METAL

Metals are minerals or substances that form naturally below the surface of the Earth. Metals are
characterized by malleability, ductility, high electrical and thermal conductivity and a shiny surface that
reflects light. This is the most commonly used class of engineering material. Metal alloys are especially
common, and they are formed by combining a metal with one or more other metallic and/or non-metallic
materials. The combination usually occurs through a process of melting, mixing, and cooling. The goal of
alloying is to improve the properties of the base material in some desirable way.

FERROUS METAL

A metal with the descriptor “ferrous” means that it has iron in its composition. When the term ferrous metal is
used, it also usually implies that iron is a large percentage of the elemental composition. If it’s not the most
abundant element, it would probably be the second or third most prolific. If a metal only contains trace amounts of
iron, as many metals do, then that small amount is not considered enough to declare the metal ferrous. Some
properties of ferrous metals are durable, great tensile strength, usually magnetic, low resistance in corrosion, a
silver like color, good conductors of electricity, recyclable, etc.

NON-FERROUS METAL

When a metal is defined as non-ferrous it means that it does not have a significant amount of iron in its
chemical composition. Note the word “significant”; nearly all metal alloys have some trace, or non-significant,
amount of iron in their composition. This does not make them ferrous alloys though. Non-ferrous alloys generally
have iron compositions of less than one percent as measured by weight. If iron constitutes a large percentage of a
metal, such as if it is the first or second most abundant element in the metal’s chemical composition, then the metal
is considered ferrous. Non-ferrous metals all do have one thing in common: They do not rust. That is not to say
that they don’t corrode. Several non-ferrous materials can be quite vulnerable to corrosion. When it is said that
they don’t rust, that means they will never form the red flaky metal that is ubiquitous among pieces
of steel and iron that are not protected from corrosive environments.

ORE
Ore, a natural aggregation of one or more minerals that can be mined, processed, and sold at a profit. An older
definition restricted usage of the word ore to metallic mineral deposits, but the term has expanded in some instances
to include non-metallic. No ore deposit consists entirely of a single ore mineral. The ore is always mixed with
unwanted or valueless rocks and minerals. There are mainly four types of ores such as Oxides; Carbonate
Ores; Sulphide; Halides Ores.

IRON ORE
Earth's most important iron ore deposits are found in sedimentary rocks. They formed from chemical
reactions that combined iron and oxygen in marine and fresh waters. Iron ore is the source of primary iron for the
world's iron and steel industries. It is therefore essential for the production of steel, which in turn is essential to
maintain a strong industrial base.
Hematite and magnetite are by far the most common types of ore. Pure magnetite contains 72.4 percent
iron, hematite 69.9 percent, limonite 59.8 percent, and siderite 48.2 percent, but, since these minerals never occur
alone, the metal content of real ores is lower.
TYPES OF IRON

A. PURE IRON
Pure iron is a bright silvery-white metal which oxidizes (rusts) rapidly in moist air or in water containing
dissolved oxygen. Its most important property is that it is very soft. It is easy to work and shape and is just soft
enough to cut through (with quite a bit of difficulty) using a knife. Pure iron can be hammered into sheets and drawn
into wires. It conducts heat and electricity and is very easy to magnetize. Its other properties include easy corrosion in
the presence of moist air and high temperatures.
Pure Iron is largely used in the production of relatively small volumes of special alloy steels, in the aviation,
automotive, construction, petrochemical industries, and in the manufacture of magnets, gaskets, fuse wire, welding
rods, lighting conductors and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scanners.
Commercial pure iron has many different characteristics which include (i) improved resistance to corrosion and
oxidation, (ii) excellent magnetic properties, (iii) high chemical and metallurgical purity, (iv) good hot and cold forming
capability, and (v) suitability for all types of welding.

B. WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is a form of commercial iron which has very low carbon content (less than 0.10 %), less than 0.25
% of impurities consisting of Sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and manganese. It is a semi-fused mass of iron with
fibrous slag inclusions (up to 2 % by weight) which gives it a ‘grain’ resembling wood, which is visible when it is
etched or bent to the point of failure .
Wrought iron is soft, ductile, magnetic, strong with high elasticity and tensile strength, malleable and hence it
can be heated and reheated and worked into various shapes, becomes stronger the more it is worked, and suitable
for members in tension or compression. It is corrosion-resistant and can be welded. Before the development of
effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the most common
form of malleable iron. A wrought product is one that has been mechanically worked by forging, extruding, rolling, and
hammering etc., to change its form and properties. Wrought iron product is a particular worked iron product which is
rarely produced now since other cheaper, superior products have substituted it.
Wrought iron lacks the carbon content necessary for hardening through heat treatment. Wrought iron may be
welded in the same manner as mild steel, but the presence of oxide or inclusions gives defective results. The
chemical composition of wrought iron appears to the plain carbon steel, but most of the manganese, sulphur,
phosphorus, and silicon are incorporated into the slag fibers present in the wrought iron.

C. PIG IRON
Pig iron is an intermediate product of a steel plant which is cast in a pig casting machine from hot metal (liquid
iron) produced during smelting of iron ore in a blast furnace or in a smelting reduction furnace. The term ‘pig iron’ has
arisen from the old method of casting liquid iron from a blast furnace into molds arranged in sand beds. The
traditional shape of the molds used for these ingots was a branching structure formed in sand. It had many individual
ingots at right angles to a central channel or runner.
The liquid iron which is not sent for steel making is cast into pigs in pig casting machine for use in steel making
later as cold charge or is sold to foundries or to mini steel plants having induction furnaces as merchant pig iron.
Merchant pig iron is the cold iron which falls into the category of ferrous metallic. There are some dedicated merchant
plants whose entire production is sold to external customers. Merchant pig iron is basically of the following two types.

 Basic grade – Basic pig iron has less than 1.0 % silicon, under 1 % manganese, and trace amounts of sulphur and

phosphorous. This type of pig iron is mainly used for steel making. There are several grades specified in various

standards based on silicon and manganese content of the pig iron.

 Foundry grade – This type of pig iron is being used in iron foundries and contains higher silicon. Various standards specify

composition limits for silicon and manganese for different grades of this type of pig iron. Silicon content in foundry grade

pig iron is much higher and usually is in the range of 1.5 % to 3.5 %. It can be as high as 4.25 %.
D. CAST IRON
The term ‘cast iron’ represents a large family of ferrous alloys. Cast irons are multi-component ferrous alloys,
which solidify with a eutectic. Cast iron in its basic form is a brittle material which has a very little impact strength. It
has a little or practically no toughness when compared to low carbon steels. It has a fraction of the tensile strength of
low carbon steels. When a cast iron piece fails it does not deform in a noticeable way and appears to snap apart or
break in a manner consistent with a snap. There is no early warning of a failure.

The properties of cast iron can be varied widely by varying the percentages of carbon and silicon, by alloying with
various metallic elements, and by varying the practices of melting, casting, and heat treatment. The metallurgy of cast
irons has many similarities to that of steel, but the differences are important to the metallurgist who works with cast
irons. The main factors which have influence on the micro structure of the cast iron are:

1. Chemical composition
2. Cooling rate
3. Liquid treatment
4. Heat treatment

Historically, the first classification of cast iron was based on its fracture. Initially cast iron was classified into two
types namely white cast iron and gray cast iron.

ALLOYING ELEMENTS
Alloying elements are used to alter the mechanical and chemical properties of steel to give them advantages over
standard carbon steel. While there are many alloying elements used to achieve various enhanced properties, certain elements are
much more common than others. These are some common alloying elements:

1. Chromium
Chromium added to carbon steel in percentages usually greater than 11% creates stainless steel. At this percentage and
greater, the corrosion resistance of a steel vastly increases and oxidation of the iron is prevented in many conditions. The iron
does not oxidize because the chromium will oxidize first and form a protective layer over the steel. Chromium also helps to
improve mechanical properties, even in smaller amounts. It will increase the steel’s strength, hardness, and ability to be heat
treated.

2. Copper
With more than 400 alloys, copper is one of the most common alloying elements. For steel, copper is solved
into the material by 0.1 to 0.4 % to increase corrosion resistance. Copper is also known for its high thermal and
electrical conductivity. Its copper oxides work in a similar way as the chromium oxides.

3. Manganese
In alloy steel, manganese is typically used in combination with sulfur and phosphorus. Manganese helps to
reduce brittleness and improves forge ability, tensile strength and resistance to wear. Manganese reacts with
Sulphur, resulting in manganese sulfides which prevents the formation of iron sulfides. Manganese is also added for
better hardenability as it leads to slower quenching rates in hardening techniques. Excess oxygen can be removed in
molten steel by using manganese.

4. Nickel
Nickel is used to manufacture austenitic stainless steels because it is an austenite promoter. When amounts of chromium
around 18% or greater are used and nickel composition is greater than 8%, austenitic stainless steel is created. This combination
is extremely corrosion resistant, and austenitic grades are some of the most widely used stainless steels. Nickel is also used to
improve the mechanical properties of steel. It is used to increase toughness and impact strength, even at lower temperatures.
5. Titanium
Titanium is used as a stabilizing element in stainless steels. It fixes carbon in inert particles, improving
corrosion resistance and weld ability. Since Titanium is a rare element on Earth, this alloying element can be up to
200 times more expensive than regular carbon steel.

6. Vanadium
Vanadium is used to help control the grain size of the steel, keeping it small. The grain size is kept small because the
vanadium carbides that form when vanadium is added to a steel block the formation of grains. This blockage prevents the grains
from growing to be as large as what they would be without the added vanadium. This finer grain structure helps to increase
ductility. In some steels, carbides formed by vanadium can increase the hardness and strength of steel.

7. Molybdenum
Molybdenum, like chromium, has an effect on the corrosion resistance of steel. Molybdenum can also increase
the hardenability, toughness, and tensile strength of steel. It increases the hardenability by lowering the required quench rate
during the heat treating process to make a strong and hard steel. Molybdenum can also reduce the risk of pitting in steel as it
improves resistance to chloride induced corrosion. The Pitting Resistance Equivalent, or PRE, is actually calculated by
multiplying the amount of molybdenum, chromium, and nickel by coefficients and then adding the values together.

8. Boron
As an alloying element, even small amounts of boron (0.001–0.003 %) can greatly increase hardenability.
However, boron-steel is not easy to find as it only makes up to 0.003% of the alloy steels.

SMELTING
Smelting is a form of extractive metallurgy to produce a metal from its ore. Smelting uses heat and a chemical
reducing agent to decompose the ore, driving off other elements as gasses or slag and leaving just the metal behind.
The reducing agent is commonly a source of carbon such as coke, charcoal, and coal.

REDUCTION
Reduction is the final, high-temperature step in smelting, in which the oxide becomes the elemental metal. A
reducing environment (often provided by carbon monoxide, made by incomplete combustion in an air-starved
furnace) pulls the final oxygen atoms from the raw metal. The required temperature varies over a very large range,
both in absolute terms and in terms of the melting point of the base metal

ANNEALING
Annealing is a heat treatment process used mostly to increase the ductility and reduce the hardness of a material. This
change in hardness and ductility is a result of the reduction of dislocations in the crystal structure of the material being annealed.
Annealing is often performed after a material has undergone a hardening or cold working process to prevent it from brittle failure
or to make it more formable for subsequent operations.

BENEFICIATION
Mineral beneficiation is a process by which valuable constituents of an ore are concentrated by means
of a physical separation process. As one of the initial steps of extractive metallurgy, the main purpose is to
prepare the ore prior to downstream purification processes. The most common mineral beneficiation
processes include: sample preparation, comminution, size classification, and concentration.

AGGLOMERATION
Agglomeration is the formation of aggregate by the sticking together of feed and/or recycle materials, and it
includes the formation of agglomerate nuclei. The main objective in agglomerating fines being the conversion of ores,
minerals and chemicals of undesirable fineness into agglomerates characterised by a size consistency desirable for
subsequent use or processing. In metallurgical applications, the unit process of balling aims at achieving highly
permeable large aggregates with a built-in ability to withstand large crushing forces. The latter can be achieved by
resorting to particular binder additions which confer structural integrity to the ball or pellet after a specified curing
period.