in the area of capability development. (airborne electronic warfare) and for cargo and un-
If the two organizations manage to keep their manned refueling (logistics).
 Military Drones in Europe / Conclusion · 63

• 
Since the number of state and non-state actors
operating armed drones will increase, new or improved
existing mechanisms would be needed to ensure
effective arms control of weaponized drones, including
LAWS.

• 
The development of counter-drone systems will
characterize the future drone race on the European
defense market. These should be able to produce a
single local air picture (distinguishing between friendly,
neutral, and potentially hostile drones), detect, disable,
and intercept hostile drones, and even enforce no-fly
zones for UAVs.

• 
Unmanned technology will continue to spread to
the maritime, land, and space domains. The future
unmanned systems will need to contain technological
solutions for hybrid communication navigation
network between different operational environments.

Photo from www.ga-asi.com

64 · Annex I Database of European Military Drones / Military Drones in Europe

Annex I Database of
European Military Drones
BELGIUM
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ 13x RQ-5A B-Hunter (AF) RQ-20 Puma (A)211

operational experience
(2014-2018) 8x RQ-11 Raven212 (RRF)
Skylark

Manufacturing/ EuroMALE (observer) UX5 HP (Trimble Belgium)

ongoing R&D Guardian Eye (Aircraft
Traders Belgium)

Future acquisitions 4x MQ-9B SkyGuardian tactical drones for 18m mini drones for 9m EUR
for 226m EUR in service by EUR (2021-2023) for (2021 and 2024) for ISTAR
2025213 ISTAR and tactical drones
4 additional (European) for 6m EUR (2024) for
MALE drones in the longer maritime surveillance
term for 310m EUR (2029- (N), probably Camcopter
2030)214 S-100215

CZECH REPUBLIC
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ RQ-11 Raven, Puma, Wasp

operational experience III and ScanEagle (A)
(2014-2018)
Elbit Skylark (A)

Manufacturing/ NATO AGS EuroMALE – PESCO HEAS 90 (company

ongoing R&D project216 Hacker)

Future acquisitions NATO AGS Interested in acquiring 6x ScanEagle (A) for

armable tactical drones 7.8m EUR in 2019; total
by 2024217 investments in UAVs until
2025: 39m EUR 218
 Military Drones in Europe / Annex I Database of European Military Drones · 65

DENMARK
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ Sperwer (A) 12x Raven B in 2007 (A,

operational experience N)219; replaced by Puma
(2014-2018)
for 9.6m USD in 2012 (A,
N)220

Manufacturing/ NATO AGS Tårnfalken (adapted mini-UAV Heidrun, Huginn

ongoing R&D version of the French VTOL (SkyWatch)
Sperwer; abandoned in
2005)221

Future acquisitions NATO AGS Investments foreseen in

the Defence Agreement
2018-2023

ESTONIA
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/
operational experience Raven
(2014-2018)

Manufacturing/ Theia (Threod Systems)

NATO AGS
ongoing R&D ELIX-XL (Eli)

Investments planned by 2020222

Future acquisitions NATO AGS
RQ-20 Puma from the US by 2021 for 9.8m USD223

FINLAND
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ 11x Ranger (AF) Orbiter 3 (A)

operational experience
(2014-2018)

Manufacturing/ MASS Mini-UAV (Patria)

ongoing R&D

Future acquisitions Launched studies on

investments into new
drone technologies
66 · Annex I Database of European Military Drones / Military Drones in Europe

FRANCE
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ 6x MQ-9A Reaper (AF; 23x Sperwer (A) Elbit Skylark 1 and 1-LE
operational experience unarmed, 4 deployed in Patroller (A) (SOF)
(2014-2018)
Niger) S-100 Camcopter (N)224 Dracula and Thales Spy
4x Harfang (AF) Arrow (SOF)
Wasp (US; SOF)
SpyRanger (A, SOF)

Manufacturing/ nEUROn Sperwer, Patroller AR.Drone (Parrot)

ongoing R&D Future Combat Air System (Segem/ Safran France) DRAC (Survey Copter
(France, UK) Tanan 300 (Cassidian) and Cassidian), DVF
SCAF (France, Germany, VSR700 (maritime VTOL 2000, Copter 4, Aliaca,
Spain) by 2040 UAV, Airbus)225 UAVTracker 120 (Survey
EuroMALE Copter)
Delta Y (Delta Drone)
LP500 (Lehmann
Aviation)
SpyRanger (Thales)226
Airshadow (Drone Volt)227

Future acquisitions 6x MQ-9 Reaper by 2019 15 VTOL systems as part Acquisition planned for
(projected for 2014-2019), of SDAM (N) and 30 SOF
armed probably with tactical drones/ 5 Patroller Black Hornet 3 for 77m
AGM-114 Hellfire missiles systems by 2030 (A)230 EUR (A; US)231
and six with European
munitions by 2020228
EuroMALE to have 8 MALE
ISR systems in total by
2030 (AF)229

GERMANY
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ 8x Heron 1 (AF; leased 44 KZO (A) ScanEagle

operational experience from Israel since 2010), 84 LUNA (A)
(2014-2018)
extended until mid-
2020,232 deployed in
Afghanistan and Mali

Manufacturing/ NATO AGS EuroMALE Rheinmetall KZO (A; Aladin (A; EMT Penzberg)
ongoing R&D EuroHawk (cancelled in SCAF (Germany, France, Cassidian Airborne Mikado AR 100 B (A;
2013)233 Spain) Solutions) AirRobot GmbH & Co. KG)
LUNA (A; EMT Penzberg) Aibot (Aibotix)

Future acquisitions NATO AGS EuroMALE by 2025 Buy 15x LUNA by 2020 for Puma (N) in 2018237
Pegasus project: 4x MQ- Lease 5x Heron TP from 63m EUR
4C Triton for 2.5b USD Israel until 2027235 to Skeldar V-200 (N),
from the US, to be signed replace Heron 1 operational by the end of
at the end of 2019234, 2019236
operational by mid-2025;
ISR only
 Military Drones in Europe / Annex I Database of European Military Drones · 67

GREECE
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ 7x Heron (N), leased from 4x Sperwer (A) 239

operational experience Israel for 3 years for 35.5m
(2014-2018)
EUR 238

Manufacturing/ nEUROn Phaethon J (BSK Defense)

ongoing R&D HAI Pegasus II (Hellenic
Aerospace Industry)

Future acquisitions New research program 25x UAVs (A) for 2.1m
(INTRACOM Defense EUR241
Electronics)240

ITALY
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ 9x MQ-9A Reaper (AF) Raven

operational experience since 2006; 2 deployed in
(2014-2018)
Kuwait
5 or 6x RQ-1B Predator
(AF) since 2001

Manufacturing/ NATO AGS nEUROn Falco EVO (Selex ES/ Asio-B (Selex ES/
ongoing R&D EuroMALE Leonardo), dual-use242 Leonardo)
P2HH Hammerhead AWHERO RUAS IA-17 Manta (IDS)
(Piaggio Aerospace) (Leonardo)
– cancellation after
bankruptcy

Future acquisitions NATO AGS 156 Hellfire II missiles, 20

laser-guided bombs, and
30 joint direct attack
munitions243
P.1 HH Hammerhead (AF)244

NETHERLANDS
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ Sperwer Raven, Scan Eagle (A)

operational experience Puma (A)
(2014-2018)

Manufacturing/ HEF 32 (High Eye)

ongoing R&D

Future acquisitions 4x MQ-9 Reaper by Integrator (US, program

mid-2020s245; foreseen RQ-21A Blackjack) to
investments of 100-250m replace ScanEagle247
246
EUR (AF)
68 · Annex I Database of European Military Drones / Military Drones in Europe

NORWAY
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ Aladin

operational experience
(2014-2018)

Manufacturing/ NATO AGS In the past: Black Hornet

ongoing R&D (A; Prox Dynamics,
acquired by FLIR in
2016)248

Future acquisitions NATO AGS Camcopter S-100 (N)249 Nano UAVs II in 2022-25
for150-300m NOK250

POLAND
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ Orbiter, ScanEagle, Fly

operational experience Eye (A)
(2014-2018)
Warmate for 24m EUR

Manufacturing/ NATO AGS Orlik (PGZ SA ; WZL-2; PIT- FlyEye (Flytronic, WB

ongoing R&D Radwar)251 Electronics – also
Manta (WB Electronics, exporting)
Flytronic) Albators (VTOL)
Bee, Warmate/CUAV (WB
Electronics)
DragonFly (Ważka,
Wojskowy Instytut
Techniczny Uzbrojenia)

Future acquisitions NATO AGS Zefir program (currently 24x Gryf/UCAV (A) RQ-21A Blackjack for SOF
delayed252): procurement by 2022; based on for 1.2m USD (US)257
of either Israeli Hermes either British WK450 12x FlyEye for 10m PLN258
900 or US MQ-9 Reaper, Watchkeeper or Israeli
25x Wizjer by 2022259
potentially armed; in total Hermes 450254 6x Wazka (Dragonfly)
6x MALE by 2022253 40x Orlik PGZ-19R (A)
system (A)260
by 2023 for 790m PLN;
another 20 planned by
2026255
Albatros (N)256
 Military Drones in Europe / Annex I Database of European Military Drones · 69

PORTUGAL
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/
operational experience
(2014-2018)

Manufacturing/ AR2 Carcara, AR 4

ongoing R&D (Tekever Autonomous
System)

Future acquisitions Ambition to build TUAV 12x RQ-11B Raven (A) by

domestically for AF by 2021 for 5.9 m EUR for
consortia261 ISTAR missions262

SPAIN
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ 4x Searcher Mk III, 2x Wasp, Raven, Puma (A)

operational experience Searcher Mk II-J (A)263 Huginn (A, N)
(2014-2018)
ScanEagle, Black Hornet
(A, N)

Manufacturing/ EuroMALE Atlante (Airbus) Fulmar (Wake

ongoing R&D nEUROn Engineering)
SCAF (France, Germany, Sniper (Alpha Unmanned
Spain)264 Systems)
Atlantic, Tucan (SRC
Everis)
Prototypes only: ALUA,
SX8-UAV (SERTEC), SCRAB
(SRC)265
Mantis, Pelicano (Indra)

Future acquisitions 15x EuroMALE by mid- Interested in acquiring The RAPAZ program:268
2020s266 armed tactical drones Fulmar X (A, N; Thales) for
4x MQ-9 Reaper B (AF), 1.3m EUR 269
267
operational by 2020 Investment of 4.3m into
SUAVs to protect overseas
training missions270;
chose 6x Orbiter 3 (A) for
3.1m EUR 271
2x Atlantic (A) and 6x
Tucán (A, AF-training) for
1.5m EUR 272
Condor (Dronetools),
Conyca (Geodrone), Tarsis
75 (Aertec Solutions),
anti-drone system Drone
Hunter (IPB Systems) 273
Antidrone system Drone
Defender V2 (N) for 2m
EUR 274
70 · Annex I Database of European Military Drones / Military Drones in Europe

SWEDEN
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ UAV01 Ugglan/ Sperwer Swallow, UAV05 Svalan/

operational experience (A) Raven Scout (A)275
(2014-2018)
8x UAV 3 Örnen/ RQ-7 UAV02 Falken/ Skylark
Shadow (AF) I (A/SOF; Israel) since
Eagle 2 2007276
Puma, Wasp (A)277

Manufacturing /ongoing nEUROn Apid 60 (N; CybAero) – Dual-use drones (UAS

R&D Tempest (UK, Sweden) bankrupt in 2018278 Europe AB)
Skeldar V-200B (Saab
together with Swiss UMS)

Future acquisitions

SWITZERLAND
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/
operational experience 16x Ranger (AF)
(2014-2018)

Manufacturing/ V-200, F-720 (UMS

nEUROn eXom, eBee (SenseFly)
ongoing R&D Skeldar)

6x unarmed Hermes 900 Planned investment of 8m

Future acquisitions by 2020 for 250m CHF to CHF to procure Orbiter 2
replace Ranger279 or Fly Eye
 Military Drones in Europe / Annex I Database of European Military Drones · 71

UNITED KINGDOM
HALE UAV MALE UAV TUAV SUAV

Currently operating/ 9x MQ-9A Reaper (AF), Hermes 450 Black Hornet

operational experience armed with Hellfire 7 (and 37+ instore) x Scan Eagle (N)
(2014-2018)
missiles280, 8 deployed in Watchkeeper (A)
Kuwait

Manufacturing/ HAPS Zephyr (Airbus) FCAS (UK, France) Gull 68 (Warrior Aero RedKite (Blue Bear
ongoing R&D Tempest (UK, Sweden) Machine) Systems Research)
Herti (BAE Systems)
Watchkeeper (Thales
UK)281

Future acquisitions MQ-4C Triton Double the number of 30 Black Hornet (A) for
MALE UAVs by 2025282: £1.4m285
16x Protector (AF, ”armed
Sky Guardian) to be fully
operational by 2024 and
armed with Brimstone
2 missiles and Raytheon
UK Paveway IV precision-
guided bomb283; overall
investments of 800m EUR
into MALE by 2025284

NOTES
A = Army
N = Navy
AF = Air Force
RRF = Rapid Reaction Forces
SOF = Special Operation Forces

If not specified, the data come from one of the following

five databases: 1) Fuhrman and Horowitz (2017) –
drones per country between 2014-2016; 2) Center for a
New American Security’s Proliferated Drones – drone
manufacturers per country; 3) International Institute
for Strategic Studies’ Military Balance (2018, 2019) –
drones per country in 2017 and 2018; 4) Boosting Defence
Cooperation in Europe (2018) – future investments into
UAS; and 5) European Forum on Armed Drones – in-
service drones per country

Since SUAV is the most dynamic category of drones and

dominated by civilian commercial sector, this database
lists only the most important and commonly-used
platforms.
72 · Annex I Database of European Military Drones / Military Drones in Europe

Endnotes Annex I
211 
Justine Boquet, “La Belgique recourt aux mini-drones Puma 228 
“General Atomics to integrate weapons kits onto French
pour l’Irak,” Air & Cosmos, April 24, 2017, http://www.air- MQ-9 remotely piloted aircraft,” Defence Blog, March 23,
cosmos.com/la-belgique-recourt-aux-mini-drones-puma- 2019, https://defence-blog.com/news/general-atomics-to-
pour-l-irak-93589. integrate-weapons-kits-onto-french-mq-9-remotely-piloted-
aircraft.html; Gareth Jennings, “France proceeds with Reaper
212 
GBelan, “Des drones Raven pour le Benelux,” Air & Cosmos, weaponization,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, March 26, 2019,
December 14, 2016, http://www.air-cosmos.com/des-drones- https://www.janes.com/article/87458/france-proceeds-with-
raven-pour-le-benelux-87537. reaper-weaponisation.
213 
Ministry of Defense of Belgium, The Strategic Vision for 229 
Ministère des Armées, Projet de loi de programmation militaire
Defence, June29, 2016, 89-90. The sale was approved by the US 2019 / 2025, 20, 36.
State Department in March 2019, see Valerie Insinna, “US State
Department approves sale of Sky Guardian drones to Belgium,” 230 
Ministère des Armées, Projet de loi de programmation militaire
Defense News, March 26, 2019, https://www.defensenews.com/ 2019 / 2025, 18, 19, 36.
air/2019/03/26/state-department-oks-sale-of-sky-guardian-
drones-to-belgium/. 231 
Jean-Michel Normand, “De nouveaux nanodrones Black
Hornet pour les soldats français,” Le Monde, January 29, 2019,
214 Ministry of Defense, The Strategic Vision for Defence, 89-90. https://www.lemonde.fr/la-foire-du-drone/article/2019/01/29/
de-nouveaux-nanodrones-black-hornet-pour-les-soldats-
215 
Ministry of Defense, The Strategic Vision for Defence, 90, 147. francais_5416216_5037916.html.
Belgian Navy already tested Camcopter S-100 UAS in summer
2018, “Schiebel conducts Camcopter S-100 flight trials for 232 
“Germany Extends the Contracts for the Operation of the
Belgian Navym,” Naval Technology, July 5, 2018, https://www. Heron 1 Drones in Afghanistan and Mali,” Defense-aerospace.
naval-technology.com/news/schiebel-conducts-camcopter-s- com, December 12, 2018, http://www.defense-aerospace.
100-flight-trials-belgian-navy/. com/articles-view/release/3/198372/germany-extends-airbus-
heron-1-lease-for-18-months.html.
216 
European Council, Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO)
updated list of PESCO projects – Overview, November 19, 2018, 233 
“RQ-4 Euro Hawk UAV: Death by Certification,” Defense
https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/37315/table-pesco- Industry Daily, September 26, 2018, https://www.
projects-updated.pdf. defenseindustrydaily.com/euro-hawk-program-cleared-for-
takeoff-03051/.
217 
Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic, Koncepce výstavby
Armády České republiky (Prague, 2015), http://www.mocr. 234 
Gareth Jennings, “German Triton programme on course for
army.cz/images/id_40001_50000/46088/KVA__R_ve__ejn___ 2019 contract, renamed Pegasus,” Jane’s Defence Weekly,
verze.pdf. October 24, 2018, https://www.janes.com/article/84014/
german-triton-programme-on-course-for-2019-contract-
218 
“Bojové drony pořídíme do roku 2025, plánuje náčelník štábu renamed-pegasus.
Bečvář,” iDNES, November 29, 2017, https://www.idnes.cz/
zpravy/nato/becvar-drony-bojove-armada-uav-obrana- 235 
Gareth Jennings, “Germany extends Heron 1 leasing contract
zeman.A171128_170731_zpr_nato_inc. with IAI,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, December 14, 2018, https://
www.janes.com/article/85222/germany-extends-heron-1-
219 Søby Kristensen et al., Unmanned and Unarmed, 17. leasing-contract-with-iai.
220 Rosenberg, “Denmark signs deal for handheld Puma UAVs.” 236 
Nicholas Fiorenza, “Bundeswehr orders rotary-wing UAV
221 Søby Kristensen et al., Unmanned and Unarmed, 11. for K130 corvette,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, August 13, 2018,
https://www.janes.com/article/82332/bundeswehr-orders-
222 
Jaroslaw Adamowski, “Estonian Military Eyes $902M rotary-wing-uav-for-k130-corvette.
Acquisitions By 2020,” Defense News, February 27, 2016,
https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2016/02/27/ 237 
“German Navy buys AeroVironment’s Mantis i45-integrated
estonian-military-eyes-902m-acquisitions-by-2020/. Puma UAS,” Naval Technology, May 10, 2018, https://
www.naval-technology.com/news/german-navy-buys-
223 
Gareth Jennings, “Estonia acquires Puma UAS,” Jane’s aerovironments-mantis-i45-integrated-puma-uas/.
Defence Weekly, September 24, 2018, https://www.janes.com/
article/83285/estonia-acquires-puma-uas. 238 
George Skafidas, “Ta toyrkika drones-kamikazi kostizoyn akriva
stin Ellada,” Ethnos, March 9, 2019, https://www.ethnos.gr/
224 
“French Navy embarks S-100 Camcopter on inaugural Jeanne ellada/25871_ta-toyrkika-drones-kamikazi-kostizoyn-akriba-
d’Arc task force deployment,” DFNS, June 13, 2018, https://air. stin-ellada.
dfns.net/2018/06/13/french-navy-embarks-s-100-camcopter-
on-inaugural-jeanne-darc-task-force-deployment/. 239 
Peter La Franchi, “Greece doubles Sagem Sperwer tactical
UAV inventory,” Flight Global, June 15, 2006, https://www.
225 
“VSR700 rotary-wing UAV brings eyes beyond the horizon,” flightglobal.com/news/articles/greece-doubles-sagem-
Airbus, October 26, 2017, https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/ sperwer-tactical-uav-inventory-207245/.
news/en/2017/10/from-helicopters-to-uavs.html.
240 
George Tsiboukis, “IDE UAS: A new innovative Tactical (UAS)
226 
“Spy’Ranger Mini Tactical Unmanned Aerial Vehicle,” Air Force emerges from Greece,” Defence iQ, December 12, 2017, https://
Technology, accessed April 23, 2019, https://www.airforce- www.defenceiq.com/air-land-and-sea-defence-services/
technology.com/projects/spyranger-mini-tactical-unmanned- news/ide-uas-a-new-innovative-tactical-uas-emerges-from.
aerial-vehicle/.
241 
Theodore L. Valmas, “Greece receives EU funding for
227 
Jean-Michel Normand, “Drone Volt, la PME française surveillance equipment,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, July 11, 2018,
qui fournit l’armée américaine,” Le Monde, February 13, https://www.janes.com/article/81690/greece-receives-eu-
2019, https://abonnes.lemonde.fr/la-foire-du-drone/ funding-for-surveillance-equipment.
article/2019/02/13/drone-volt-la-pme-francaise-qui-fournit-l-
armee-americaine_5423002_5037916.html. 242 
“Leonardo Deploys Its Falco EVO Remotely-Piloted Air System
for Drone-Based Maritime Surveillance As Part of the Frontex
Test Programme,” Defense-aerospace.com, December 6,
2018, http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/
release/3/198189/europe%E2%80%99s-frontex-leases-
leonardo%E2%80%99s-falco-evo-unmanned-aircraft.html.
 Military Drones in Europe / Annex I Database of European Military Drones · 73

243 
”In 2011, after Italy requested to arm its Reaper drones already 259 
Krzysztof Kuska, “Poland plans four types of UAVs,” Jane’s
in 2011; Although the US government granted permission in Defence Weekly, February 12, 2018, https://www.janes.com/
2015, Italy is still yet to put missiles on its MALE drones. Polle, article/77825/poland-plans-four-types-of-uavs.
MALE-Drone Proliferation in Europe, 9.
260 
“Micro-UAVs for the Polish Military. Ważka Programme:
244 
Tom Kington, “Italy plans to spend $951M on 20 surveillance Another Attempt,” Defence24.com, December 7, 2018, https://
drones,” Defense News, March 27, 2018, https://www. www.defence24.com/pit-radwar-sa/micro-uavs-for-the-
defensenews.com/unmanned/2018/03/27/italy-plans-to- polish-military-wazka-programme-another-attempt.
spend-951m-on-20-surveillance-drones/; Kington, “Italy to Buy
Drones to Keep Company Alive.” 261 
“Força Aérea quer fornecer aviões não tripulados em 2016,”
tvi24, November 10, 2015, https://tvi24.iol.pt/sociedade/fap/
245 
The US approved the sale already in February 2015 for 339m forca-aerea-quer-fornecer-avioes-nao-tripulados-em-2016.
USD and the government-to-government agreements signed
in July 2018. Nicholas Fiorenza, “RNLAF reforms squadron to 262 T
 his should meet Portugal’s ambition to field rapid-reaction
operate Reapers,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, September 19, 2018, and maritime-surveillance capabilities for territorial defense
https://www.janes.com/article/83027/rnlaf-reforms-squadron- and multinational operations. Victor Barreira, “Portugal orders
to-operate-reapers. Raven B UAS,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, September 14, 2018,
https://www.janes.com/article/82986/portugal-orders-raven-
246 
Ministry of Defence of the Netherlands, 2018 Defence White b-uas.
Paper: Investing in our people, capabilities and visibility, 29.
263 
“Two PASI Searchers Mk III Class II Tactical UAVs Delivered to
247 
Richard Tomkins, “Netherlands to replace ScanEagle Spanish Army,” Defense-aerospace.com, July 9, 2018, http://
UAV with Integrator,” UPI, June 7, 2017, https://www. www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/release/3/194591/
upi.com/Netherlands-to-replace-ScanEagle-UAV-with- nspa-delivers-pasi-searcher-uavs-to-spanish-army.html.
Integrator/3441496826583/.
264 
C. Lorca, “España codesarrollará el futuro avión de combate
248 
Kelsey D. Atherton, “Latest Black Hornet drone is a modular europeo con Francia y Alemania,” La Razón, January 24, 2019,
micro machine,” C4ISRnet, June 15, 2018, https://www. https://www.larazon.es/espana/espana-codesarrollara-el-
c4isrnet.com/unmanned/2018/06/15/latest-black-hornet- futuro-avion-de-combate-europeo-con-francia-y-alemania-
drone-is-a-modular-micro-machine/. NP21594823.

249 
Schiebel, “Schiebel Wins Norway’s Tender For Unmanned Air 265 
Spanish Ministry of Defense, Spanish Defence Industry
System Deployment In The Arctic,” Jane’s 360, May 2, 2019, - Catalogue 2017-2018, October 2017, 129-130, https://
https://www.janes.com/article/88217/schiebel-wins-norway-s- publicaciones.defensa.gob.es/media/downloadable/files/
tender-for-unmanned-air-system-deployment-in-the-arctic. links/c/a/catalogue_dgam_17_18.pdf.

250 
The procurement will seek off the shelf technology products. 266 
David Ing, “Spain sets out European MALE RPAS procurement
Norwegian Ministry of Defence, Future acquisitions for the plan,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, November 8, 2018, https://www.
Norwegian Defence Sector 2017–2025, April 2017, 14. janes.com/article/84365/spain-sets-out-european-male-rpas-
procurement-plan.
251 
“Reconnaissance Drones Will Go to the Polish Army,” Defense-
aerospace.com, December 3, 2018, http://www.defense- 267 
Esteban Villarejo, “Spain To Buy Four MQ-9 Reapers for $168.2
aerospace.com/articles-view/release/3/198108/poland-orders- Million,” Defense News, November 22, 2015, https://www.
uavs-for-army%2C-territorial-forces.html. defensenews.com/air/2015/11/22/spain-to-buy-four-mq-9-
reapers-for-168-2-million/.
252 
Adam Duda, The Assessment of The 2013 –2022 Technical
Modernization Plan Realization. Success or Failure? 268 
The Spanish Ministry of Defence will invest 100m EUR to
(Stratpoints, August 2017), 12, http://www.stratpoints.eu/wp- promote innovation and domestically built military-relevant
content/uploads/2017/12/AD_OSRPMT_2017_ENG.pdf. UAVs of less than 150kg (Class I) and counter-UAV technology.
Spanish Ministry of Defence, Proyecto RAPAZ y tecnologías
253 
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be Delivered Before 2022,” Defence24.com, February 7, 2018, es/monografias-del-sopt-n-15-proyecto-rapaz-y-tecnologias-
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uav-types-to-be-delivered-before-2022.
269 
“Spain approves acquisition of newest unmanned aerial
254 
The planned investments in UAS technology is part of the systems for Navy, Army,” Defence Blog, June 18, 2018, https://
new Polish Armed Forces Modernisation Plan for 2017-2026 defence-blog.com/aviation/spain-approves-acquisition-
for 43 billion EUR. Rafał Lipka, “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles newest-unmanned-aerial-systems-navy-army.html.
in the Polish Armed Forces – current status of the Technical
Modernisation Programme,” Fundacja im. Kazimierza 270 
David Ing, “Spain seeks UAVs to protect overseas training
Pułaskiego, January 17, 2017, https://pulaski.pl/en/unmanned- missions,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, August 14, 2018, https://
aerial-vehicles-in-the-polish-armed-forces-current-status-of- www.janes.com/article/82367/spain-seeks-uavs-to-protect-
the-technical-modernisation-programme/. overseas-training-missions.

255 
“Poland orders 40 Orlik tactical short-range unmanned aerial 271 
David Ing, “Spain procures Aeronautics Orbiter UAVs,” Jane’s
vehicles,” Defence Blog, December 3, 2018, https://defence- Defence Weekly, October 10, 2018, https://www.janes.com/
blog.com/news/poland-orders-40-orlik-tactical-short-range- article/83701/spain-procures-aeronautics-orbiter-uavs.
unmanned-aerial-vehicles.html.
272 
“El Ejército espaol adquiere los RPAS Atlantic y Tucán de SCR,”
256 Lipka, “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in the Polish Armed Forces.” Infodron.es, December 19, 2017, http://www.infodron.es/
id/2017/12/19/noticia-ejercito-espanol-adquiere-sistemas-
257 
“Dodatkowy Blackjack dla polskich specjalsów,” Defence24. atlantic-tucan.html.
com, August 23, 2018, https://www.defence24.pl/dodatkowy-
blackjack-dla-polskich-specjalsow. 273 
Tania M. Tomás, “Las diez noticias más destacadas del ano
en RPAS”, infodron.es, December 21, 2017, http://infodron.es/
258 “Reconnaissance Drones Will Go to the Polish Army.” id/2017/12/21/noticia-noticias-importantes-sector.html.
74 · Annex I Database of European Military Drones / Military Drones in Europe

274 
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Neutralise UAVs/Drones,” Blighter – Surveillance Systems, June
21, 2017, http://www.blighter.com/news/press-releases/140-
spanish-defence-ministry-selects-auds-system-to-detect-
and-neutralise-uavsdrones.html.

275 
“Swedish Army receives Swallow and Raven Scout UAVs,” Army
Technology, October 31, 2013, https://www.army-technology.
com/news/newsswedish-army-swallow-raven-scout-uavs/.

276 
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12, 2019, https://www.forsvarsmakten.se/sv/information-och-
fakta/materiel-och-teknik/avvecklade-materielsystem/suav-
system-falken/.

277 
Tamir Eshel, “Sweden, Denmark Opt for PUMA AE, Wasp Mini-
UAVs,” Defense-Update, June 12, 2012, https://defense-update.
com/20120612_sweden-denmark-puma-wasp.html.

278 
Gerard O’Dwyer, “Sweden’s largest military drone maker
files for bankruptcy,” Defense News, June 22, 2018,
https://www.defensenews.com/newsletters/unmanned-
systems/2018/06/22/swedens-largest-military-drone-maker-
files-for-bankruptcy/.

279 
Beth Stevenson, “Switzerland orders Hermes 900 UAV,” Flight
Global, November 26, 2015, https://www.flightglobal.com/
news/articles/switzerland-orders-hermes-900-uav-419504/.

280 
In April 2018 the US authorized the sale for 500m USD to
maintain the operational readiness of the UK’s Reapers. “UK
requests support for MQ-9 Reapers,” Shephard, April 9, 2018,
https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/mil-log/uk-requests-
support-mq-9-reaper-programme/ 1/.

281 
Watchkeeper achieved its full operational capability
in February 2019. Tim Ripley, “Watchkeeper achieves
full operational capability,” Jane’s Defence Weekly,
February 7, 2019, https://www.janes.com/article/86227/
watchkeeper-achieves-full-operational-capability?utm_
source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=ebb%20
08.02.19&utm_term=Editorial%20-%20Early%20Bird%20Brief.

282 
Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence and Security Review
2015, London, November 2015; Ministry of Defence, The
Defence Equipment Plan 2017, January 2018, 28.

283 
Bill Carey, “New Multi-mission Sky Guardian UAS Is More
Than a Strike Drone,” AIN online, June 14, 2017, https://www.
ainonline.com/aviation-news/defense/2017-06-14/new-multi-
mission-sky-guardian-uas-more-strike-drone.

284 Ministry of Defence, The Defence Equipment Plan 2017.

285 
Kelsey D. Atherton, “The Black Hornet became indispensable.
Now the UK is ordering more,” C4ISRnet, April 18, 2019, https://
www.c4isrnet.com/unmanned/2019/04/18/black-hornet-
drones-return-to-the-uk/.
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