"fbffr 1{Aq q;T ~ ~ ~ qmft t atR 3TT\if

c6 ¥ ~err ~ cffi CfHi?l qft 1lTCAT 'PT 3TmR '4t

t I \iR ~ 3Rl qmuft ~ ~ \ifTfcr ~ Cflf<m
~t4S1dl3IT q;T ~ CfRCl ~ ~ q;T ~ wm
~~tl"

"Education is a liberating force, and in

our age it is also a democratising force,
cutting across the barriers of caste and
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances."

- Indira Gandhi
Ite~1Indira Gandhi MES-044
~ National Open University
School of Education Institutional
Management

Block

5
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
UNIT 16

Quality Control, Quality Assurance and Indicators ~ 5

UNIT 17

Tools of Management 31
UNIT 18

Strategies for Quality Improvement 75

UNIT 19

Role of Different Agencies 95

UNIT 20

Quality Concerns and Issues for Research 112

1
 -'
Expert Committee
Prof. Lokesh Koul Prof. S.L. Jena Prof. S.V.S. Choudhary
Prof. Emeritus (Education) Former Director Vice Chairman, NCTE
Himachal Pradesh University, State Council of Educational Delhi
Shimla, H.P. Research and Training (SCERT)
Ms. Poonam Bhushan
s Bhubaneshwar, Orissa
Prof. Snehaben Joshi Lecturer (Selection Grade)
Formerly with Deptt. of Dr. Nayan Tara Special Invitee
Educational Administration, Faculty, Public Systems SOE,IGNOU
Faculty of Education and Indian Institute of Management
Prof. Vibha Joshi
Psychology. M.S. University of 8angalore
SOE,IGNOU >;
8aroda, Vadodara,Gujarat
Prof. B. 8. Khanna
Prof. K. Sudharao SCHool of Management Studies
Senior Fellow IGNOU
Higher Education Unit
Prof. S.K. Panda
National University of
STRIDE, IGNOU
Educational Planning and
Administration (NUEPA) Prof.M.L. Koul
Aurobindo Marg Director, SOE, IGNOU
.
, New Delhi

Course Preparation Team

Course Contributors Unit Design and Editing Content Editing

Dr. M.M. Mohanty Prof. Vibha Joshi Prof. S.V.S. Chaudhary

Formerly with OPEPA SOE,IGNOU Vice-Chairperson, NCTE
Orissa . Delhi
Proof Reading
Dr.M.K. Dash Mr. Trilokes De
Programme Officer Consultant
DEEP,IGNOU SOE,IGNOU
Dr. Kanchan Bala
Executive Officer
NIOS, Noida, UP

Mr. Trilokes De
Consultant, SOE, IGNOU

Production
Prof. M.L. Koul Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam M. Sumathy Nair
Director Assistant Registrar (Pub.) S.O. (Pub.)
School of Education
October, 2009
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2009
ISBN-978-81-266-4377-6
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writingfrom the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-l l 0068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by
Director, School of Continuing Education, IGNOU.
Lasertypesetted at Graphic Printers, Mayur Vihar;Phase-I, Delhi-91.

Printed At :- Kalyan Enterprises ,215/5 Ambadker GaJi Moujpur,Delhi -53

1
 BLOCK 5 . TOTAL QUALITY
MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Quality management has three main components - quality control, quality assurance
and quality improvement. Quality management is focused not only on quality, but
also on the means to achieve quality and sustain total quality management is the
organisation-wide management of quality.It consists of planning, organising,directing,
controling and assuring quality. Total quality is called total because it consists of two
elements: quality of return to satisfy the needs of the stakeholders and quality of
products. The Block comprises 5 units. So let us discuss in briefly as follows:
Unit 16 deals with quality control, quality assurance and quality indicators.
Quality control is a process employed to ensure a certain level of quality in the
service or process. The basic goal of quality control is to ensure that the services or
·. processes provided meet specific requirements and are dependable satisfactorily,
and fiscally sound. The quality assurance is reactive, retrospective and policing,
and in many ways it is punitive. It often involves and determines as to who was at
fault or what went wrong.
Unit 17 deals with tools of management. Here we have discussed the categories
and quality of tools of management. Every tool that has been discussed here as
quality tools is not an all purpose tool. Every tool has some definite function in
collecting data required for some definite stages of problem solving process.
Unit 18 encompasses strategies for quality improvement. Quality improvement
is a formal approach to the analysis of performance and systematic efforts to improve
it. Quality improvement involves both prospective and retrospective strategies. It is
aimed at improvement measuring where you are, and figuring out ways to make
things better.It specifically attempts to avoid attributing blame, and to create systems
to prevent errors from happening. Quality improvement activities can be very helpful
in improving how things work. Trying to fmd where the 'defect' in the system is, and
figuring out new ways to do things can be challenging and fun. It is a great opportunity
to think the various strategies for quality improvement.
Unit 19 consists of role of different agenc.es. There are many agencies associated
with assessment and accreditation of eductional institutions and programmes of
studies at school education, higher education, professional educationand open and
distance education in the country and abroad. The role of these agencies in quality
context has been discussed.
The last unit i.e. 20 encompasses of Quality Concerns and Issues for Research.
In this unit we discuss on various aspects of research in educationalmanagement
and the issues related to improving quality of research in the filed of educational
management too. Further we elaborate the role and responsibilities ofinstitutions
acquaintance with research in the field of educational management.

1
MES-044 Institutional Management
Block-l Management of Curriculum

Unit-I Classroom Management (Instructional Management)

Unit-2 Curriculum lransaction

Unit-3 Management of Evaluation

Unit-4 Management of Academic Resources

Unit-S Management of Curricular & Co-curricular Programmes &

Activities

Block-2 Management of Financial Resources

Unit-6 Educational Finance: Meaning, Importance and ~cope

Unit-7 Cost and Budgeting

Unit-8 Accounting and Auditing

Unit-9 Resource Mobilization

Block- 3 Management of Human and Administrative Resources

Unit-lO Management of Student Support System

Unit-ll Management of Administrative Resources

Unit-I2 Management of Human Resources

Block-4 Management of Infrastructure

Unit-13 Concept, Importance and Need ofInfrastructure

Management

Unit-I4 Management of Physical Resources

"

Unit-I5 Utilisation of Infra-structural Resources

Block-5 Total Quality Management

Unit-16 Quality Control, Quality Assurance and Indicators

Unit-17 Tools of Management

Unit-18 Strategies for Quality Improvement

Unit-19 Role' of Different Agencies

Unit-20 Quality Concerns and Issues for Research

1
UNIT 16 QUALITY CONTROL, QUALITY
ASSURANCE AND INDICATORS
Structure

Introduction ~
16.1
16.2 Objectives
16.3 Understanding Quality
16.4 Criterion of Quality
16.5 Dimensions of Quality
16.6 Facets of Quality
16.7 Quality Control
16.8 Quality Assurance
16.9 Quality Indicators
16.9.1 Input Indicators
16.9.2 Process Indicators
16.9.3 Output Indicators
16.9.4 Quality vis-a-vis Accountability

16.10 Quality Gap

16.11 Total Quality Management

16.12 Quality Education

16.12.1 The Concept of Quality Education
16.12.2 Dimensions of Quality Education

16.13 Quality Education: Ideas of Quality Gurus

16.13.1 Edwards Deming's 14 Points
16.13.2 Key Points of Joseph Juran
16.13.3 Key Points of Phi lip B. Crosby
16.13.4 Downey's Quality Fit Framework

16.14 Let Us Sum Up

16.15 Unit End Activities

16.16 References

16.17 Answers to Check Your Progress

16.1 INTRODUCTION

The term quality is commonly used these days. At the same time, it is one of the
most difficult terms to understand properly. It is a perception of what one is looking
for in a service or product. Therefore, it varies from person to person, situation to
situation, service to service, context to context, institution to institution and so on.
For example, attaining cent percent pass percentage of class X students in a school
may be the quality parameter for the principal while for a mathematics teacher the
quality parameter may be that all the students must attain minimum first class in
secondary board examination. As we all know, the terms quality as well as its 5
• ~:~:" 0"

7
 Total Quality Management management have been borrowed from the corporate world. In today's era of
privatisation, liberalisation and globalisation education has been viewed more as an
investment and a power for economic and social development than a means for the
human development. Therefore our earlier belief that education is for acquring
knowledge has changed drastically, Today it is one of the prominent service sectors
which need effective, efficient and systemic management for preparing students
capable of facing challenges of emerging society. This is possible by providing
quality education to them. In this regard we all have been confronting with queries
like -
• What do we mean by quality education? -.
• How can we subdivide the term quality into different parts andeach part can
be measured independently in order to arrive at comprehensive meaning of the
term.
• How to minimise the difference between the producers' claim of service
standards vis-a-vis users' satisfaction levels?
.. There may be many more questions in your mind related to this aspect. The
emergence of quality councils/bodies for school education, higher education and
professional education at the national and international levels is the outcome of our
concern about quality education.
In this Unit we shall familiarise you with the common terms used in managing quality
in general and education in particular.

16.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
• explain the concept, and importance of quality in education;
• describe certain criteria of quality of education;
• explain the concept of quality control, quality assurance, and quality gaps;
• discuss quality control and quality assurance in the context of managing
educational institutions;
• enumerate common indicators of quality control and quality assurance in the
educational context;
• discuss the interrelationships between quality control and quality assurance;
and
• describe the ideas of the famous exponents of the TQ M and their implications
for quality education.

16.3 UNDERSTANDINGQUALITY
The term quality has been borrowed from industry. As you know, in the past the
functions attached to education and industry were distinct. Today there has been
amalgamation of functions as industry has replaced its values of hierarchy, power
and control by values of autonomy, cooperation and sharing of responsibilities-
values generally linked with the academic world. Similarly, educational organisations
have been adopting corporate patterns of organisation, including strategic planning,
delineation of responsibility and accountability. As a result educational organisations
have been using management concepts in their operations.
As quality management has become a necessary requirement in the corporate world
6 in national and international arenas, there have been many definitions of quality given

I
by theorists and management experts. Some of the widely accepted definitions of Quality Control,
quality are as follows: Quality Assurance and
Indicators
• Quality is a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability, at low cost and
suited to the market (Deming).
• Quality is a fitness for use (Juran).
• Quality is conformance to requirements (Crosby).
• Quality is the (minimum) loss imparted by a product to society from the time
the product is shipped (Taguchi).
• Quality is, in its essence, a way of managing the organisation (Feibygunbaum).
• Quality is correcting and preventing loss, not living with loss (Hoshin).
The above definitions reflect a common vision of quality. The universally accepted
definition of quality given by ISO is as follows:
Quality is the totality of characteristics of an entity that bears on its' ability
to satisfy stated and implied needs.

Though the above definition appears simple enough, it conveys a lot of meaning
about the requirement of quality. The second part of the sentence is crucial as it
emphasises the ability of the entity'to satisfy stated and implied needs of a customer.
An entity may be a process or a product of an organisation. Needs or requirements
may be stated in due form of a specification by the customer or they may be
understated by implied either by convention, customers' expectations or by statutory
requirements of a society. The implied needs are expected to be identified by the
supplier or the producer.
Quality in itself is et complex issue, therefore has different interpretations. They are
as follows:
• Absolute vs Relative
• Producer's vs Consumer's
• Product vs Service
Let us discuss each interpretation for our understanding.
Absolute vs relative quality: The absolute quality is an ideal state with which
there can be no change. Here th~ laid down standards are met to the perfection
level. They are valuable and convey prestige to the producer. The main features of
absolute quality are rarity, class and expense. Examples of this type could be seen in
the educational institutions like world famous universities/institutions like Cambridge
University,Oxford University in England, MIT, StanfordUniversity,Wharton Business
School in USA and AIIMS, IITs and IIMs in India. At the school levelalso many
schools attained these standards. The reason behind this is the claim linked to their
products or students are preferred admission in good institutions and injob markets,
they are absorbed by market/world of work with better placement stafus and salary. '
as
The word relative has different connotations. It signifies the quality not an attribute
of a product or service but something which is ascribed to it. This view says, quality
can be judged to exist when good or service need not be expensive and exclusive.
In educational institution's context, adequate infrastructure, relevant curriculum and
proper teaching services may all display quality if they meet pre-determined standards.
Here we all have been confronting with the basic problem that what kind of quality 7
, ~~ . _.. . ·t.<: '.'~.'~~;~

I
Total Qu~lity Management we would like to opt - absolute or relative in the context of our educational institutions?
There is no one solution to this issue. It depends both the institution and its' context.

Producer vs Consumer: In allthe transactions there are two partners. Similarly in

education service sector too there are the producer and the consumer. Both bear
different expectations. Therefore the relativity aspect has two sides. One denotes
the specifications listed by the producer and on the other requirements of the consumer
or costumers. Ideally there should be perfect matching but reality is different. The
first usage of measuring up to specification is often considered as fitness for purpose
or use. This is sometimes called producer's definition of quality. It is generally
equated to the pre-specified quality products or service quality over a period of
time by the producer. For example, the similar pattern of campus placement retained
by a professional institution over a period, say five years or more. Quality is also
demonstrated by the producer having a system, which enables the consistent
production of the outputs or services to a particular standard or specification. A
service or product quality is demonstrated so long it consistently meets its producer's
claim. This attribute of quality is also called as reliability. For example any senior
secondary school passout from Central Board of Secondary Education is of same
quality irrespective of the location, medium and type of school s/he attended. Similarly
HMs products claim to be similar irrespective ofthe HM they have studied. This
view of quality sometimes called quality in fact.

On the other side quality perceived by the users is equally important. According to
this view quality satisfies and exceeds customers' needs and demands, therefore it
is referred as quality in perception. Here customers are the main certifiers of
quality standards by comparing their perception scores over their expectations on
satisfaction. Now the question we have been grappling regarding this aspect is-
should we plan quality education as defined by the market or consumers or should
educational institutions have their own standards?

Product or service: Similarly we can also classify education as a product or a

service category. The distinction between a product and a service is predominantly
due to some basic differences between the two which have a bearing on.how their
quality can be assured. If education is seen as a production system with graduates
emerging out as the products, for quality assurance the input/raw materials or students
must pass through a standard set of processes and out put must meet defined
specifications. This model does not easily fit into education as it would need initial
screening of potential aspirants in order to have high quality raw materials. This
situation may be possible in some selected types of courses and institutions like TITs,
HMs; Public Schools, and s<?on. gut institutions meant for wider access and mass
education may not be able to follow the strict and selected parameters to have
quality input materials. For example, under Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan (SSA) all students
are admitted to primary schools irrespective of heterogeneity.

Seeing education as a service makes it imperative that education is mainly a service

than a product. Therefore, it is more important as to how an outcome is arrived at
than what the outcome is. Here quality of physical and human resources used and
the quality oftechnology and management utilised becomes more important in the .
production of the fmal output. Though it is difficult to measure the quality of service,
but ultimately it ends up in the manufacture of educational products. Thus quality of
educational service and product both are equally important while analysing the fmal
quality of education. The quality as expressed by Davis(2009) " Quality i::. an
important issue but it is not easy to deal with it. It is often subjected to o. .es
,. own interpretation. Hence countries should establish their quality a Id
8 accreditation norms before inviting foreign institutions".

I
 Quality Control,
16.4 'CRITERION OF QUALITY Quality Assurance and
Indicators
The explanation of the term quality from various aspects leads to certain criteria of
quality. Under quality of education these criteria are as follows:
• Education is both a product and a service. For analyzing the final quality of
education, both the quality of educational service and the product is important.
.-
• Quality of educational service or-product can be defined as that which satisfies
consumer's needs and requirement.
• Quality of educational service or product can be judged if they meet some pre- "
set criteria/specifications.
• Quality of educational service or product can be assured by its producer. So
long as the product or the service conforms to their manufacturer's specifications
and standards, they exhibit quality. Quality can be retained by regular monitoring
and subsequently improving the service or product.
Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end ofthis unit.
,
1) Define the concept of quality.

2) Write three main ways that can be used in interpreting the term quality.

3) Explain anyone criterion of quality.

16.5 / DIMENSIONS OF QUALITY

In the education sector also, perception of the stakeholders is the main deciding
factor of quality. You might have observed that parents want their wards to get
admission in the best school. Similarly all aspirants for medical education prefer
AIIMS as their first priority and similar is the case with other education courses as
well RS institutions. Thus, based on the stated and implied needs ofthe customer, the 9

7
 Total Quality Management product to be provided by the supplier has to have certain characteristcs and features
and ultimately it is the customers who determine whether or not quality has.been
achieved. Standards have, therefore, to be established specifying the characteristics
to be measured either by determinants or by subjective criteria or a combination of
both. The various dimensions of quality which the customer look for in a product in
order to satisfy their needs, determine the characteristics of the product. Some of
them are as given below: ~

• Performance

• Features

• Reliability

• Conformity

• Durability

• Serviceability
.. • Aesthetics

• Perceived quality

• Trrne

• Timeliness

• Completeness

• Courtesy

• Consistency

• Accessibility and Convenience

• Accuracy

• Responsiveness
You might feel most of these attributes are, important in the corporate sector where .
customers' demands with respect to products appearance, service, durability could
be anticipated and satisfactory services could be provided for quality. It is obvious
when we are dealing with machines or goods and already aware of the expected
service details, it is easier to control as well as assure quality products and/or services
to clients: In today's competitive world, where education is seen as a service sector,
for providing quality education to students these attributes must be ingrained in an
.educational institution.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with the one given at the end of this unit.
4) Write any five attributes of a product or service for managing quality.
...................................................................................................................

................................................. " .

...................................................................................................................
10
...................................................................................................................

I
 Quality Control,
16.6 FACETS OF QUALITY Quality Assurance and
Indicators
For the producer as well as the supplier of the product or service, in order to provide ,
quality product or services, it is mandatory to consider what constitutes quality. This
has been explained in detail in the earlier section. There are four facets of quality,
which cover most ofthe dimensions that are key points to product quality. The
facets are as follows: ' ~

• Need for the product: The first facet of quality is/due to the extent and
completeness of defining and updating the product needs to meet market places
requirements and opportunities.

• Product design: The second facet of quality is due to designing in to the

product the characteristic ( based on quality dimension) that enables it to meet
market place requirements and opportunities and to provide value to customers
and other stakeholders.

• Conformity to product design: The third facet of quality is due to maintaining

.. day to day consistency inconformity to product design and in providing the
design characteristic and values for customers and other stakeholders.

• Product support: The fourth facet of quality to furnishing product support

throughout the life cycle as needed, is to provide the design characteristic and
values for customers and other stakeholders.

Unlike quality planning and quality control processes quality improvement is the
means by which an organization selectively identifies, implements and changes on
the subsystems level. Quality planning and quality control establishe a stable/consistent
product quality •'culture", or foundation, throughout an organization. The third aspect
i.e., quality improvement provides managers the means to find and rectify the basic
quality -limiting causes embedded in the organisation.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.

b) Check your answer with the one given at the end ofthis unit.

5) List four facets for quality management.

..................................... , ; .

16.7 QUALITY CONTROL

It is an after-the-event process which is concerned with the detection and elimination

ofthe final products that are not of expected standard. Control is an activity which
lakes place after the process has occurred and is carried out by a third party and
usually not by the producer. It involves checking and monitoring. Testing and
inspection are the most common methods of quality control, and arewidely used in
education to determine whether standards are being met. In education, two methods
are used for quality control. They are as follows:

11

7
 Total Quality Management • National Education Testing (NET) is one of the ways to screen the product as
being used by UGC for the seleotion ofJRF's/ Lecturer's eligibiiity.
• Agencies like National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) under
the University Grants Commission and National Board ofAccreditation (NBA)
under the All India Council for Technical Education. NAAC is associated with
evaluation of higher education institutions and NBA assesses programmes for
. ~
professional courses.
The question is whether we are able to control the quality of education by adopting
measures developed by concerned accreditation and assessment bodies. This issue
needs further discussion.
Check Your Progress
Note : a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

.. 6) Write names of any two agencie-sassociated with quality in education .

16.8 QUALITY ASSURANCE

Quality assurance is different from quality control. It refers to activities or steps
under taken before and during the process of reaching the outputs/products. It is
proactive and anticipatory. Generally standards and procedures are clearly defined
in advance and the personnel are trained to be able to meet them. Its concern is to
prevent faults occurring in the first place. Quality is designed into the process to
attempt to ensure that the output is produced to a pre-set criteria/norms. In other
words, it is the systematic review of the educational programme to ensure that
acceptable standards of education are achieved. Quality standards are maintained
by following the procedures laid down in the quality assurance system (QAS). The
quality standards in education are associated with its input, process and output
variables. It includes proper infrastructural facilities, properly qualified and
professionally updated faculty, appropriate administrative support and facilitative
and efficient management. These aspects include quantitative as well as qualitative
aspects. You might be aware of the need for establishment of Internal Quality
Assurance Cell (IQAC) by universities and colleges for continuous qualityassessment
and academic audit as one ofthe recommendations of the UGC for higher education
institutions in the country. Now the main question is whether these cells really
functioning as per the expection and assuring quality of the institution.
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
7) Name some variables which influence quality education in an institution.

12

1
 Quality Control,
Quality Assurance and
Indicators

16.9 QUALITY INDICATORS

Generally,the mission and vision of any educational organisation is the development

of individual and society. The development in the proper direction is possible only if
education provided by the organisation is of relevance which is one major
components of quality. In this context if we think about providing quality education, '.
it becomes necessary to know what constitutes quality in education. In other words
what are the indicators/criteria of quality education and how can the quality be
assessed and improved? In the field of education, these indicators may be understood
in terms of all the three main variables i. e., input, output and process. Let us discuss
each variable in detail.
.. 16.9.1 Input Indicators
The input variables are nothing but the resources - physical, academic and financial,
employed by the institution to produce the products of good quality. Thus it is
necessary to count the inputs required for the efficient working of the education
system for realising the laid down objectives. These variables work as an important
indicator of the quality education. There are five types of input variables and are as
follows:
• Academic resources or teachers/faculty
• Administrative support
• Academic infrastructure
• Physical resources, and
• Financial resources
Let us dicuss each type for our understanding.
Academic resources: Teachers/faculty, students' curriculum,etc., constitute of
academic resources in an educational organisation. Teachers carry out the teaching-
learning process in classroom, supervise and assess student's progress, guide
research students, carry out the individual and group research projects, engage in
consultancy and extension services to the community, guide students and so on.
Teachers are important quality indicator as they are more or less responsible for the
enhancement or deterioration of quality of education.
To ensure this aspect, there is a need to attract, retain and motivate the best available
talent in the education system. For this input transparency in recruitment, proper
salary structure,adequate promotion channels, provision of professional growth,
recognition and due incentives to motivated, committed and creative teachers must
be ensured. You might have observed that at the school sector teachers devote a
considerable amount of time in carrying out activities not related to teaching, like
census and election duties and other administrative duties in the school as many
schools do not have provision for administrative staff. To ensure quality, provision
for in-service training participation in seminars/conferences/workshops along with
presentation and publication of research papers/articles injournals must be an integral
part ofteachers' responsibilities. l3

1
 Total Quality Management Student's quality is also equally important. The admission criteria should be objective,
transparent and ensure equal educational opportunities t~ all those interested in getting
education. Provision of remedial and enrichment learning opportunities to students
must be provided. Finally, the curriculum must be relevant, up- to- date. It must
foster creativity and imagination among students in order to facilitate their all round-
development. .

Administrative support: Next important input is the administrative system available

to the institution. Effective working ofthe administrative system is important for
good health of the school or college or any other educational institution. A good
administrative system could lead timely and appropriate decisions and can create
provisions for different types of facilities to the teachers, students, supporting staff
members and others. Improvement in quality administrative system depends on the,
following points:
• Timely framing of rules and regulations
• Assigning responsibilities to all staff members
.. • Providing academic infrastructure, like classrooms, laboratories, library,
computer and other facilities
• Registration and admission of students
• Examination and post -examination activities
• Distribution of salary and other financial! management related activities
• Providing technological support, like e-governance
• Providing physical facilities, like means of transport and, communication, water
and power supply, hostel and residential complex, etc.

The timely satisfaction of these requirements demands that the administrative staff
should be competent, efficient and also sensitive to the needs ofteachers and students.
In reality, it is not only the number of administrative staff members an educational
institution has but the onus of quality depends on the service rendered-by them in
realising the institution's objectives.

Academic infrastructure: Academic infi\structure of an educational institution is

the backbone without which effective teaching-learning is next to impossible. It
includes: .

• Classrooms with proper light and ventilation

• Availability of instructional aids
• Well equipped laboratories
• Library with easy access to its books,journals and e-resources
• Computer and internet facilities
Proper academic infrastructure directly influences the quality of instructional processes
which in turn affects the quality of educational output.

Physical resources: The crucial physical inputs for the smooth functioning of any
institution are as follows:
• Transport and communication
• Water and power supply
• Staff quarter and hostel facility
14

1
• Security and medical facility Quality Control,
Quality Assurance and
• Guest house and canteen facilities Indicators
'. Sports and cultural facilities
Financial resources: Any educational institution needs adequate funds for buildings,
libraries, laboratories, equipments, research, sports, cultpral activities, hostel and
other purposes. Payment of salaries to teachers, other staff members including casual
or daily wagers, guest/part -time/contract faculty members or teachers (if uses their
services). Besides, maintenance, extension and renovation activities require money.
These facilities also directly influence the work and teaching-learning environment
of the institution. As in India, most of the school level education are dependents on
government funding and same is the case with higher and professional education
institutions.

16.9.2 Process Indicators

This indicates the ways in which resources and factors are combined and used in
order to produce an institution's output. It is related with the operational and
management aspect of teaching, research and extension activities. Efficient working
'of the technological system also comes under it. The following points are to be
considered under this aspect: '
• Placel.venueofteaching-learning activities.
• Use/reference oflibrary books, journals and other resources( including e-
resources) by students and faculty both.
• Modes of student assessment - continuous, terminal, theory, practical, seminar
.and so on.
• Administrative support to faculty and students for quality learning.

16.9.3 Output Indicators

This aspect includes quantity as well as quality dimensions of products. Firstly, the
internal judgement of the output as assessed by the educational institution itself and
secondly,the external assessment of the output by the society (i.e., market economy).
First point denotes the internal efficiency of the system while the other to the external
efficiency or social relevance of the system. There are various kinds of output
indicators. Some of them are as follows:

• Number of pass outs

• Level of academic achievement
• The nature of skills and competencies attained by the students

• Research output
• Nature of institution-community interface
• Private and social rate of returns of education

16.9.4 Quality vis-a-vis Accountability

To assure quality we should assess the functioning, performance and standards of'
an institution. This has to be done keeping in mind its mission, goals and objectives.
This is known as test accountability of an institution.
I'"

.•. '" -. -.... --.,

7
Teal Quality Management In the simplest form, accountability means being answerable for one's action. The
main purpose of the system of accountability is to ensure minimum performance and
thus help in enhancing the quality of education. The accountability of any educational
institution can be discussed in term of academic, administrative, and financial matters.
However, there has been a debate on the manner in which the assessment of quality
vis-a-vis accountability is to be conducted-through internal mechanism (self
management) or by external agency (Powar, 2002).

Internal assessment (self-assessment)

Successful internal assessment presupposes that minds are open and receptive to
ideas. It requires the involvement of all major stakeholders including teachers,
students and management to get their feedback. Assessment of all the programmes
and work of all the individuals of the institution is mandatory. It may be conducted
on the following ways:

• Self -appraisal of teachers

• Self-appraisal of departments

Internal-appraisal ofthe teachers includes work of heads of departments and deans

of schools and internal review covers the work of main administrators like registrars,
controllers of examination, finance officers, and Vice-Chancellors in universities and
principals and vice-principals in schools and colleges. It also includes review of the
work of librarians, directors of academic staff college, college development council
and physical education and also reviews the work of engineers, wardens and doctors
of the institution.

External assessment (accreditation)

External assessment is a mechanism of quality control in the functioning of education.

The focus is more on the culture of compliance rather than one of continous quality
enhancement. Fund allocation to colleges and universities is generally based on the
recommendations on external assessment. Finally, it helps in the institutions in the
process of quality enhancement.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

8) Write the common variables placed under input variables .

....................................................................................................................

9) Mention any two types of output indicators in a school.

16

I
 Quality Control,
16.10 QUALITY GAP Quality Assurance and
Indicators
Quality gap is commonly used term to describe the difference between the pre-set
criteria for quality control and the actual quality output in a product, service or
process. In ideal situation there should not be any difference or gap but due to loss
in transmission of service there is gap between the expected quality and the 'Observed
quality. A survey conducted by UGC (2007) as quoted b~Kasetwar (2008) reveals
that:
• On almost all indicators i.e. faculty standards, library facilities, computer
availabilities, student -teacher ratio,and higher education are in crying need
for upgradation.
• 90 percent of the colleges and 68 percent universities across the country are
of middling or poor quality.
• The dropout rates among ST is maximum (61.5 percent) followed by SC (51.21
percent) and OBC (50.09 percent.
• There is only one computer for 229 students.
.. • Among 29.56 colleges only 10 percent made "A" grade, 66 percent were' B'
grade and t4 percent 'C' grade.
The above mentioned findings clearly show the need for improving the quality level
of the higher education in our country.

16.11 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)

Totalquality management is about creating a quality culture. It is about providing the
customers with what they want, when they want it and how they want'.In TQM, the
customer is in the focus of the quality. In the education context, students are the
qualityproduct instead of the school, or college or professional institution. It involves
moving with changing customer expectations and aspirations to design programmes!
courses of studies and providing learning experiences in the form of services which
meet and exceed their expectations. In education, the quality and relevance of the
courses are important. To understand TQM the following questions need to be
addressed: '
Are the courses of studies updated?
Are the existing subjects of studies still relevant to the society?
What new subjects of studies are in demand now and how can they are
provided?
Are the students and parents satisfied with the procedures of examination and
evaluation?
In TQM, the most powerful vehicle for ensuring quality relationship is the effective
team. It recognizes and respects the potential of every individual's autonomy as it
anticipates what is to be done to produce the best.
The success of any quality assurance initiative is greatly dependent on the managerial
factor. It is essential that the institutional management be totally committed to the
concept, be able to visualize future actions in their totality and design appropriate
procedures, You may like to know that the Japanese concept ofTQM is being
sought to be applied to educational institutions worldwide. TQM is a philosophy of
continous improvement - hence also known as continous quality improvement
(CQI) - which can provide educational institutions with appropriate tools to meet
the needs and expectations oftheir students and other stakeholders. It emphasizes
management by fact, improvement, change and continious innovation. 17

1
Total Quality Management Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.

b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
10) State the philosophy ofTQM.

16.12 QUALITY EDUCATION

There is a great deal of confusion about the precise connotation of the concept of
quality in education. This is because of the fact that three different expressions-
quality, standards, and efficiency - are being used in different context, sometimes
interchangeably. Considerations of quality of an education system sometimes involve
consideration of several independent variables like significance, relevance, capacity,
standards, and efficiency (Naik, 1975). With a variety of meanings and connotations,
quality is referred to by some authors as a 'slippery concept' (Pfeffer and Coote,
1991). The confusion associated with the meaning of quality is aptly described by
Pirsig(1974):
Quality ... you know what it is, yet you don't know what it is. But that's self-
contradictory. But some things are better than others, that is, they have more quality.
But when you try to say what the quality is, apart from the things that have it, it all
goes poof There is nothing to talk about it. But if you can't say what Quality is, how
do you know what it is, or how do you know that it even exists? If no one knows
what it is, then for all practical purposes, it doesn't exist at all. But for all practical
purposes it really does exist ... So round and round you go, spinning mental wheels
and nowhere finding any place to get traction. What the hell is Quality? What is it?
(p.l71)
Let us examine the connotation of quality in education in the context of the total
quality management (TQM).

16.12.1 The Concept of Quality Education

TQM which very often deals with the quality of industrial or business management,
quality of product or service, is ccncemed with customer's satisfaction. Customer's
satisfaction is dependent on his/her expectations and the performance of the product
or service whose quality is being assessed. The concept of quality may be examined
in relation to its relevance for education.
The American Society for Quality Control defines quality as the totality of features
and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated of
implied needs (Johnson & Winchell, 1990).According to (British Standard Institution,
1991)the quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service
that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
Quality can be quantified as:
Q= Where Q= Quality, P= Performance, and E = Expectations
If Q is greater than 1.0, then customer has a good feeling about the product or
service,

18 (Besterfield et a1.,2003)

I
 A more definitive statement about quality is given in ISO 9000: 2000. It has defined QualityCcntrel,
quality as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements. Quality Assurance and
Indicators
Degree means that the quality can be used with adjectives such as poor, good, and
excellent. Inherent is defined as existing in something, especially as a permanent
characteristics which can be quantitative or qualitative. Requirement is a need or
expectation that is stated; generally implied by the organization, its customers, and
other interested parties or obligatory (Besterfield et al., 20b3).
From the above explanation, four components of quality emerge:
L Quality is defined by the customer or stakeholder.
IL Quality is intricately connected with the needs and expectations of the
customers.
1lL Quality can have several dimensions of customer satisfaction - meeting,
exceeding, and delighting.
IV. Customers' needs and expectations change over time.
In education, there are various stakeholders, such as students, teachers, parents,
.. community members, administrators, etc. The students are the primary stakeholder
of any education system. Therefore, the quality of education is, to a large extent, tied
to the students' needs and expectations. If we reformulate Downey's (1991)
explanation, we can say that quality education should meet,exceed, and delight
learners' needs and expectations with the fact that these needs and desires will
change over time.

16.12.2 Dimensions of Quality Education

Quality may have several dimensions. Garvin (1988) lists as many as nine dimensions
of quality.Theyare performance, features, conformance, reliability,durability,service,
response, aesthetics, and reputation. A more comprehensive list of dimensions of
quality has been recommended by the American Society for Quality Control (see
Table 18.1).
Table 18.1 Dimensions of Quality
Dimensions Definition
Accuracy Correctness; freed from mistakes I
Aesthetics How a product or service looks or feels?
Assurance Teachers' and other employees; knowledge and ability to
convey trust.
Conformance Degree to which product or service matches established standards
(e.g., right the first time ).
Consistency How closely a product or service resembles those that precede
and follow; lack of variation and irregularity.
Durability Useful life of a product or service; how much usage it gives
before it deteriorates.
Empathy Caring, individual attention provided to customers.
Features Characteristics of products or services that add to their basic
functioning, such as user-friendly, induces-delight, or
exceeding customers' expectation.
Performance Primary operating characteristics of product or service such as
. on time, or error-free.
Precision Degree of refinement with which an operation is performed.
Reliability Dependability of performance over time.
Reputation Image and record of the organization.
Responsiveness Helping customers and providing prompt service.
Serviceability Speed and ease in resolution of problems and complaints. -
Tangibles Physical facilities, equipment,and appearance of people.
19
Source: Miller (1993)

7
Total Quality Management • Quality in Education
The dimensions of quality of education in the TQM framework broadly grouped
under three categories: product, software, and service. The specifications of these
dimensions can be applicable, with necessary modifications, to other levels of
education also.
Product is what is visible and tangible and is commonly understood as the parameter
to assess the quality of the education system. Table 18.2 depicts the six dimensions
to judge the quality of product in education.
Table 16.2: Product dimensions of quality in education

Dimensions Definition in education

Performance Primary knowledge / skills required for students
Features Secondary / supplementary knowledge and skills.
Reliability The extent to which knowledge/ skills learned is
correct, accurate, and up to date.
Conformance The degree to which an institutional programme /
course meets established standards, plans and promises.
Durability Depth of learning.
Serviceability How well an institution handles customers'
complaints?

Source: Owlia and Aspinwall (1996)

Now let us discuss software dimensions. Software is an intangible product and is
considered more consistent with education in general and education in particular.
For example, the dimensions of quality software used in engineering are as follows:
correctness, reliability, efficiency, integrity, usability, maintainability, testability,
expandability,portability,reusability,and interoperability(Watts, 1987).These quality
dimensions have been applied by Owlia and Aspinwall (1996) to higher education
(refer to Table 18.3).
Table 16.3: Software Dimensions of Quality in Education
Dimensions / Definitions in education
Correctness The extent to which a programme / course complies
with the specified requirements.
Reliability The degree to which knowledge / skills learned is
correct, accurate, and up to date.
Efficiency The extent to which knowledge / skills learned is
applicable to the future career of students.
In~egrity The extent to which personal information is secure
from unauthorized access.
Usability The ease of learning and the degree of
communicativeness in classroom.
Maintainability How well an institution handles customers'
complaints?
Testability How fair examinations represent a subject of study?
Expandability Flexibility
Portability, reusability, The degree fo which knowledge / skills learned is
and interoperability applicable to other fields.

Source: Owlia and Aspinwall (1996) -

Now, we shall discuss service related quality dimensions. Services, unlike products
or software, cannot be stored and are perishable. They are more akin to the
processes. In education, services essentially refer to the educational processes.
Parsuraman et al (1985) have proposed ten dimensions of services: reliability,
responsiveness, competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security,
20 understanding the customer,and tangibles. Owlia andAspinwall(1996) afterreviewing

.\

I
several literatures have made a comprehensive list of service dimensions of quality Quality Control,
higher education (Table16.4). Quality Assurance and
Indicators
Table 16.4: Service Dimensions of Quality in Education
Dimensions Definition in education
Reliability The degree to which education is correct, accurate and
up to date. How well an institution keeps its promises?
The degree of consistency in educational process.
Responsiveness Willingness and readiness of staff to help students,
Understanding Understanding students and their needs.
customers I

Access The extent to which staff are available for guidance

and advice.
Competence The theoretical and practical knowledge of staff as well
as other presentation skills.
Courtesy Emotive and positive attitude towards students.
Communication How well teachers and students communicate in the
classroom?
Credibility The degree oftrustworthiness of the institution.
Security Confidential ity of information.
Tangible State. sufficiency and availability of equipment and
facilities.
Performance Primary knowledge I skills required for students.
Completeness Supplementary knowledge and skills, use of
computers.
Flexibility The extent to which knowledge I skills learned is
applicable to other fields.
Redress How well an institution handles customers' complaints
and solves problems?

Source: Owlia and Aspinwall (J996)

After analyzing the three different approaches to quality in education, Owlia and
Aspinwall (1996) tried to present a conceptual framework for quality education
with six dimensions: tangibles, competence, attitude, content, delivery,and reliability
as presented in Table 18.5. These dimensions are indicative of the areas that should
be of concern to ensure quality in education.
Table 16.5 : Quality Dimensions in Education
Dimensions Characteristics
Tangibles Sufficient equipment I facilities; Modem equipment
Ifacilities; Ease of access; Visually appealing environment;
Support services.
Competence Sufficient( academ ic) staff; Theoretical -knowledge,
qualifications; Practical knowledge; Up to date; Teaching
expertise, communication.
.
Attitude Understanding students' needs; Willingness to help;
Availability for Guidance and advice.
Content Relevance of curriculum to the future jobs of students;
Effectiveness; Containing primary knowledge and skills;
Completeness, use of computers; Communication skills and
team working; Flexibility of knowledge, being cross
disciplinary.
Delivery Effective presentation; Sequencing, Timeliness; Consistency;
Fairness of examinations; Feedback from students;
Encouraging students.
Reliability Trustworthiness; Giving valid award; Keeping promises,
matching to the goals; Handling complaints, solving
problems.

Source: Owlia and Aspinwall (J996) 21

.""94fIE~

7
 Total Quality Management Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. What is quality education?

2. Mention the dimension of quality education according to Garvin.

.
,

16.13 QUALITY EDUCATION: IDEAS OF QUALITY

GURUS

Movement ofTQM was brought about and enriched by the ideas of a number of
thinkers in developed countries. The movement had its origin in the industrial .
management in the late 1940s which later flourished particularly in Japan. In its early :\
days, the movement originated and dominated by eminent experts of statisticalprocess
control. It was Walter A. Shewhart (1931) working at the Western Electric and Bell
Telephone Laboratories who developed control chart theory with control limits to
study variations in the performance of systems. He also developed the PDSA cycle
for learning and improvement (Refer Unit 17). But, W.Edwards Deming, a protege
ofShewhart, is considered as the father of the TQM movement. Other prominent
leaders in the movement are Joseph M.Juran, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Philip B.
Crosby, all from U.S.A. and Kaoru Ishikawa and Genichi Taguichi of Japan. But,
so far as total quality movement in education is concerned, the contributions ofW.
Edwards Deming, Joseph Juran, and Phillip B. Crosby are considered crucial.
Although all of them have concentrated on quality in industrial and manufacturing
sector, their contributions can also be applied to other sectors, including education.
Here, we have made brief presentation of their philosophies and tried to draw their
educational implications.

16.13.1 W. Edwards Deming's 14 Points

Dr. William Edwards Deming (1900-1993), regarded as the father of quality
movement, a statistician by profession started his career in the late 1920s at the
Western Electric Hawthorne Plant and later moved to US Department ofAgriculture
when he worked on Shewhart's statistical methods related to product variation and
product quality in industry.His expertise were used to develop qualityof war materials
during the Second World War. In 1Q50s he taught a group of Japanese scientists
and engineers on his beliefs about how to use statistical processes to control quality
of industrial products and manufacturing system. Deming's ideas are considered
crucial in rebuilding war devastated Japan's industry and economy and in Japan's
22 resurgence as an economic power in the world within a very short span of time. He

1
has authored a number of books including Out of the Crisis, and Quality, Quality Control,
Productivity, and Competitive Position and many scholarly articles. Quality Assurance and
Indicators
Deming's emphasis was on using statistical approaches to enhance quality of
production by reducing variation. He also developed concepts of management that
have a strong emphasis on employees. These are reflected in his famous book
"Fourteen Points of Management" (Deming,1982) His' M points of management'
with their implications in education are presented in the Table18.6.

Table 16.6: Deming's 14 Points and their Educational Implications.

Deming's 14 Points Educational Implication

1. Create constancy of Create constancy of purpose towards
purpose. the mission of the education system.
2. Adopt the philosophy. Use quality premises to focus the
management and leadership of the
education system.
3. Cease dependence on mass Cease dependence on summative
inspection. measures of students and staff.
4. Cease doing business on Develop long-lasting relationships with
price tag alone. suppliers and base dependence on
lowest cost in resources.
5. Continual improvement of Improve constantly and forever the
process. processes in the education system.
6. Institute training on the job. Provide staff development
opportunities to meet job expectations.
7. Institute leadership. Leaders must initiate and model
paradigm shifts.
8. Drive out fear; build trust. Remove those structures that
create fear in students and staff.
9. Break down barriers Work in interdependent ways- break
between departments. down barriers between groups m
schools and between schools and
district office.
10. Eliminate slogans, Eliminate the use of targets, slogans to
exhortations, and targets. encourage performance.
11. Eliminate numerical Work on the process and do not reward
quotas. staff based on student achievement i

gains.
12. Allow pride in Remove barriers that rob staff of pride
workmanship. in their work and students of the ability
to concentrate on the job of learning.
13. Institute a programme of Have everyone in the education system
Self-improvement. help in its ongoing transformation.
14. Mobilize all staff members, Empower all employees and other
teachers and other stake- stakeholders to transform the education
holders to transform the system.
system - do it.

Source: Downey et at (J 994)

23

7
 Total Quality Management Deming's four areas of profound knowledge
In 1991, Deming developed four interactive areas of profound knowledge which
are important for their direct implications for education. These are presented below
. .
ill avery concise manner:

Area ~ Description
Appreciation A system is a network er function within an
ofa system organization that works for the aim of the
organization. Management of the system
requires knowledge of the interrelationships
among all.of the components within the system
and of the people who work in it.
Knowlege of People are born with a natural desire to be
psychology creative and to acquire knowledge. Intrinsic, and
not extrinsic, motivators are crucial to the
workplace. Managers must understand
.
, psychology and people.
Knowledge of Optimization of the system and improvements in
variation productivity depend on an understanding of
variability in processes.
Theory of Managers must understand the work and make
Knowledge predictions regarding work. Study of these
predictions brings new knowledge.

16.13.2 Key points of Joseph Juran .

Joseph Moses Juran (1904-2008), all electrical engineer by profession, worked at
Western Electric from 1924 to 1941 where he was exposed to the concept of
Shewhart. Juran went to Japan in 1954 to teach quality management. He defined
quality as 'fitness for purpose'. According to him a product or service can meet its
specification and yet not be fit for its purpose. The specification may be faulty and
not meeting the needs and expectations of the customer. For bringing qualitative
improvement of product or service, Juran developed an approach having three
components: planning, control, and improvement, and referred to as the Juran
Trilogy (Besterfield et al, 2003). He pointed out that poor quality is the result of the
failure of the management. He was also of the opinion that 85 percent of the problems
in an organization is due to systems failure and the remaining 15 percent due to
individuals (Juran, 1989).

Juran (1974) recommends a ten-steps approach in quality improvement. They are

as follows:

1. Build awareness ofthe need and opportunity for improvement.

IL Set explicit goals for improvement.

m, Organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify problems, select
projects, appoint teams, designate facilitator).

IV. Provide appropriate training.

v. Carry out projects to solve problems.

VI. Report progress.

VIL Give recognition and reinforce success.

24 V1lL Communicate results.

1
 ,.
IX. Keep records of changes. Quality Control,
QualityAssurance and
x. Build an annual improvement cycle into all organizational processes. Indicators

16.13.3 Key Points of Philip B. Crosby

Philip Bayerd Crosby (1926-2001) is perhaps the most influential management.thinker
in the field of quality who contributed to management theory and quality management
practices. Crosby initiated the Zero Defects programme at the Martin Company
Flori@, plant. As the quality control manager ofthe 'pershing missile' programme,
Crosby was credited with a 25 percent reduction in the overall rejection rate and a
30 percent reduction in scrap costs. Later he started his own management consultant
company which offered courses in quality management. Crosby's response to the
quality crisis was the principle of "doing it right thefirst time" (DIRFT). He is
best known for his four absolutes of quality management (Crosby, 1984). They are:
• the definition of quality is conformance to requirements

• the system of quality is prevention

• the performance standard is zero defects

• the measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance

Crosby has given the list of 14 steps for quality management:

L Make it clear where management stands on quality.
n. Establish a quality improvement team to run the programme.
iii, Display nonperforrnance as a quality measurement.
lV. Use cost of quality as a management tool.
v. Raise the level of employees' quality awareness.
vi. Provide a systemic way of addressing problems.
vu. Prepare to launch a zero-defects program.
viii Define supervisors' training requirements.
IX. Conduct a "Zero-defects Day".
x. Encourage individuals and groups to set goals.
xt, Establish an "Error Cause Removal" reporting system.
xn. Appreciate and recognize those who participate.
xiii.. Bring together quality champions, and network in quality councils.

xiv. Do it over again.

16.13.4 Downey's Quality Fit Framework

Synthesizing the ideas of a number of quality experts, Downey (1992) identified 18
quality premises for designing a model that the educational institutions can use to
diagnosetheir specific needs prior to implementing total quality education programme.
This model called the Quality Fit Framework has been built around three leverage
points found in every work setting which were earlier conceptualized by Weisbord
(1987). The leverage points are: purpose, structure, and relationship. With the
25
----------

I
Total Quality Management expectation that these leverage points can turn anxiety into energy, Weisbord (1987)
states that:
• Purpose or mission is the business we are in. It "embodies future visions on
which security and meaning depend."
• Structure is defined as "who gets to do what" and this "affects self-esteem,
dignity, and learning," ~

• Relationships are defined as the "connections with eo-workers that let us feel
whole - require cooperation across lines of hierarchy, function, class, race and
gender." (p.258). '

The core premises within the three leverage points are interrelated and need be
integrated in a systematic way. The 18 premises grouped under the three leverage
points have been summarized in the box 16.1 given below. We shall discuss this
model in Section 18.5 of the unit 18.
Box 16.1

QUALITY FIT FRAMEWORK

Eighteen core premises of the Quality Fit Framework using three

leverage points - purpose, structure, and relationships.

Purpose: A quality system has four premises related to purpose:

1.Focuses on the customer.

2.Provides for a meaningful shared mission.
3.Has a sense of mission and constancy of purpose.
4.Believes in continuous improvement.

Structure: A quality system has seven premises related to structure:

5.Acts as a systemic organizational structure.

6. Focuses on optimization.
7.ls a rational organization.
8.Has an integrated webbed management structure.
9.Focuses on process.
10. Understands variation.
11. Uses a data orientation .
.•..
. Relationships: A quality system recognizes that organizations are
human endeavors and has seven premises related to relationships
or dynamics ..

12. Mobilizes the workers.

l3. Has collaboratively, cooperatively interdependent workers.
14. Has an organizational culture of shared values and beliefs.
15. Understands how people are motivated.
16. Recognizes that most failures are attributable to faults in
the system.
17. Provides for a community of learners.
18. Provides for constant communication and feedback.
'source: Downey, 1992

26

1
 Check Your Progress Quality Control,
Quality Assurance and
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers. Indicators
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
3. Mention the Juran ten-steps approach in quality improvement.
•••• ~ •••••••••• #I ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

4. Enumerate four absolutes of quality management of Crosby .

•••••• •••• ••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••.• ••••••••••• 0 •••• 0 •••••••••

, . \

\
16.14 LET US SUM UP
Quality is a commonly used expression but difficult to explain. There have been
common associated terms, like quality control, quality assurance and quality gaps.
The era of globalisation, privatisation and internationalisation of education is seen
more as an entity could be comparable to industrial system. The borrowing of values
of autonomy, cooperation and sharing of responsibilities from the education sector
by the corporate sector has also led education system to have corporate pattern of
organisation. Today educational institutions have been assessed and accreditated
on patterns similar to the corporate organisation. The term quality control denotes
the dos and don'ts in planning and implementation related activities which help in
delivering expected level of services in education system. The planning components
like infrastructural facilities, teachers, entrants (freshers), administrative and support
staff and teaching-learning materials are input variables. The process variables
include the expertise and articulation of teachers in teaching-learning, use of
instructional aids and nature of evaluation methodology used. Similarly number of
passouts, nature of achievement, placement, e.c ..are the output indicators. All the.
three variables are important in the attainment oftotal quality management (TQM)
in any educational institution. Similarly quality assurance could be equated to warranty
mentioned in any product. Quality control is concerned with the product, while
quality assurance is process-oriented.Similarly quality gap shows the difference
between the pre-determined standards set by the provider and the actual attainment
level of the output. Further, the concept of quality education and the ideas of important
quality gurus in quality education have been discussed in detail.

16.15 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1
L Conduct a brainstorming session with a group of college students on the topic-
need of quality control in Indian higher education. Prepare a report
highlighting the issues discussed in it.
According to you, what could be the main criteria of quality assurance in school
education in India. Give justification in support of your answer.
27
..•••••••;,""'J, .

1
 Total Quality Management
16.16 REFERENCES
Sambrani, Vinod N. (2009), Quality Assurance in Higher Education; The Role
ofNAAC, University news -A weekly journal of Higher Education, AID, 47(44),
Nov.-2-8, pp13-18.
Besterfield, D.H., Besterfield-Michna.C; Besterfield, GH., and Besterfield-Sacre,
M. (2003). Total quality management (3rd• ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
Crosby, P.B (1984). Quality without tears. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
Deming, W.E. (1982). Out ofthe crisis. Cambridge: MITPress.
Deming, W.E. (1991, March). A system ofprofound knowledge. Paper presented
at the Quality Seminar, Santa Clara, California.
Downey, C.J. (1992, September). Can the Lone Ranger join the dream team?
Quality Network News, AASA,Arlington, Vancouver.
·. Downey, C.J., Frase, L.E., and Peters J.J. (1994). The quality education
challenge. California: Corwin Press.

Miller, D. (1993, August). Total quality management and the curriculum audit
seminar. Paper presented at the National Academy of School Administrators
Workshop, American Association ofSchoulAdministrators, Gurnee, Illinois.
Naik, J.P.(1975). Equality, quality and quantity: The elusive triangle in Indian
education. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Owlia, M.S. andAspinwall, E.M. (1996). A framework for the dimension of quality
in higher education. Quality Assurance in Education, 4(2), 12-20.
Parasuraman, A, Zeithaml, Y.A. and Berry, L.L. (1985). A conceptual model of
service quality and its implications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 49,
Fall,41-50.
Pfeffer, N. and Coote, A (1991). Is quality good for you? A critical review of
quality assurance in the welfare services. London: Institute of Public Policy
Research.
Pirsig, R.M. (1974). Zen and the art of motor cycle maintenance. New York:
Vmtage.

Shewhart, W.A (1931). Economic control of quality of manufactured product.

New York: D. Van Nostrand,
Watts, R. A. (1987), Measuring software quality. Oxford: National Computing
Center.
Quality and Relevance in Higher Education- Special Issue, UniversityNews 46(46),
November 17 -23, 2008; AIU, New Delhi
Dhar, TN (Ed.) Modules on Quality Dimensions of Elementary Education Under
SSA, NCERT, Ne'.'! Delhi, 2006.
Dhar, B.B.(2001). Quality and Accreditation Complementary to Each Other,
University News, 39(36) September 3-9,2001.
Thorat, S. (2006). Higher Education in India Emerging Issues Related to Access,
Inclusiveness and Quality.Nehru Memorial Lecture, University ofMl_L'!lbai,2002
28

I
Power, K.B. (2002). Indian Higher Education, Concept Publishing House, New Quality Control,
Dehli,2002. Quality Assu ranee and
Indicators
Kasetwar R.B.(2008). A Qualitative Role of Business Communication in Quality of
Higher Education. University News, Vol. 46(41). October, 13-19.

Glyn Davis, VC, University of Melbourne, Australia - Times of India, 21.09.2009)

~
16.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Ref. section 16.3

2) a) Absolute Vs Relative
b) Procedures Vs Consumer
c) Product Vs Service
3) The criteria are:
• Education is both a product and service. For analyzing the final quality of
education, both the quality of educational service and the product is
important.

• Quality of educational service or product can be defined as that which

satisfies consumer's needs and requirement.
• Quality of educational service or product can be judged if they meet some
pre-set criteria/specifications.
• Quality of educational service or product can be assured by its producers.
So long as product or the service conforms to their manufacturer's
specifications and standards, they exhibit quality. Quality can be retained
by regular monitoring and subsequently improving the service or product.
4) Any five among the following

• Performance

• Features

• Reliability

• Conformity

• Durability

• Serviceability

• Aesthetics

• Perceived quality

• Tune

• TImeliness

• Completeness

• Courtesy

• Consistency

• Accessibility and Convenience

• Accuracy

• Responsiveness

29

I
 , Total Quality~anagement 5) The facets are :'
• Need for the product: The first facet of quality is due to the extent and
completeness of defining and updating the product needs to meet market
places requirements and opportunities.
• Product design: The second facet-of quality is due to designing in to the
product the charaeteristic ( based on quality dimension) that enables it to
meet market place requirements and opportunities and to provide value
to customers and other stakeholders.
•
• Conformityto product design: The third facet of qualityisdue to maintainirig
day to day consistency inconformity to product design and in providing
the design characteristic and values for customers and other stakeholders.
• Product support: It is due to furnishing product support throughout the life
cycle as needed, to provide the design characteristic and values for
customers and other stakeholders.
'6) NAAC, NBA
.
,
7) Ref. Section 16.7
8) Academic resources; administrative support; academic infrastructure; physical
resources; financial resources.
9) Number of students pass, level of academic achievement; the nature of skills &
competencies attained by students;
10) TQM is about creating a quality culture in an organisation. In a college, the
services and facilities provided to the college students are in tune with their
I

needs and demands, shows the institution has created a qualityculture. Summing
up of the output of these services and facilities with provide the TQM level of
that college.
11.. Ref. section 16.3
12. Quality may have several dimensions. Garvin listed nine dimensions of quality.
They are -Performance, Features, Conformance, Reliability,Durability, Service,
response, aesthetics & reputation.
13. Juran 1974, recommends a ten steps approach in quality improvement. These
are as follows:
L' Build awareness ofthe need and opportunity for improvement.
n. Set explicit goals for improvement.
lll. Organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify problems
select projects, appoint teams, designate facilitator).
IV. Provide appropriate training.
v. Carry out projects to solve problems.
VI. Report progress.
Vll. Give recognition and reinforce success.
Vlll. Communicate results.
IX. Keep records of changes.
x. Build an annual improvement cycle into all organizational processes.
14. a) The definition of quality is conformance to requirement.
b) The system of quality is prevention.
c) The performance standard.
30
d) The measurement of quality is the price of non-conformance.

I
UNIT 17 TOOLS OF MANAGEMENT
Structure
17.1. Introduction

17.2 Objectives
17.3 Categories of Tools of Management
17.4 Quality Group Process Tools
17.4.1 Brainstorming
17.4.2 Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
17.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

17.5 Seven Basic Quality Tools

17.5.1 Histogram
17.5.2 Pareto Chart
17.5.3 Scatter Diagram
17.5.4 Trend/Run Chart
17.5.5 Control Chart
17.5.6 Cause and Effect Diagram
17.5.7 Flow Chart

17.6 Pre-planningTools
17.6.1 Affinity Diagram
17.6.2 Tree Diagram
17.6.3 Matrices
17.6.4 Interrelationship Digraphs
17.6.5 RaderlSpider Chart
17.6.6 Force Field Diagram
17.6.7 Benchmarking

17.7 Integrative Quality Tools

17.7.1 Action Planning
17.7.2 Activity Diagrams
17.7.3 Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle
17.7.4 Hoshin Planning

17.8 Let Us Sum Up

17.9 Unit End Activities
17.10 References

17.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

17.1 INTRODUCATION
Total quality education (TQ E) differs from other educational improvement efforts in
three broad aspects:
• Quality is seen mainly in terms of customer's satisfaction - meeting and exceeding
ever-changing needs and expectations of the customer, basically the learner.
• (TQE) aims at improvement in totality of each and every individual and systems!
institutions.
31

I
Total Quality Management • TQ E is neither one time nor a recurring process. It aims at continuous quality
improvement (CQI).
Further, learning which the centrality of all TQE efforts, is non-linear and extremely
complex. Since, every learner has unique way oflearning, it is difficult to monitor
the learning progress of all learners, even within a grade, using one or a few tools
and techniques using them a~a particular time of an academic year as is the present
practice in nearly all educational institutions.
TQE recognizes the importance ofvariances existing in all aspects - processes,
customers and systems - of education. Reduction of these variances increases the
quality of education. Variances arise out of two basic causes - the common and the
special. Common causes like lack of feedback, unclear priorities, insufficient training,
overextended or outdated procedures create comparatively small random variances
and are likely to recur time and again. Because they arise out 0!minor systemic
errors, they can easily be monitored and controlled using quality tools. On the other
hand special causes like faulty procedures, failure to follow procedures, inaccurate
inputs, or reluctance to change create variances which are unexpected and are difficult
to accept. Such wide variances almost always result in major overhauls or changes
in the system. Reduction ofthese variances requires continuous as well as timely
identification and control of the causes of the variances.
For all these considerations, there is the need for large number of tools and techniques
to be made available to the practitioners associated with the effective management
of ensuring TQE.

17.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should able to :

• describe various categories of tools and techniques used in the total quality
management of education.
• discuss tools ofTQM, the process of their construction and educational uses.

17.3 CATEGORIES OF TOOLS OF MANAGEMENT

In the management of education, as in other spheres oflife, we are confronted with
problems which need to be solved within a stipulated period. For ensuring quality
education, the process of problem solution, among other requirements, need to be
efficient. To be efficient, the process need to focus on the specifically identified
problem components, develop and employ strategies that exactly fit to the focused
problem components, and should not eng~ge in wasteful efforts both in terms of
time and resources. Therefore, when you are confronted with a problem working in
any sphere of education, you need quite a large body of information or data at every
stage ofthe problem solution.
Consider, for example, while working in a District Education Office, you observe
that quite a large number of girls in rural areas of the district are staying out of the
school or dropping out of the school prematurely before completing their schooling.
In order to bring back all the school age girls of your district to the school and retain
them till their successful completion of the school education, you need to have several
information at your disposal for identification of the locality or community specific
reasons of non-enrolment and drop-outs, planning strategies for their enrolment,
identification ofthe status ofleaming of drop-out trying-out and finalizingthe strategies,
32 implementing and evaluating the strategies in solving the problems. You may also

1
need to know whether the school environment and classroom climate/practices are Tools of Management
congenial for the girls or not, the resourcefulness of teachers and the availability of
community and official support in the district. Besides, you need to help the teachers
in monitoring the learning progress of the enrolled girls regularly so as to enable them
to provide remedial/enrichment programmes for ensuring quality education. While
you actuallyget intothe plarmingfor the problem solution,implementing and evaluating
the strategies, you will surely experience the need for information/data on several
other areas than those listed here. Now, the question is how to collect these data.
Just think for a moment. How many tools and techniques are immediately available
to you at present? Perhaps one or two or none. While we are engaged in the TQ E,
we need a number of quality tools to gather data on all possible dimensions of the
problem that we shall be encountering at different times. Use of tools that help
quantify or provide information is a key element in process improvement. We in the
school system very often rely on our intuitions than being empirical in our thinking.
But accurate data help us to determine how well we are meeting our customer's
requirements, Setting goals and then measuring that target are important indicators
for improvement. Good use of tools tracks the use of resources and how efficiently
they are used. In brief the journey of continuous quality improvement is always data
driven (Downey,Frase, & Peters, 1994).
Latta and Downey (1994) group the tools for TQ M into four categories:
• Quality group process tools (4nos.),
• Basic quality tools(7nos.),
• Tools used prior to planning and management(7), and
• Integrative quality tools (4).
These tools, as any other tools, are mainly used for gathering information or data for
solving or in developing strategies for solving the problem we are confronted with.
Problem solving processes involve six important phases so far as utility of the tools
are concerned, they are:
• Problem identification,
• Problem analysis,
• Establish objectiveslTargets,
• Examine solution Strategies,

• Implement action Plans, and

• Evaluate and revise the strategies based on feedbacks.
Every tool that has been listed here as quality tool is not an all purpose tool. Every
tool has some definite function in collecting data required for some definite stages of
problem solving process as specified above and has been summarised in the following
figure.

33

1
 lbtal Quality ~fanagement
Problem Solving Process
Quality Improvement
Problem Problem Establish Examines Implements Evaluate
-
Tools and Techniques Identification Analysis Objectives Solution Action and
Strategies Plans Revise
based on
Feedback
Group Brainstorming X X X
Process
Nominal Group X X ~ X
Technioue ~,

Focus Group X X X X
Discussion
Basic Histograms X X X
Quality
Tools Pareto Charts X X X
Scatter X X . X
Dlazrams
Run Charts X X X
Cause and Effect X X X X
Diaarams
Flowcharts X X X X X
Prelude to Affinity X X
Planning Diagrams
and Tree Diagrams X X
"
Manage-
ment Matrices X X
Interrelationship X X X
Radar Diagrams X X X X
Force-Field X X X X
Analvsis
Benchmarking X X X X X
Integrative Action Planning X X X X X X
Quality Activity
Tools X X X X X X
Network I

Plan-Do-Check- X X X X X X
Act Cvcle
Hoshin Planning X X X X X X

Fig.17.1: Quality Tools: Their Use and Relativity to the Problem Solving Process
(Source: Latta and Downey, 1994, p. 10).

17.4 QUALITY GROUP PROCESS TOOLS

We are familiar with individual and group tests depending on the type of administration
of pre-structured test or the tool. But participation of members of a group in attempting
problem solution is quite a different technique altogether. These tools insist on group
processes of offering free flowing creative ideas. Every one in the group can,
without any hindrance, participate in the process which is little structured and the
solutions arrived at may not be anticipated. In addition, working in groups, the
tools help to :
• Engage the participating members in assuming ownership of the problem solving
process and the problem solution emerging out ofthe group process.
• Create a learning situation where each member of the group learns why, where,
when, and how to use quality tools.

• Demonstrate how educators may adapt a tool or process to make it work

specifically in educational settings.

• Change suspicions that shroud the use of data and quantitative analysis to
confidence in using applications that are appropriate.
In brief, group process tools or techniques provide the value-added component
34 necessary for the quality tools to be substantive use in education.

-
I
Three quality group process tools described here ate brainstorming, nominal group Tools of Management
technique and focus group discussion.

17.4.1 Brainstorming
Linus Pauling once said, "If you want great ideas, you need to have lots of ideas."
Brainstorming is the most popular technique for producing lots of ideas. I~ is an
idea-generation technique to generate a list of ideas through group participation for
the solution of a problem in a risk-free environment. The meth&i was firstpopularized
in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osbome through his book entitled Applied
Imagination in which he speculated that groups could double their creative output
with brainstorming (Osbome, 1963). .•
The basic rules :Osbome (1963) states four basic rules of the brainstorming intended
to reduce social inhibitions among group members stimulate idea generation and
increase overall creativity of the group. These rules are:
• Focus on quantity: This rule is intended for encouraging divergent production
based on the belief that quantity breeds quality. The assumption is that the
greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a
radical and effective solution.
• Withhold criticism: During the stage of idea generation, criticism of generated
ideas should not be allowed. Instead, participants should focus on extending or
adding to ideas reserving criticism for a later' critical stage' of the process. By
suspendingjudgments, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas.
• Welcome unusual ideas: Unusual ideas open up new vistas of thinking and
are sparks of creativity which need to be encouraged. These are generated by
looking the problem situation from a completely different perspective. These
new ways of thinking may provide better solutions.
• Combine and improve ideas: Several good ideas may be combined to
form a single good idea. It is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a
process of association.
The process: Ideally, the brainstorming session should be broken into two parts:
the first for idea generation and the second for evaluation.
The following steps are usually followed for idea generation during brainstorming:
L Starting with a warm-up exercise especially l en the group is novice, doesn't
brainstorm frequently or when the group seems to be distracted by some other
issues. This is essential to expose or bring back the group to the criticism-free
environment. Word games, puzzles or humor may also be used at this stage to
create a relaxed, free and enjoyable atmosphere. A simple problem is usually
brainstormed as a part of the warm-up exercise, for example, How to keep
our classroom clean and beautiful?

Jl. Setting the problem: Before a brainstorming session, it is critical to define the
problem. State or write the topic clearly at the top of a flip chart or board. The
problem or topic-must be clear, not too big, and preferably in a question form
such as "How to improve quality of learning in the school?"
• Presents the problem and give further explanations if needed.
• Establish a time limit for the process.
35

I
 \ T~~)~ality Management • Explain-the rules of the brainstorming to participants. Ask and seek
questions to clarify the rules. Obtain agreement/consensus on the rules to
be followed.
m. Asking the brainstorming group for their ideas. The following points need to
be kept in mind:
• Every one is encouraged to participate, either with original ideas or
"piggybacking" (adding on to) other participant's input.
• All ideas are good; evaluatinglcritiquinglcriticizing of ideas at the time of
idea generation should not be allowed.
• A large number of ideas should be generated. Focus initially on quantity,
not quality of ideas.
• All ideas presented are recorded in a text large enough for everyone to
see. These are written on tIie white board or large sheet of paper serially:
This will help to motivate participants and tojump back and forth between
ideas without loosing track of the main problem ..
.
,
• . Participants may offer more than one idea at a time. Motivate/encourage
. participants to say anything, no matter how wild or "far out" they may
seem.
,
IV. After all ideas are generated, the participants may clarify ideas as needed.
v. Organizing the ideas into categories, identify additional categories to include,
and add within each category.
After the ideas are generated, the group then evaluates the ideas and select one idea
or a category of ideas as the solution to the proposed problem.
• The solution should not require resources or skills that the members of the
. group do not have or cannot acquire.
• If acquiring additional resources or skills is necessary, that should constitute
the first part of the problem.
• The solution must specify the way to measure progress and success.
• The steps to carry out the solution must be clear stated.
At no stage ofthe brainstorming process, managers should remain present in the
room otherwise it may inhibit the free flow of ideas.
Educational uses: Brainstorming has all the potentials of generating ideas for
bringing about continuous development of educational systems and processes at all
levels. Some examples of the educational problems require brainstorming for
generating solutions are:

• What is the method of recruiting effective teachers for the elementary schools
ofthe state?
9 How to ensure regular attendance of all enrolled children in schools?
• Strategies for enhancing community involvement in school activities.
• Ways of improving quality ofleaming achievement of students.
Brainstorming is a good technique for building comprehensive strategies for most of
36
i

I
the educational problems on a continuous basis. But this falls short of the requirements Tools of Management .
of a tool of evaluation. It is difficult to attempt quantification of variables in the
search for problem solutions. In spite of these limitations its capabilities for generating
ideas marked by number and novelty are valuable to the process of Continuous
Quality Improvement.

17.4.2 Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

The NGT is a tool to bring a team in conflict to consensus on relative importance of
issues, problems or solutions by completing individual importance ranking into a
team's final priorities. It is widely used as a tool for decision making and planning by
allowing a group to achieve consensus and prioritises issues. It can be seen as a
more formalised or structured version of brainstorming or focused group discussion,
as itretainsthe group consensus building process while harnessing a range ofindividual
views. The nomenclature "nominal group" relates to the fact that it is a group in
name only, as the views of each individual participant are collected individually.
The basic rules: The following are the basic rules of NGT

• Individuals within the group: When using this technique, the participants
assemble in groups, but for all practical purposes they cannot interact with
each other.The individual opinion is encouraged on the issue and the consensus
is sought later.
• No dominance by individuals: There is very little scope of verbal interaction.
Therefore, no individual, however powerful speaker he/she is, cannot dominate
the proceedings.
• Participation by each participant: Each ofthe participants has to actively
contribute to the proceedings. No one can remain passive or can escape from
doing any activity conducted in the NGT.
• Prioritisation of outcomes: Not just listing the possible solutions, but to arrange
them in order of priority considering their importance and viability is given more
importance in the NGT.
The Process

As a matter of routine the following steps are followed in the NGT:

L Introduction and explanation: The session starts with a warm welcome to
the participants and followed by stating the task or the problem, the purpose
and the procedure of the meeting. The statement of the problem should be
displayed prominently either writing on a board or on a flipchart. The statement
should be unambiguous and clear for understanding.
it) Silent generation of ideas: The participants are allowed 5 to 15 minutes of
silence to think on the problem and write down all ideas that come to mind on
the problem on a sheet of paper provided to each of them. During this period
the participants are not allowed to consult or discuss or share their ideas with
others.
iii) Sharing ideas: The participants are invited to share the ideas they have
generated. Each member states one idea at a time. The facilitator records all
the ideas advanced by the participants on a flipchart. This process continues
when the participants have exhausted all their ideas. There is no debate or
discussion about the items at this stage. Any new idea generated by the
participants during:this process is also indllrfen in the )j<:t. Th~ T'1"~t'~.,.."'J}'i'~'?";?<'

/
. Total Quality Management near equal contribution from all the participants. .This stage may take 15 - 30
minutes.

iv) Group discussion: When all suggestions are written, the participant may offer
verbal explanation or further details on the item s/he has suggested when others
seek any clarification on it It must be ensured that each person gets chance to
contribute without spending too much time on any single item. It is important to
ensurethat the process remains as neutral as possible, avoiding any judgment
or criticism. If the group decides, it may suggest new ideas for discussion.
Duplicate items may be eliminated at this stage only if the originator of the idea
agrees. This stage lasts about 30-45 minutes.
v) Prioritizing the ideas: Having clarified and eliminated duplication, individuals
are asked to prioritize the recorded ideas in relation to the original problem.
Following suitable process of voting and ranking the items are arranged in the
form of a sequence in order of relative importance decided on the process of'
ranking. At the end each participant has a list of probable strategies/solutions
to the problem arranged in order of importance for their immediate use.
Educational uses of NGT:
The NGT is used in all situations where brainstorming or other group techniques are
employed. It has two distinct advantages over other participatory group techniques:
First, it ensures equal participation of all the members of the group without exception.
In other situations some feel reluctant to give their opinions or ideas for fear of being
criticised or not to create any disturbance. But in NGT because of scrupulous
avoidance of any value judgment of participants' ideas, every bodyfeelsfree to
participate. Again in participation, it has clear advantage in minimising the differences
and ensuring relatively equal participation. Second, not only it helps in generating
large number of ideas as in other group techniques, but the additional advantage is
due to its emphasis on producing a list of ideas/strategies/solutions arranged
consensually in order of importance. This helps the user for immediate selection of
. strategy suitable for his/her purpose. Other advantages include its emphasis on
optimum use of time.
Major criticism against the NGT is its lack of sufficient flexibility and to a large
extent encouraging consensus and conformity. In spite of best efforts, sometimes,
opinions may not converge in the voting. There is no spontaneity involved with this
method and very often cross fertilization of ideas may be constrained and hence the
process may sometimes appear to be mechanical.

17.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

In order to probe, for example, the consistent high rate of drop outs in the schools
of a particular cluster in a district, the district authorities constituted a small group
consisting of two teachers, three parents at least two of them had children who were
drop outs, one panchayat member of the area, two members chosen from the
school committees of two schools to probe into the phenomenon. Through in depth
discussion on their experience on the phenomenon of drop outs, the group came out
with a list of reasons and the strategy to check the drop outs to the school. This is a
typical case of focus group discussion.
Afocus group constituted of a few "selected people from among the different
categories of stakeholders of education is given the responsibilities of focusing en a
specific problem of education which is experienced by them. It is call ea a 1.. cus
group for two reasons: choice of participants are confmed to the stakeho' .ers or
38

I
 those who are involved in different capacities with the problem under study and Tools of Management
second, the group only concentrate on the required aspect(s) of a problem at a
time.
The basic rules: Thefollowing two are the basic rules offocus group discussion:
• The size ofthe group: The size must be just right to be able to share their
ideas but large enough to provide diversity of stakehold~rs. Approximately 6 -
12participants guided by a facilitator form the group. However, the number of
participants will depend on the objectives of the study (Stewart, 1990).
-. Spontaneity and freedom: Once the question is posed before the group in
an interactive setting, the participants are free to talk among each other focusing
on the problem. Spontaneous participation is the key to a successful focus
group discussion (FGD).
The process: The process followed in the conduct of afocus group discussion
is a follows:
~ Determine the purpose: Identify a problem within the educational system.
Spellout the detailed dimensions of the problem with the help of situationanalysis.
This is required because the problem is usually qualitative in nature and will
require a great deal of further clarification.
it) Constitute the group: Select the required number of members from among
the different categories of functionaries/stakeholders of education associated
with the problem so that it becomes a cross-functional group.
ill) Prepare the tools for FGD: Design the data collection instruments like
questionnaire, discussion guides etc.
iv) Conduct the session: One of the group members act as a 'facilitator' or
'moderator' and another should act as a 'recorder'. The major functions of the
facilitator are to introduce the session, encourage discussion and involvement
build rapport and empathise, control the rhythm of the discussion without being
obtrusive. At the end of the session, the facilitator summarises the deliberations
.and check for the agreements among the participants.
v) Process and analyse the results: After conducting several sessions of with the
same or different groups on the problem in focus, the facilitator aridthe recorder
sit together, analyse the results using suitable techniques of qualitative analysis
and draw conclusions.
VI) Develop and submit report: Draft and submit a report documenting how the
group met its mandate and came out with the solution( s).
Educational uses of FGD:
FGD can be an useful tool in evolving innovative or creative solutions to various
challenges faced by the education system at its different levels. Some examples of
such challenges are:
• Developing strategies for improving quality education in a district, cluster or in
the school.

• Problems in management of activity-based classrooms.

• Strategies for developing greater responsibilities of students for their own
learning.
39

I
Total Quality Management Like other qualitative methods, focus groups give insights into not just what "
participants think, but also why they think so. It can reveal consensus and dive~
of participants' needs; experiences, preferences, and assumptions. Group interaction
allows participants to build on each other's ideas and comments to provide an in-
depth view not attainable from individual questioning. Unexpected comments in the
form of new perspectives can be explored with ease.
Typical small size groups may ~ot be-representative in FGD.1t can generate a large
amount of data that is often difficult to analyse the information collected may be
more likely biased by subjective interpretations. More outspoken individuals can
dominate the discussions and the view points ofless assertive persons are often
difficult to assess. The interpretations are more dependent on the skill of the facilitator.
Again, too much moderator control means you hear very little of the participants'
own perspectives and too little moderator control means you hear less about the
topic that interests you.
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. State the three qualities of group process tools.

2. What are the educational uses of brainstorming?

17.5 SEVEN BASIC QUALITY TOOLS

In the three group processes described in the Section 17.4 the participants very
often need quantitative data apart from the qualitative information they receive or
provide concerning the problem they are dealing with. Following basic tools which
are in the form of a graphs or diagrams help the users to have a quick estimate of
different aspects of the data relative to the problem under consideration. These
seven tool are: histograms, pareto charts, scatter diagrams, trend/run charts, control
chart, cause-and-effect Diagrams and Flow Charts. These are also called statistical
process control (SPC) tools. Let us discuss each tool in brief.

17.5.1 Histogram
The management of a particular school wanted to know the picture of students
abstaining from the school last week. The principal ofthe school found that on the
working days during the last week the number of students who remained absent
were as follows: Monday- 12, Tuesday-I 5, Wednesday- 27, Thursday- 22, Friday-
14, and Saturday- 16. The data are presented graphically. This type of graph is
40 called histogram. -

I
 o

From this histogram we can get answers to several questions like" On which day Tools of Management .
maximum/minimum number of students were absent?", "On which days the pattern
of absentees were nearly same?"

The answers can be visualised with ease.

Absentees in a Week
III
~ 30,....-----
t:
CD
25 .
20 .
III
.c 15 o

et 10
.•..
o 5-
o 0 +,~~_4~----~----~~--+-~--+_~~
Z
.<"v"," .
~o<::'- ,,"
0<::'-'"
.. ~e;

Days of The Week . ~

Fig.17.2: Histogram of Absentees in Week

A histogram is a combination of series of columns showing the frequency distribution

of data( No. of absentees in the above example) collected on a given variable(
working days of the week). The height 'of each column displays the frequency of
o .
data (number).

Process of construction of a histogram: You can follow a systematic may to

construct a histogram.

L Collect the data and arrange them in a dichotomy of independent and dependent
variables (like days in a week -no. of absentees, months- amount of rainfall,
Different scores- no. of students obtaining each of the scores, group,s or class •
iriterval of marks- no. of students securing marks falling within each class interval).

IL Divide the x-axis (the horizontal line indicating the axis) into munber of classes.
(depending upon the no. of categories in the independent variable, like no. of
days, months, scores ,or class intervals) of equal width which becomes the
base of the column.

111. Complete the column (or, rectangle) with width ofthe class interval and the
respective accumulation of data (or, frequency)

o iv. . Totality of columns is the histogram sho~g summarised results. \

Educational uses: Because of the ease of its construction and comprehension, it

is widely used in different spheres and so also in education. At every level of
educational management, histogram in its varied form is very often used. Some
iexamples of such use are: :;

• Number ofteachers engaged in elementary schools during the last five years.

•
.
Monthly school attendance during an academic year.
.
• Dropouts in the-district over the last five years.

• Average marks in Class V Mathematics obtained by number of students in the

41
•

1
'lbtal Quality Management last six consecutive examinations.
• Number of students attaining mastery level in Language at Class I level during
the last five examinations.

17.5.2 Pareto Chart

The District Education Officer oT a particular district wanted to know the major
reasons of non-attendance in schools of the district. With the help of the resource
team the reasons identified were: (i) Home responsibility(60 percent of the
respondents), (ii) Home work not done (25 percent), (iii) Difficult School Work (l0
percent) and (iv) Other reasons (5percent). This has been presented in a type of bar
graph called pareto chart. .
A Pareto chart is special type of bar graph in which the values being plotted are
arranged in descending order of magnitude or importance from right to left. The
graph is accompanied by a line graph showing the cumulative total of each category,
left to right.
The chart is named after a nineteenth century Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto who
tried to illustrate his famous 80-20 Rule - that 80 per cent of the wealth is concentrated
with 20 percent of people. Juran, the TQM guru extended the idea to the problems
in place of wealth and concluded that problems stem from 20 percent of all the
varied causes (vitalfew) , and the &maining 80 percent of the causes account for
only 20 percent of the problems (useful many) .

-~~~~
home homework had 10 other
respon. not done work
Reasons for Absence

Fig.17.3: Pareto Chart of Reasons and Extent of Absence

Process of construction of pareto chart: we use the following steps while

constructing a pareto chart.
• Select problems or areas to be analysed.
• Decide the standards of comparison for ranking the characteristics or grouping
the data.
• Determine the time period of the study.
• Collect the data and calculate the occurrences (frequency) in each data category.
• Mark categories from left to right on the horizontal axis (x-axis) in descending
urder of their occurrences- from largest to smallest.
• Construct bar graph using the frequency of occurrences of each category.

• Calculate the cumulative frequencies and percentages.

42 • Construct a cumulative line graph over the bar graph.

1
After the completion of the chart, in order to solve the problem under study, the Tools of Management
highest categories need to be attended on priority basis. One has to keep in mind
that Pareto Chart does not provide any solution to a problem, but, helps to segregate
the vital few causes from the useful many.
Educational uses: Pareto Chart can be used to analyse a diversity of educational
problems confronted at different levels. Examples of some such problems are:

• Reasons for dropouts:

• Reasons of poor or late attendance.
• Excuses for poor achievement.
• Analysing parental complaints.
• Analysing factors of poor school climate.
• Analysis of causes of campus disturbances.

17.5.3 Scatter Diagram,

After the results of the final examination of a class in a school came out, the class
teacher wanted to know whether there is any relation between absenteeism of
students and their performance in the examination. She identified the students who
remained absent for more than five days and the total marks they obtained in the
final examination. She plotted the marks against the number of days of absence and
prepared a graph called Scatter Diagram. It is also known as Scatter Plot, Scatter
Chart, Scatter Graph or Scattergram.

A scatter diagram is a graph that plots one variable against another. The data is
displayed as a collection of points, each having the value of one variable determining
the position on the x-axis, and the value of the other on the y-axis.

100

75

50

25

• ••
O~--~--~--r-~~-'--~---r--
5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Number of Days Absent

Fig.17. 4: Scattergram showing negative relationship

Properly plotted, the collection of points indicate to the possible relationship existing
between the two variables.
• Ifthe pattern of plotted points slopes from the lower left to upper right, it
. suggests a positive correlation between the variables under consideration.
, If the pattern of the points slopes from upper left to lower right, it suggests a
negative correlation.

1
 • Total Quality Management It the points are scattered and do not demonstrate any clear trend, then the two
variables have little relationship between them .
. - ,
. -

A line of best fit (or, a trend line) call be drawn in order to study die nature of
~rrelation between the two variables.Toconfirmthe ~atureof correlation,ctet~rmining.
co-efficient of correlation and conducting regression <l?aly~~<!anyield sta~stically
more authentic results. <>
o •

The scatter diagram is a tool to study the nature and strength of rel~ti~nship-exist~g
.' between the variables. From this no inference regarding cause-and-effect can be .
drawn.
Process of construction:

The construction of scatter diagram involves-the following steps:

•
1. Decide the two variables whose correl~tion you wanfto study,

. .
2. Prepare a grapli with one variable (p,referably, the independent variable) on
the x-axis (horizontal axis) and the other on the y-a~is (vertical axis).
..
3. Plot the points and examine whether the cluster of points indicate any linear
trend i.e. whether a straight can be drawn from which an approximatitm of
relationship between the two variables can be made.
Educational uses:

The scatter diagram is used when we are probing for any potential relationships
_existing between two variables associated with educational practice arid outcomes.
Some such examples (pairs of variables) where we can use the scatter diagram are:

• Absenteeism and score on a test.

• Average family income and performance in the final examination.
• Parental involvement and student attitude towards education.
• Teacher absence and student indiscipline.
• Time spent on learning and performance on unit tests.
0'
• Amount of home assignment and student's performance on language tests.

. 17 .5.4 Trend/Run Chart

The school authorities are worried over the problem of students absence froin the
. school but they do not have idea precisely in which period of the year the students
absence is maximum and when it is minimum. For that one can record the number of
students remaining absent in every month during the last two years. These data
when presented graphically take the form of trend/run chart. A run or a trend
chart is a line graph of data points organised in time sequence and centered on the
average/median data value.
It is a simple version of a single line chart and is often used to determine during what
pcriodts) the process indicators ofthe variable concerned are changing or new
trends developing, lfthe process indicators are correct and nothing else cli.anges,
there should be.approximatelyequal number of data points arrayed both above and
below the average line. Thus, plotting data on a run chart can help in identifying
trends and relate them to the time they occurred. This helps iri the search for the
44
special causes that may be adding variation to the process adopted.

1
 o

o Tools of Management .
<fl
t
c:: p"
(Q

.
<fl

.
,
.;:l.
o·
.c
t--<r-,
IX)

•
~
.S .",
QJ
Eln+-~~~ _
o
~ .~
o·
,] C"l
> '
'0.
'0 N •
~
e

1· 2' ~ '·4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
"
•
Months

... • . Fig.17 .~,:Trentf/R!ln Chart of Added Monthly Income

Som~ special cause variation is revealed when we analyse the unusual run-chart
patterns through th.e study of the trends runs. Runs are sbquenceofpoims-that of
.stay on one stde of, either above or below, the average or median line .. One
, wayof countingthe runs is to circle these sequences and tally-them. Another way of
doing this is to count !he number of times the run-line crosses the average line, and
then add o one.

Pto~ess ofconstruction s The following process is used to construct a run!

trend chart:
L Identify the area of concern.
lL Determine the units of time to be displayed along the horizontal axis (x -axis).
These periods might be years, months, days, hours, minutes, or seconds
depending on how data is gathered. ....
Ill. Determine the units of measure for data collected to be displayed along the
vertical axis (y-axis).
IV. Make the horizontal scale about two to three times the distance of the vertical
scale.
. v. Determine the average/median value of the data and-label it on the vertical axis.
Draw a line parallel to the horizontal axis through the point labeled as the average/
. median value ..This line is called the average or median line.
• . • • 0

Vl. Plot the data points in sequence and connect each point to the next point in the
sequence with a line.
Educational
o
uses: Examples of'educational problems • where run chart is used:
• Campus indiscipline reported in last two years.
• Average weekly attendance during the last two consecutive quarters of the
academic s~ssion. •
• Score on the unit test in Mathematics of a class during the year. .,
o •
•
.
Average daily time spent on eo-curricular activities during a particular month.
,

• Average monthly time spent per teacher on non-teaching work in the school.

17.5.5 Control Chart

o In a school with student strength of 250, it was observed from last six months' data'
that the average number of absentees per week is 45. In order to keep the absenteeism
.
"

within a limit, it was decided to fix an upper and lower limit of 50 and 35 respectively'
45

I
Total Quality Management per week. A chart was drawn with last quarters' figures of absentees week -wise
with clear specification of the limits. The figures of absentees for subsequent weeks
were recorded and when the figure in any week exceeded the specified limits the
causes for this were investigated. This is an example of a control chart.
A control chart or otherwise known as Shewhart chart orprocess-behavior chart
is a graphic representation of time-related performance of a process determined
with either practical or statistical upper and lower limits. The control chart was
invented by Walter A. Shewhart who was working for Bell Labs in the 1920s. The
company was incurring loss due to uncontrolled increase in variations in the
manufacturing process which ultimately resulted in degradation in quality of products.
Shewhart framed the problem in terms of common- and special-causes of variation.
He concluded that while every process displays variation, some processes display
controlled variation that is natural to the process, while others display uncontrolled
variation that is not present in the process causal system at all times (Wheeler,
1999). A control chart is intended to demonstrate the point when the uncontrolled
variation set in to disturb the controlled variation.
A control chart contains the following feautures :
• Points representing measurements of a quality characteristic in samples taken
from the process at different times.
• An average line, a central line drawn with mean value calculated from data and
running parallel to the horizontal axis.
• Upper and lower control limits (also called "natural process limits") indicate
the threshold at which the process output is considered statistically 'unlikely'.
11,0

U ¥v - - -~- -

'.0
\It
'C
2:
<:>
~ 10,0 -
-5
z..
'a;;:$
0' - - -. -- _. --~. - - - ~- 1.(1.=9,256

:3 6 9 12
sample

Fig.17.6: Structure of a Control Chart

Control charts show variation on the process variables and seek to identify the
common rather than special causes of variation, carefully distinguishing between the
two types of causes. If the process is in control, all points will lie within the control
limits. Any observation outside the limits suggests the introduction of a new or
unanticipated source of variation or otherwise known as a special cause of variation
which needs immediate attention in order to keep the system in control.
Process of construction: Construction of control chart involves following steps:
1. Collect data on the issue or problem at predetermined time intervals.
2. Plot data on the control chart. The time intervals are shown on the horizontal
axis and the values ofthe dependent variable on the vertical axis.
3. Calculate the mean of the data and draw a line (central or mean or average
line) parallel to the horizontal axis running through the mean value plotted on
the vertical axis. '
46
/

/
4. Determine the upper and lower limits and draw the two lines equidistant from Tools of Management
the central line on either sides of it. The limits can be determined either basing
on the experience or at a distance of two standard deviations above and below
the central line.
5. Additional features like the warning limits, division into time zones may be
incorporated into the chart depending on the requirement ofthe organisation.
After the control chart is constructed, identify the points out side the upper and
lower limits and determine the special causes for these points. Then build strategies
to eliminate the special causes. At the same time, identify ways to reduce the normal
variance resulting from common causes.
If due to the efforts, the normal variance gets reduced, then the mean of the
observations shall increase and there will be requirement of adjusting the average
line and the lines of upper and lower limits.
Educational uses: The use of control chart in education is mainly for quality
control of management issues. Some such issues, as for example, are:
• Absenteeism of students month-wise over an academic session.
• Incidence of indiscipline in each month over a year. Number of students of
Class IX not completing home work per week over a quarter of the session.
• Average weekly time spent on eo-curricular activities over a period of a quarter.
/

17.5.6 Cause and Effect Diagram

The District Education Officer is worried over the problem of students' absence
from the schools of the district and wanted to know all possible reasons. He uses
different methods like FGD, brainstorming sessions with different groups of
stakeholders. Collecting a large number of reasons of absence, he tried to categorize
them into four possible major sources i.e. the students, the schools, family and others
and plotted them in a chart for easy comprehension which helps in planning the
strategies to check the absenteeism of the students.
The cause-and-effect diagrams that graphically show the causes and sub-cause that
are related directly to the identified problem or event. This is also calledfish bone
diagram as it resembles the skeleton of a fish or an Ishikawa diagram after Kaoru
Ishikawa, the quality guru of Japan, who first invented in 1943 and is being used
widely since 1960s. The cause-and-effect diagram is based on two basic
assumptions:
• A problem is composed oflimited number of causes, which are in turn also
composed of sub-causes.
• Distinguishing these causes and sub-causes is a useful first step to deal with the
problem.
.
The diagram is created by participation of groups in the brainstorming process and
is usually used as an useful tool during preplanning phase of problem solving. The
benefits of the diagram, as noted by Ishikawa (1985) are the following:
• The creation of the diagram has educational purpose. While participating in the
discussion, people learn from each other.
• The diagram helps the users to focus on the issues involved in solving the
problem; This reduces complaints and irrelevant discussion.
• Its use helps in an active search for the causes of the problem.
• Its use helps in identifying data that can be collected to further the search for
the solution of the problem.
47

7
 \
o
"
•
.Total Quality Management • The level of complexity of the diagram is directly related to the level of
understanding of the members of the staff who creates and uses it. •
Process of construction:The construction of a cuase and effect diagram.
involves the following steps:
L
. .
. Identify, and clearly state, and agree on the problem or effect to be analysed.

IL Draw a box containing the'problem or effect on the right side of the diagram
with a horizontal spine.
ll1. Write the problem identified clearly in the box of the diagram which resembles
the 'head' of the fish.
IV.
.
Identifyprobable major categories of causes that relate to the problem identified,
.
such as. students, school, parents and other causes related . to the problem of
late or irregular attendance. These major categories are labeled as branches
(fish bones) of the diagram (see Fig. 17.7).
v. Brainstorm causes of the problem that fall within each of the major categories.
" As ideas are generated determine on which branch ('bone') the item is to be
placed.
VI. Depending on next level analysis of causes, each branch may have several sub-
branches in order to establish effective relationships.
It should M kept in mind that developing the diagram is a team work and there is no
right or wrong answer. Therefore, as far as possible group consensus on the
identification of causes and sub-causes need to be established without indulging in
prolonged arguments. Sufficient care need to be taken to spell out the causes in
specific, measurable and controllable forms.

o
The
o
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
.

Category 2

Sub.C 1 Sub.C2
Cause 1 _--..
I I-

The
Problem

Category 3 Category 4

Fig.17.7. Structure ofa Cause-and-Effect Diagram.

Educdtional uses: The cause-and-effect diagram can be developed and used for
solving any educational problem. As for example it can be used in identifying the
causes of '
• Student drop outs,
48

/
• Low, late and irregular students' attendance. Tools of Management

• Teacher absenteeism.
• Lack of community and parental involvement in school activities.
• Poor learners' performance.
The cause-and-effect diagram is useful for systematic identification causes of some
problems/effects. It is not particularly useful for extremely complex problems, where
many causes and many problems are interrelated.

17.5.7 Flow Chart

The mathematics teacher desires that all his/her students in grade 5 master the concept
of each unit oflesson before moving to the next concept unit. With help ofhislher
colleagues he!she develops an activity schedule arranged in proper order of activities
so that there would be little confusion in the progress ofthe students. The plan he!
she developed in the form of a diagram( Fig. 17.8) which is called aflow chart.

( start)

Teach one
unit

Is the
student
successful?

Test
Remedial NO students'
Exercises achievemen

Test the
progress

Enrichment
Is the . exercises
NO student
successful?

YES
Summarise
and start the next
unit.
Fig.17.8: Flow chart of teaching for mastery

A flow chart is a common and visual way of representing a process showing its
steps using various kinds of boxes and symbols. The steps are shown in different
types of boxes in a well arranged order of sequence connected by arrows.
49
<
>

1
 Total Quality Management
Common Symbols Description
used in Flow Charts

The starting or ending of

C'---_) of the process
Oblong

Operation or activity performed

or planned -to be performed

Rectangle

.
Represents conditional or decision. These typically
.. contain "Yes/No" or "True/False" responses with each
response flowing to different operations or activities.

Diamond

Indicates direction and order of flow.

Arrow
There are several other symbols used.in flow charts but with less-universality such
as:
• Input/output represented as a parallelogram.
• A document represented as a rectangle with a wavy base.
• A manual operation represented by a trapezium with the longest parallel side
at the top.
• A data File represented by a cylinder.
• A connector represented by a circle which connects the operation or decisions
without having to cross the flow lines.
The flow chart was first introduced by Frank Gilbreth in his presentation "Process
Charts - First Step in Finding the One Best Way" to the members of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in 1921. This found immediate use in the
industrial and engineering curricula. In 1947, ASME adopted a symbol set derived
from Gilbreth's original work as the ASME Standard for Process Charts. Herrnan
Goldstein and John von Neuman further developed flow charts in late 1946s at
Princeton University (Goldstine, 1972).
There are different types of flow charts depending on their use or content. Stemeckert
(2003) categorises them into four types: Document flowcharts, Data flowcharts,
System flow charts, and Program flowcharts. Others have also developed different
categories like, Decision flowcharts, Logic flowcharts, Product flowcharts, Process
flowcharts, etc (Fryman, 2001)

50

1
 Process of Construction: Tools of Management

The following are the steps of constructing a flowchart:

L Determine the purpose and scope of flowchart.
IL List all inputs and outputs.
1lL Arrange the operations/activities in their required sequences.
IV. Draw the flowchart selecting appropriate standard symbols. Keep the use of
symbols to possible minimum for ease and clarity in communication.
v. Review the flowchart as to whether it addresses the proper flow of events/
activities, presents sequential and simultaneous events appropriately, accurately
reflects the major decisions and repeats or omits anyevent/activity/decision.
VI. Modify or delete those steps which are inefficient or unnecessary.
Educational uses: Flowchart has extensive utility as developing models for solving
.. educational problems at each level of school system. Some such uses are given here
as examples,
• Model of school improvement plan.
• Model for monitoring and academic support system for-schools.
• Model for continuous and comprehensive evaluation programme.
• Model for cooperative learning programme in the classroom.
• Model for improving quality of education in the school.
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
3. What are the basic tools of management?

...................................................................................................................

4. What is Pareto Chart?

17.6 PRE-PLANNING TOOLS

,
In addition to the seven basic tools for pre-planning stage, seven, comparative newer,
quality tools are also used at this stage. They are - Affinity Diagram, Tree Diagram,
Matrices, Interrelationship Diaoraphs, Radar/Spider Chart, Force Field Diagram, 51

1
 Total Quality Management and Benchmarking. In this section these tools ~the mode of their construction and
their utility in education particularly in educational planning have been briefly
.discussed.

17.6.1 Affinity Diagram

The principal of a school, in order to develop a school improvement plan, was
engaged in brainstorming session with a small group consisting of students, teachers
and a few other stakeholders. Within the stipulated time he/she had quite a large
number of ideas. it became her problem how to organize those ideas into a few
manageable categories. The affinity diagram which clubs apparently disparate ideas
into more similar looking groups of ideas could help hislher in solving her problem. '.
The affinity diagram is used to cluster complex, apparently unrelated data into
natural, meaningful groups. Used with the brainstorming process, affinity diagram
helps the group to arrive at a consensus of grouping large number into quite a small
number of categories ofideas according to their natural relationships. First introduced _
in the 1960s by Jiro Kawakawa, a 1apanese anthropologist, this method taps the
group's creativity and interest in solving the problem collectively .
..
Process of construction: The process as stated below is used to create an
affinity diagram. Usually, the materials required are : sticky notes or cards, marker
pen, large drawing sheets or board.
• Clearly identify the problem in objective terms.
• Use brainstorming process to generate ideas. Record each idea on a sticky
note or card using marker pen so that it is prominent to the participants. Avoid
single word ideas.
• Randomly post the cards/notes on a large work space like a big boars or
drawing sheet. No specific order for posting the cards at this stage should be
attempted.
• While posting the cards, each idea written on the card is to be read a loud so
that the repetition can be avoided to a great extent.
• This process of generating ideas is to continue until the participants have
exhausted all ideas.
• Silently and without any discussion, sort the items into natural groupings. The
items can be grouped and regrouped by anyone at any time. It is very important
that no one talk during this step.
• Once the groupings are determined, discussion is allowed. Minor changes may
be made when the participants clarify their understanding.
• Once the groupings are finalised, create a header for each group of ideas.
• Divide large groupings into sub-groups, if needed, and create subheadings.
• Draw the final affinity diagram connecting ideas to the header cards (Fig. 17.9).
Educational uses:
The affinity diagram is culmination of brainstorming process. Therefore, any problem
that requires brainstorming need affinity diagram for comprehensive visualisation of
the components or solutions of the problem. Examples of some such problems may
be:
52

I
 • Reasons for students to drop out of school. Tools of Management

• Reasons for poor and irregular pupils' attendance.

• Why large number of students are not performing well in English.
• Strategies for improving community participation in school activities.
• Improving school climate for making it learner friendly.

Reasons for high rate of drop-out

Student Classroom School

or [ Family [' Process Climate
Learner

Not Don't take Not Unsafe

motivated care of interesting building
to learn children
Language is Crowded
Cannot difficult to and narrow
understand Engage
children to follow classroom
school
language in other Teacher IS
work Poor
harsh
Frequently sanitary
fall ill Do not conditions
provide NoTLM •
adequate is used.
Not able to
materials Poor inter-
travel a long <,

distance to Contents personal

No support are not
school for study at relations.
related to
Do not have home life of the
proper dress learner
to wear

Fig.17.9: Affinity Diagram for the Reasons of High Drop-out Rate

Studies have shown that participating in the exercise for developing affinity diagram
stimulates both left and right brain thinking and actually encourages creativity on
everyone's part. Since there are no wrong answers, all participants' ideas CO'...Ht.
The exercise which is very much focused on the issue as well as on time allows for
comprehensive thinking concerning the issues, brings into fore the non-traditional
connections among ideas and issues, often engages people discussing issues they
normally might not discuss and it also allows breakthroughs to emerge naturally
(Bernhardt, 2002).

17.6.2 Tree Diagram

A tree diagram, also known as systematic diagram, tree analysis, analytical tree
and hierarchy diagram, is a planning tool used to break down broad categories
logically and linearly into finer and finer levels of detail Developing a tree diagram
helps us to think step by step, from generalities to specifics. Further, a systematic

53

1
 . .

Total Quality Management and linear branching of broad issues to identifiable components or actionable items
helps to yield successful attainment of objectives. A tree diagram is used when
• . an issue is known or being addressed in broad generalities and one must move
to specific details to achieve the"objectives.
• analysing the process in de¥l.
"-. probing for root cause of a problem.
• evaluating implementation issues for several potential solutions. •
• as a communication tool, to explain details in a logical manner to others.
Process of construction: A tree diagram is usually constructed through following
steps:
1.. Assemble a small group of persons, usually 6 to 8 persons; who are quite
knowledgeable about the issue and are capable of following up the action plan.
.
,
1L State the issue (problem or goal) in a box and place itthe far left (for a horizontal
tree) or at the top ( for a vertical tree) of the work surface ( flip chart or
drawing sheet).
1lL Ask a question that will lead to next level detail like, "How can this be
accomplished?" or, "What are the components?" or, "What causes this?"
IV. Continue this process to get details of further specific components or action
points or causes for subsequent levels until you reach the most basic components
or causes are identified.
v. Do a "necessary and sufficient" check of the entire diagram as well as for each
level. Findout answers ofthe questions, such as "Are all the items necessary
for attainment of the objective?" and "If all the items were present or
accomplished, would they be sufficient for the attainment of the objective?"
Educational uses: The tree diagram is suitable for planning any intervention for
quality education. Once the problem is defined or an issue is identified, through the
tree diagram a comprehensive list of actions or activities can be developed. Almost
all the issues/problems of education require the tree diagram. Some of its uses are as
follows:
• Improvement oflearning climate of school/classroom.
• Enhancing teachers' capacity for facilitating learning.
•• Increasing parent and corrununity involvement.

• Increasing efficiency of textbook development, production and distribution.

\
• Enhancing the efficiency of the monitoring system.

54

I
 Tools of Management
Better
I
School
climate

Improving
the work
environment

.
, Enhancing
Enhancing
elementary
school knowledge
teachers' of content
performance and
processes

Improving
system of
reward and
recognition

Fig.17.10: Sketch ofa Tree Diagram

17.6.3 Matrices
A matrix (plural. matrices) is a simple chart in a tabular form that shows the
relationship of various factors along one side (horizontally) with other factors listed
along the other side (vertically). Data are presented in tabular form and can be
subjective or objective, which are presented by single letter or word, different types
of symbols, with or without numerical values.

Five differently shaped matrices are possible depending on how many groups are to
be compared. They are:
• L-shaped ( relating 2 groups/variables)
• T-shaped (relating 3groups/variables)
• Y-shaped (relating 3groups/variables )
• C-shaped (relating 3groups/variables)
• Xsshaped (relating 4groups/variables)

Another form of matrix, called 'roof-shaped' matrix is used to relate one group/
variable to factors within itself In educational planning, mostly the first form relating
55

,~-. ,
.•..
.

1
 Total Quality Management two groups/variables i.e. the L-shaped matrices are used: Example of such a matrix
is given in Fig.17 .11 in which the State Department of Education has compared five
different teacher training packages developed/available from different sources/
agencies in terms of six criteria Both word and numerical ratings have been used.
Finallyl, the packages have been ranked basing on the totals of numerical ranks
given each criteria.

Cost Acceptability ElTectivenes Acceptability Time to Time to Total Rank

by the s by start implement
Alternative
Agencies
organization teachers
.

Teacher Moderate Low Moderate High Low Lowest 16 3

Association 3 I 2 3 3 4
State Resource Low Highest High Highest Lowest Low 22 1
Unit (Best) 4 4 3 4 4 3
Engaging National High High Highest High Low Moderate 17 2

.. Consultants
Reputed
Institutions
High
2

2
3
Moderate
2
Moderate
4

2
3
Moderate
. 2
High
3

I
High
2

1
10 4

Standard Package Highest Low Low Low Moderate Moderate 08 5

available in the I 1 1 1 2 2
market
Low-4 Highest- 4 Highest-4 Highest- 4 Lowest-4 Lowest-4
Rating Moderate High -3 High -3 High -3 Low - 3 Low - 3
-3 Moderate-2 Moderate-2 Moderate-2 Moderate-2 Moderate-2
High-2 Low -1 Low -1 Low - 1 High - 1 High 1 -
Highest-l

"

Fig. 17.11: A Matrix of Teacher Training Packages with Criteria of Selection

Those who are working in education are very familiar with the use of matrices as
they are extensively used in almost various aspects of educational planning and
decision making. The matrix ismainly used, among several other uses, forprioritising,
identifying responsibilities, and communicating through use of symbols.
Process of construction: Following are the steps of constructing a matrix:

• A representative group consisting of six to eight individuals with "somepersons

among them with, the knowledge of matrices is to be formed.
• Decide on how the matrix is to be used.
• Identify the subjects of comparison like individuals, objects, processes, strategies
of solving a problem, major tasks or activities for ajob etc. and put them on the
left side of the matrix.
• Identify the quality characteristics ( i.e. the dimensions of comparison) and
place them on the top ofthe matrix.
• Develop a system for evaluating/measuring/rating on each quality criteria in
relation to the suhjects to be evaluated/rated. These may be in terms of
qualifying words J ike low, moderate, high and very high, excellent, etc. or in
form of letters or pictorial symbols.
• Determine the relationship between a quality characteristic and all the subjects.
The value agreed on by the group is then placed in the appropriate cell jf' 'he
matrix.

• Continue until the matrix is completed.

56

7
o Decide on a point system for converting value judgments to a numerical value. Tools of Management
Place the numerical values in the lower right corner of each cell in the matrix.
• Total the numbers across each row.
• Rank the subjects. One that gets the highest numeric value gets rank 1and the
next highest rank 2 and so on.
Educational uses:

The use of matrix in educational planning is very popular. Starting froin the opening
of anew school to performing any new or routine activitieswe employ matrix although
formally not by its name. Selection of site for the new SChool,choice of design for
the school building,recruitment of teachers, strategiesfor boosting enrolment, ensuring
regular attendance,selecting appropriate method of teaching, improving pupils'
performance and all such issues in school education require proper planning in which
matrix can invariably be used with good results.

17.6.4 Interrelationship Digraphs

The interrelationship diagraph, also called relations diagram and network
diagram, is a planning tool that shows in pictorial form the cause-and-effect
relationships among the elements of a problem or issue. Let us consider the situation
in which a District Education Officer is feeling frustrated. He has put in his best
efforts to implement a new strategy for school improvement programme in his district
but the results are not very encouraging. Most of the schools did not show any
tangible improvement. In order to probe into the failures, he had assembled a group
of eight persons from among his officials, teachers, parents.and experts. The group
tried to analyse the causes offailure of the programme and came out with what is
called the interrelationship digraph. As you know, the interrelationship digraph is
used when we try to understand links between ideas ,cause relationships in a complex
issue or when a complex strategy is being implemented. Besides searching for causes,
we can also find the interactions among the components of the issue from the diagram
from which we can identify root causes and effects and study these relationships
among other aspects of the issue.
Process of construction: The following steps are used in construction of an
interrelationshipdigraph:
L Identify the issue or problem. Write tj:e statement defining the problem on a
card or sticky note and place it at the top of the work surface.
IL Identify ideas about the issue by brainstorming or take those ideas either from
fishbone or an affinity diagram and place them on cards and arrange the cards
in a circular pattern.
J
lll. Analyse relationships- which idea influences which other idea. Join two related
ideas by an arrow mark. One idea may have relationship with more than one
other ideas.
IV. Determine the direction of the arrow i.e. the position of the arrow head is
crucial since the head indicate to the effect of the idea which is at the other end
of the arrow.
v. Count the number of arrows going in and out of each box and place those
numbers in the respective boxes.

57

7
••••
 TotalQuality Management VI. Identify root causes and effects. The root causes have the greatest number of
arrows going out of boxes and root effects have the greatest number of arrows
going into boxes.(see Figure 17.12)

Root Cause

..

Fig. 17.12: Interrelationship nfgraph of Barriers in Implementing School Improvement

Programme

Educational uses: Because of its complexities in construction, it is less frequently

used in educational planning. But with rapid expansion of education at all levels,
more issues and problems are coming up. There would be more and more need for
cause-and-effect analysis and hence the need for this tool.

17.6.5 RaderlSpider Chart

The District Education Officer ofNabarangapur, a district of Oris sa, was reviewing "
the state of quality of primary education of the district. He wanted to have a holistic
picture of the state of primary education of the district. Among other information on
the status of primary education in the district, he found the following indicators of
quality of primary education in his district:

Indicators Percent
Safe and well maintained school building 84.7%

Availability of water and sanitation facility 83.9%

Enrolment 94.9%

Gender Parity Index of enrolment 86.0%

58

I
 Female teachers 37.3% Tools of Management

Retention Rate (Cl. I to V) 61.6%

Promotion Rate (CLI to V) 68.0%
Transition Rate (Cl.V to VI) 41.9% .
In order to have a holistic picture, the District Resource Group developed the diagram
called the 'radar chart' (Fig. 17.13 ). From this chart we can have an estimate of
the strong and weak areas of progress.

Quality of Primary Education in Nabarangpur Dist. Orissa in 2006-07

Well maintained building

100,]

I 7 ~O" '\ \
/ ' / I ,
Promotion Rate

\ \/ ./ /
\
\\ ~ ~~~<,
Retention Rate \.,,'_
\ <,

- "~-'-t' --'' .-----

~'-

----------,.
.>
,~"./

~y
~ /

Gender Parity mdex.of Enrolment

-",1-/
Female Teachers

Fig.17.13: Radar/Spider Diagram of the Quality Indicators of School Education

The radar or spider chart is a planning tool that graphically displays the comparative
values of multiple variables in a data set. Apart from radar and spider chart, this
diagram is also known by several names: web chart, star chart, star plot, irregular
polygon, polar chart or kiviat chart.

The chart consists of a sequence of equiangular spokes called radii (plural. of radius),
with each spoke representing one of the variables. The data length of a spoke is
proportional to the magnitude of the variable for the data point relative to the maximum
magnitude of the variable across all data points. Points representing the data values
are serially joined by straight lines which gives the plot a star-like appearance and
the origin of the name of the plot.

The radar chart can be used for several purposes:

• Which variables are dominant?
• Which are weak areas?

• Which observations are most similar? etc.

59
:~

7
Total Quality Management Process of construction of radar chart: The radar/spider chart can be constructed
using the following steps:
1. Make a list of each category or variable in the data set to be displayed.
n. Collect the data for each category or variable to be displayed.
m. Construct the diagram :
• Construct a regular polygon (whose side are of equal length) with as many
sides( or angles)as the number of categories or variables you are including
in the graph.
• Draw lines from '0' the center of the polygonjoining the centre to the
vertices of the polygon (these lines are usually called spokes or radii).
• Label one of these spokes-preferably the vertical one, vv ~l~. [he number
that is equal to the maximum of the reported values. This will be the scale
line.
• Divide each scale line into equal segments matching the units you are
reporting in. Repeat this for each spoke line. Draw lines to connect the
corresponding scale points on each spoke serially.
• Label each vertex (angular points or the outer end-points of the spokes)
of the polygon with the name of one of the elements to be graphed.
• Plot the value points for each variable/element on their respective spokes.
• Join the value points serially with a solid line.
IV. This graph can also be constructed using software programmes such as EXCEL,
LOTUS 1, 2, 3. and such other programmes.
Educational uses: The radar! spider chart is useful in comparing the status of
interventions at different stages of program implementation. It can further be used
by district and state level authorities to have comparative picture of different regions
in respect of different issues of educational programmes.
Examples of some uses ofthe chart in the management of quality of education are:
• Status of basic aspects of organisational climates of school in the state/district.
• Community perception of functioning of schools
• Academic performance by different groups of disadvantaged children.
• Comparing education districts on the major criteria of school effectiveness.
• Measuring status of schools within an education district on regular conduct of
eo-curricular activities.

17.6.6 Force Field Diagram

In the Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan, the activity approach of teaching-learning is being
promoted in the primary schools. But a District Education Officer could not observe
desired change in the classroom transaction processes in all schools inthe district.
He called a representative group of resource persons, teachers, parents, supervising
officials and did a simple exercise. He explained the desired changes to occur in the
classroom transaction and then asked the group to brainstorm on two issues: What
are the forces factions helpingthe efforts to change and those which inhibit or obstruct
60

7
 the change. In summarising the outcomes ofthe discussion he isolated the two
categories of responses and diagrammatically presented the summary: He produced
what is known as 'force-jield diagram'.
Force-field diagram orforce-jield analysis is a managerial tool used to identify
the forces that either promote or inhibit change in the system. This is based on the
fieldtheory ofKurt Lewin, the 20tl1.Centuty gestaltian psychologist. The basic premise
on which this analysis rests is that change is the result of a conflict between opposing
forces. While there are some who welcome change and are quite proactive, there '
are others who oppose the change because they are either too comfortable with the
status quo or are afraid of the unknown associated with change. In order that change
takes place, the driving forces must overcome the restraining forces. From the
management point of view, the driving forces are to be reinforced and the restraining
forces have to be countered, reduced or directed elsewhere.
Adoption of Activity.;based Approach
.. Present
Situation

Driving Forces Restraining Forces

Most senior teacher are not interested
State Government supports
Parents are opposing
Adeauate funds provided
Poor academic support
Strong resource support
r' Weak monitoring
Good training programme
~ Teacher associations are apprehensive
Support by good curricular provisions ..•

Equilibrium Line

Fig.17.14: Force-Field Arialysis of the Adoption of Activity-based Approach

Process of construction:Following steps are usually used to develop force-field

analysis/diagram:

L Write the topic clearly at the top of the work space (flip chart or board) and
draw lines underneath topic as in Fig.14.
lL On the top of the right half of the space write "Driving Forces" or "Forces
For' and on the top of the left half write "Restraining Forces" or "Forces Against".
DL Let the participants identify the key arguments/forces for and against the issue.
Sometimes, the participants are divided into two groups - one group advances
the arguments in favor and the other against the issue.
IV. When all forces have been recorded, the group or subgroups should review
each of the forces/arguments listed and brainstorm on the ideas for.strengthening
the driving forces and reducing the restraining forces.
v. Once an item is finalised draw an arrow underneath it with arrow head pointing
to the middle vertical line.
VI. If the group members desire, then they can rank each force on both the sides in
the diagram, rate those on difficultyto change, prioritisingthe actions to strengthen
61

I
.Total Quality Management the driving forces and reducing the opposing forces. Sometimes, the length of
the arrow is made shorter or longer depending on their importance as indicated
by ranking or rating.
Educational uses: For its relatively lesser complexity, it can be used in most of the
situations. Some such situations jn
~
education. For example are as follows:
• Reducing incidence of early dropouts.
• Community involvement in school activities.
• Making High School Certificate Examination
-,
optional.
• Introducing competency-based evaluation.

17.6.7 Benchmarking
The principal of a school observed, while reviewing the performance of students in
the final school graduation examination that during last three years20% of the students
appearing at the final examination are performing at the mastery level (i.e. securing
more than 80% in average). While the expectations of the mastery learning strategy
is that more than 80% of the students would attain mastery level, the performance of
the school was much below the stipulated standards.
With the desire of improving the performance status of students, he set out by fixing
annual targets for the next five years. He did not go about it blindly fixing the absolute
mastery target. He set a"committee eight members which included teachers and
knowledgeable persons. The committee gathered information from the four best
performing schools of the district/state and also from three schools which were of
equal performance status with that ofthe school by actually visiting those schools.
After averaging the performance of both categories of schools and rigorous analysis
of the ground realities ofthe school, the committee fixed the target of bringing 60%
of students to the mastery level of performance with average yearly increase of
12%. This process briefly describes the process of'benchmarking,
Benchmarking, first developed by Rand Xerox in 1979, is a process of creating
the best possible standard to emulate and to compare with others. The term
'benchmarking' was first used by cobblers to measure one's feet for shoes. They
would place foot on a "bench" and mark the size ofthe feet to make the pattern for
shoes. Also referred to as "best practice benchmarking" or "process benchmarking",
it is a process used in management, and particularly in strategic management, an
organisation evaluate their processes and compares those with similar processes
of other organisations against an indicator or a set of indicators created as standard
of performance. The process ofbencumarking involves analysis of a situation by
• Identifying what the best to date is, what the average ofthe best is that has
been accomplished in three to five other situations similar to yours, and what
your situation is relative to the challenge; both realistic and stretch targets for
the improvement objective can be established during this process.
• Visiting and studying systems and processes used by others that have been
identified as being the best. (Latta & Downey, 1994, p.95)
Process of construction:There is no single benchmarking process that has been
universally adopted. The first book on benchmarking process by Kaisar Associates
ofU.S.A. in 1988 suggested a 7-step approach. But there are others who have
proceeded with 12-step approach. However, the following steps may be used for
62 the benchmarking process in education:

1
 • Identify the problem area to be benchmarked. Tools of Management

• Select a benchmarking team; usually 6 to 8 members who are well versed with
the problem and some of them are thoroughly conversant with the benchmarking
process.
• Train the group members in benchmarking.
• Identify the internal and external partners/customers involved in the problem.
• Identify institutions that are leaders in the area/district/state. Identify at least 3
to 5 best performing institutions in your district or districts similar in condition
to yours.
• Let some group members visit those institutions with an action plan prepared
earlier.Verykeen observation, recording the conversations and photo-recording
of different aspects and processes of the institutions are very much essential.
.
, • Compare your institution's performance with those visited. Analyse, discuss,
imagine creatively so as establishing far reaching, yet viable goals for
improvement of your institution.
• Establish a target for the improvement objective, and establish annual milestones
by which to gauge weekly, monthly and annual progress.
Educational uses: In education, all the situations can be benchmarked. With the
implementation of national programmes of District Primary Education Proj ect
(DPEP) and Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan(SSA), benchmarking has become a regular
practice while preparing perspective plans and annual work plans for every district.
Therefore, a familiar process for district and state level functionaries. However,
issues may be chosen depending on their importance and priority for benchmarking
as the process requires quite a considerable amount of fund.
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
5. Enumerate any three of newer quality tools that could be used for the pre-
learning stage.

6. What is interrelationship diagraph?

...................................................................................................................
. .

....................................................................................................................

63

I
Total Quality Management
17.7 INTEGRATIVE QUALITY TOOLS

Besides the three group process tools, we have discussed about 14 tools which
are, individually or in combination, used during pre-planning stage of total quality
management. In this section we shall discuss about four tools which integrate many
of the other quality tools which are essentially used in preparation of a plan and
guiding implementation. The four integrative tools discussed in this section are:
• Action panning,
• Activity networks,
• Plan-do-check-act cycle, and
• Hoshin planning.
Let us discuss each tool for our understanding.

17.7.1 Action Planning

Action planning is a process utilised by a group to identify the essential components
of an improvement plan and to document these components in the form of a formal
plan.
Very often we see that good plans gets awry during implementation due to absence
of any agreed upon action plan. Action planning is the process that guides the day-
to-day activities of an organisation or project. It is the process of planning what
needs to be done, when it needs to be done, by whom it needs to be done, and what
resources or inputs are needed to do it. It is the process of operationalising your
strategic objectives. Simply saying, it spells out in detail about the actions to be
taken, the time schedule of actions, the required resources- both human and material,
requirement of fund and the group or agency to perform the action. That is why it is
also called operational planning.
Most action plans consist of the following elements:
• a statement of what must be achieved (the outputs or result areas that come
out of the strategic planning process);

• a spelling out of the steps that have to befollowed to reach this objective;
• some kind of time schedule for when each step must take place and how long
it is likely to take (when);

• a clarification of who will be responsible for making sure that each step is
successfully completed (who);
• a clarification of theinputs/resources that are needed.
All of these are dealt with again inp/anning activities step-by-step. If you go
through an action planning process, then you should end up with a practical plan to
enable you to resource and carry forward the steps needed to achieve your
objective(s) a small and contribute to your long-term goal.
Process of developing an action plan: The action planning for an organization or
a project can be developed by a group using the following steps:

64
-.•-.~.

/
L Constitute a small group consisting of 6 to 8 members. The group should be Tools of Management
representative ofthose who have direct involvement with the problem.
lL Analyst>+:ledata relating to the problem utilising quality tools like brainstorming,
affiniry diagram, interrelationship digraph, force-field analysis and any other
tools required. If the analysis has already been done, the group needs to review
the analysed data. .
~
m. Conduct an analysis of resources and constraints (may use force- field analysis).
IV, Identify alternative solutions to the problem and select the quality characteristics
to be used in determining which of the potential solution strategies the best is.
Select the quality best possible alternative (may use matrix analysis).
v. Identify and select activities for implementing the solution strategy (develop
flowchart).
VI. List activities in the sequence they must be completed along with the details of
person/group responsible for action, resource needed, time schedule (starting
and completion time), cost, and evaluation (outcome expected).
Vll. Finalise the review and follow up action programme.
The details of the action plan an is usually reflected in a table. Different groups may
develop the table as per their requirement. But it holistic, concise, and clear to the
users/implementers. A sample plan is shown in Figure 17.15.

Result Area:

Person/Group/Agency Time Frame Expected

Activities Responsible for Start Completion Cost outcome
implementation

,,
, Fig.17.15: Format for Activity Planning

Educational uses: As is evident from the foregoing discussion, activity planning

involves use of multiple tools in planning for complex and composite issues. In
education, in developing institutional plans, sub-district and district level plans for
issues like school development, teacher empowerment, academic activities,
community empowerment activity planning procedures can be employed for
qualitative planning. Since it involves multiple tools and weighs all possible approaches!
strategies, it is time consuming and cost intensive Therefore, it should be used properly
in planning selective issues having large coverage in terms of operational area, required
time duration, magnitude of resource requirement and extent of expertise available.

17.7.2 Activity Diagrams

Complex projects require a series of activities, some of which must be performed
sequentially and others can be performed in parallel with other activities. This
collection of series and parallel tasks can be arranged to form a network of activities.
An activity network is, therefore, a model showing the tasks that need to be
accomplished in order to get a job completed. The tasks are arranged in a sequential
manner beginning from the starting point and ending at the finishing point indicating
the completion of the job. The network also shows time required for completing
each activity. The activity network is used when:
• Planning any project or activity which is composed of a set of interdependent
actions/tasks. 65

7
Total Quality Management • Time, costs, and quality are important factors and tasks related to the job must
begin and finish in a specific sequence and in a timely fashion.
• It is required to calculate the earliest date the job can be completed and the
ways of changing this.
• It is required to identify and address risk to in completing a project in time.
• Group members are required to be communicate the process of the programme
of action to others. ~
• Monitoring the progress ofthe activities at any point oftime while the project
is under way is required ..
Broadly there are two categories of network diagrams:
• Bar chart or gantt charts
• Arrow diagrams, also known as PERT charts

Gantt charts Of the two categories of network diagrams, Gantt chart is simpler to
understand, and construct. Let us take a hypothetical job having seven interdependent
tasks (A,B,C,D,E,F, ,and G) and the time required for completing each task given
is shown in the following table. Further, since the tasks are interdependent, the
immediate predecessors have also been given.

From the chart we can easily see that the tasks A,B,and C commences from the
start at a time simultaneously. And the tasks E and F commence only after completion
oftaskB.

Table 17.7.2 Tasks of the Project

Task Duration Immediate

(in months) Predecessors
A 3 -
B 4 -
C 6 -
D 5 A
E 1 B
F 6 B
G 7 C,D,E

U sing the data in Table 17.7.2 the Gantt Chart has been drawn which is shown
below:
Tasks Duration in months
2 3 4 5 678 9

66 Fig. 17.16: Gantt Chart ofthe Data given in Table 17.7.2

/
 Tools of Management

Arrow diagrams: The arrow diagram or the program evaluation and review
technique (PERT) is a network model that demonstrates a more integrated picture
of interdependencies of the activities. PERT was developed in the late 1950s for
the U.S. Navy's Polaris project in which thousands of contractors were engaged. It
has the potential to reduce both the time and cost required to complete a project.
An example of a simple PERT chart based on the data given in the Table 17.7.2 is in
Fig 17.17.

D(5)
A(3)

Q C(6)
.G)~7)
B(4)
. ~G)
Fig.17.t7: PERT Chart for Data in Table 17.7.2

Now let us understand the PERT chart more closely.

• The diagram is consisted of arrows and nodes or milestones (indicated by

circles). An arrow indicates an activity or work that consumes time, money or
resources. Although the arrow represents flow oftime (left to right) it is not
drawn to scale and hence its length is not proportionate to the amount oftime
or difficulty of the task.

• The point indicating the completion of one task and commencement of the next
immediate successive task is called a node, a milestone or an event and is
usually indicated by a circle or a box within which the number indicating the
event is displayed.

• An event or activity is unique and can occur only once in a network.

• All work flow is from left to right; therefore, looping backward or forward is
not possible.

• Two events cannot be connected by more than one activity (arrow)

• Paths in a network are identified by the events through they pass. In the Fig. 17
there are four paths as follows:
~ 1-72-74-75
iI) 1-74-75
ill) 1-7 3 -7 4 -7 5
iv) 1 ~3 75

• Events and activities serve as constraints on succeeding events and activities.

For example, activity G cannot begin until all the three preceding activities C,D
and E have been completed.
67

7
'Iota. ',tu ity Management • The path that takes the longest time (adding the activity time of the activities on
the path) is called the critical path. tor example, in the Fig. 17.17 the path
indicated by 1-72 -7 4 -75 takes 15months to be completed which is the
maximum time taken by any of the rest three paths, and thus it is the critical
path for the project under consideration. The critical path determines the
minimum timerequiredfor.projectcomp'ction.
Process of construction ~f arrow diagramms: For the construction of both the
Gantt and PERT charts the following steps are used:
1. Constiicte a small group of 4 to 6 teachers who possess adequate knowledge
of the project and will be involved in implementation.
Let the group brainstorm and identifyallthe component activities/tasks/milestones
of the project that must be undertaken and completed.
lll. Determine the proper sequence of the activities clearly specifying the immediate
preceding activity or activities of each activity.
IV. Decide on the unit of time to be used (i.e., hours, days, months .etc.).
v. Estimate the time to complete each activity.
VI. Decide which of the charts (Gantt or PERT) is suitable for the requirement.
While there is no hard and fast rule for the choice, usually Gantt is preferred for
small or medium projects while PERT ispreferred for large and complex projects.
Vll. Draw the required activity network diagram.
V1ll. Discuss in the group and fmalise the diagrams.
There are numerous variations in the form and analyses of the network diagrams
depending on the level of complexity of the project and hence, construction
procedures also vary accordingly.
Educational uses of arrow diagrams: Activity networks can be used whenever
planning is required for any activity. Preparation of annual district plans of education
for different levels, Arranging eo-curricular events like sports 'events, competitions,
celebrations, annual scheme of academic activities, conducting examination are
some activities, for example, planning for which the activity network shall be of
great use. It not only helps in implementation of activities, it also helps in monitoring
the activities in time.

17.7.3 Plan.,Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle

The Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle as per its title is a four step process when
combined with full use of other quality tools, is a power tool of total quality
management. It is easily understood and also easy to use tool. All the types of basic
tools can be used to complement and strengthen the utility of this tool. While the
tools discussed so far are either used at the pre-planning stage and/or at the planning
stage, PDCA is useful both at the planning and implementation stages. Further it has
possibly widest range of use in the sense that it can be used in the simplest of problems
to the most complex problems.
The PDCA was made popular by Dr. Edward Deming, regarded as the quality
guru of the Total Quality Management(TQM) movement. He used to refer it as
Schewart Cycle. Later he modified PDCA to Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycle.

68

1
Process of construction of PDCA cycle: Tools of Management

The following are the steps for developing the PDCA cycle:
Form a small group with 6 to 8 members who have knowledge and familiarity
with the project and a few with the knowledge of PDCA cycle.
D. Let the grow match the planning process with the reqpirements and complexity
level ofthe identified problem.
m. Start with the activities of PDCA cycle. At each step the group has to combine
different quality tools depending on the coritext and complexity of the problem.
• PLAN: Analyse and modify the problem if necessary. Decide or improve
previously decided targets and objectives. Assess the availability of
resources and plan for it. Collect and analyse data and prepare the plan
or develop an improvement plan using appropriate quality tools. Prepare
in advance the schedule and tools for monitoring.
• DO: Implement the plan with continuous monitoring. Always refer to
baseline data while monitoring. Make minor adjustments wherever.needed.
• CHECK: At regular intervals determine the progress made with reference
to targets fixed. Document that you have learnt about the supporting
system, procedures and processes.
• ACT: The group along with the functionaries of the organisation is to
decide together as to whether abandon the strategy, modify it, strengthen
it, or continue without any modification.

• PLAN: After the completion of one full cycle update the plan based on
the lessons learnt and then continue with the cycle.
Educational uses of PDCA cycle: The PDCA cycle can be used in planning
and implementing any strategy in education. In all the issues that have been given
under the use of previous tools, PDCA can be usefully employed.
With focus now shifting to quality education, it becomes imperative to use a process
so that planning, implementation, monitoring and suitable modifications at appropriate
moment of the programme implementation can be taken care of continuously. This
is precisely the hall mark ofthe PDCA cycle.

17.7.4 Hoshin Planning

Hoshin planning is based on the philosophy of focusing on doing the one thing for
achieving the long term vision or improvement activity. The Japanese words hoshin
meaning shining metal, compass, pointing the direction; kanri means management
and direction, management where as the words nichijo kanri can be interpreted as
daily (fundamental) management for the entity/organisation. Thus, hosliin process is
a systematic planning methodology for defining long-range key entity objectives.
These are breakthrough objectives that are long-range typically extend two to five
years with little change. (Breakthrough objective is that which aims at a radical and
dramatic improvement in one or more organisational competency.) Second the hoshin
process does not lose sight of the day-to-day 'fundamental' measures required to
run the organisation successfully (Kenyon,1997).
The HoshinKanri was first developed by Dr. YojiAkao, a Japanese planning specialist
in early 1970s and Hoshin planning process was first introduced in Hewlet Pacard
69

I
Total Quality Management Company of USA in 1976 and produced instant success.Hoshin process has the
following underlying beliefs:
• It is better to do one priority thing right the first time rather doing numerous low
priority things right. 'If everything is a priority, then nothing is.'

• Rather be pro active and empower and excite every one in your organisation
rather than be reactive and cpntinue to do similar things.
• Create a community of learners and leaders rather than continuing with
stereotypes.
In other words, Hoshin believes in continuous quality improvement with determination
rather loosing in doing several things in a routine manner.
Process of Hoshin planning: Hoshin planning process is useful in developing a
new strategy or modifying the existing strategy using the following broad steps:
1 Establish a customer-focused vision by collating the input and involvement of
representatives of all stakeholder groups.
ll. Let a focus group identify, analyse, and select one or two top priority problems
that are solvable.
ill. . Take one or two problems and benchmark them.
IV. Analyse alternative solutions that have strength in realising the breakthrough
objectives.
v. Review the existing policies and strategiesin relation to attainingthe breakthrough
objectives.
Vl. Hold a series of free and open discussion, brainstorming sessions with the
representatives of all possible stakeholders regarding the targets, solution
strategies, and policies and regulations for implementing them. The process
continues till representatives from all sections of stakeholders have been involved.

vu. With the lessons learnt from the above exercises, follow PDCA process in
order to develop plan- at least an annual plan and ifthere is more interest a five
year perspective plan.
vm. Continue with PDCA cycle till the improvement targets have been met.
Briefly, the Hoshin process emphasizes on:
• Breakthrough objective focus.
• Development of plans that adequately support the objective.
• Continuous improvement through incorporation ofPDCA cycle.
• Involvement of all stakeholders.

• Communication.
Educational uses: Like the PDCA, Hoshin planning, its principles and concepts
can be useful in any educational setting or organisation which is seriously engaged in
continuous quality improvement.

70

I
 Check Your Progress Tools of Management

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
7. List four integrative tools which are individually or in combination used during
the pre-planning stage. ~
.....................•..............................................................................................

8. What is action planning?

•
17.8 LET US -SUM UP

Three categories of quality tools have been discussed in this unit. They are group
process tools, basic quality tools or statistical processing tools, and integrative
tools. The three basic-tools that have been discussed here can be used as preparatory
processes for any other basic tools. Among these three tools, while brainstorming
and nominal group techniques are more open and free flowing, focus group discussion
is more structured and is widely preferred in solving edu~ational problems.
The seven basic tools - histogram, Pareto charts, scatter diagram; trend or run
chart, control chart, cause-and-effect diagram and flow chart- are basic in nature
that each tool provide vivid and accurate picture of actual picture of educational
issues. Besides, these tools help the educators in identifying the real issues, focus on
• specific issues and help to diagnose and evaluate key problems of education. The
visuals in shape of graphs and diagrams help common users to understand the
intricacies of the issues involved. .
• The seven newer type basic tools - affinity diagram, tree diagram, matrices,
interrelationship digraphs, radar/spider chart, force-field diagram and
benchmarking extend the scope of analyses of the earlier basic tools. These
are mostly used as the pre-planning tools and provide more and qualitatively
better insights into the issues.
• The four integrative quality tools - action planning, activity diagrams, plan-do-
check-act (PDCA) and Hoskin Planning are composite and integrate several
basic tools and group processes in orderto make educational planning more
comprehensive. While all the four tools are essentially planning tools, these
tools can also be used fo~implementation, monitoring and evaluation especially
the last two tools combine all these functions ..

71

1
 Total Quality Management
17.9 UNIT END ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss the relevance oftools of management in the context oftotal quality
an
management in educational institution.
2. Select any integrative quality tools and discuss its relevance in the context of an .
elementary schools. ~
3. Discuss the role of pre-planning tools in TQM in a college setting.

17.10 REFERENCES
Besterfield, Dale H. (2004). Quality control (7th.Edn.) , New York: Pearson
Education.
Bernhardt, Victoria L. (2002). The school portfolio toolkit: A planning,
implementation, and evaluation guide for continuous school improvement.
Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.
.
,
Delbecq, A.L. and Van de Ven,A.H. (1971). A group process model for problem
identification and programme planning. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science,
17, 326 - 328.
Downey, C.J., Frase, L.E., and Peters, J.J. (1994). The quality education
challenge. California: Corwin Press. _-e,

Friendly,Michael (2008). Milestones inthe history of thematiccartography, statistical

graphics, and data visualisation. h ttp i/. Zwww.math.yorku.ca/S'C SI Ga 11e ryl
milestone/milestone.pdf.

Fryman, Mark A. (2001). Quality and process improvement.

Goldstine, H. (1972). The computer from Pascal to VonNeumann. Princeton,
New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Ishikawa, K. (1985). What is total quality control? The Japanese way. Eriglewood
Cliffs, New jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kaisar Associates (1988). Beating the competition: A practical guide to
benchmarking. Washington D.e.: Kaisar Associates.

Kenyyon, David A.(1997). Strategic planning with Hoshin process. (http://

www.qualitydigest.comlmay97/htmllhoshin.html)
Latta, R.E and Downey, C.J. (1994). Toolsfor achieving TQE. California: Corwin
Press.
Osbome, A.E (1963). Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative
problem solving (3rd.Edn.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Sterneckert, Alan B. (2003). Critical incidence management
Stewart, D.W. (1990). Focus group: Theoryandpractice. NewburyPark, CA:
Sage.
Vedros, K.R. (1979). The nominal group technique is a participatory, planning
model in adult education. Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, Tallahassee.

Wheeler, Donald 1. (1999). Understanding variation: The key to managing chaos

(2nd.Edn.). Knoxville, TN: SPC Press.

72

I
 Tools of Management
17.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. a. Brainstorming

b. Nominal Group Techniques

c. Focus group discussion
2. Brainstorming has all the potential of generating ideas for bringing about
continuous development of educational system and process at all.levels. Some
examples of the educational problems require brainstorming for generating
solutionare :
a. What is the method of recruiting effective teachers for the elementary
schools ofthe state?
b. How to ensure regular attendance of all enrolled children in school?
c. Strategies for enhancing community involvement in school activities.
.. d. Ways of improving quality oflearning achievement of students .
3. There are seven basic tools, these are:
(a) Histogram, (b) Pareto charts, (c) Scatter Diagram, (d) Trend charts, (e)
Control chart, (f) Cause-effect diagrams, and (g) Flow charts.
4. A Pareto chart is a type of chart which contains both bars and a line graph. The
bar display the value in descending order, and the line graph shows the
commutative totals of each category, left to right. The chart was name for
Vilfredo Pareto.
5. ~ Affinity diagram
it) Tree Diagram
ill) Matrices
iv) Inter-relationship Diagraph

v) Rader/ Spider Chart

vi) Force- field Diagram
vii) Benchmarking

6. The interrelationship diagraph also called relation diagram, network diagram,

is a planning tool that shows in practical form the cause -and effect relationship
among the elements of a problem or issue.
7. The four integrative tools are:
a. Action planning

b. Activity network

c. Plan-do check -act cycle, and

d. H0~!:-J.rlPlanning

8. Action planning is an process utilised by a group to identify the essential

components of an improvement plan and to document these components in the //

form of non plan. Most action plan consist of the following elements. 73

I
Total Quality Management
• a statement of what must be achieved( the output or result areas that
come out ofthe strategic planning process).
• a spelling out of the steps that have to befollowed to reach this objective;
'"
• some kind of time schedule for when each step must take place and how
long it is likely to take (when);
• a clarification of ~ho will be responsible for making sure that each step is
successfully completed (who);
• a clarification of the inputs/resources. that are needed.

74

/
 UNIT 18 STRATEGIES FOR QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT
Structure

18.1 Introduction
18.2 Objectives
18.3 Strategies for Total Quality Education
18.3.1 Clarifying purpose and mission
18.3.2 Structure through systems thinking
18.3.3 Building interpersonal relationships

18.4 Implementing TQM in Education

18.5 Let Us Sum Up
.
, 18.6 Unit End Activities
18.7 References
18.8 Answer to Check Your Progress

18.1 INTRODUCTION
Quality,equality and quantity have constituted the elusive triangle of Indian Education
System. Of the three, ..•vhile issues of equality and quantity are considered as external
to education, quality is most central to all forms of education. Any education without
quality is no education at all: it will not be able to fulfill its promises and will also do
immense harm (Naik, 1975).
Since independence, India has made significant progress in all aspects of education;
particularly the quantitative expansion of education at all the level has been quite
phenomenal. But, the quality of education continues to be the matter of concern.
Caught between the individual and social aims of education, the quality considerations
focused more on teacher and subject- centered approaches relying heavily on the
teacher centred approach of school and classroom management. The student was
expected to be a passive receiver of the instructions. Emphasis was given on the
product rather than on the process of education. The quality of education is mainly
assessed by the outcomes and rarely by the processes.
In the changed scenario the facilitation oflearning is more important than directly
imparting information to the learners. Therefore, quality of education depends on
the type of educational management that nurtures, facilitates and sustains the quality
oflearning. In this context, the implications of the total quality management (TQM)
in education are worth studying.
You have already studied about quality education in the earlier unit. In this unit, we
shall discuss the strategies to enhance quality oflearning through the principles of
TQM.

18.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the Unit you should be able to :
• list different strategies for quality improvement in education. 75

/
TotalQuality Magement • aware of the role of strategies for quality education,
• discuss the different strategies of ensuring quality education.
• describe the processes of implementing quality education programmes.

18.3 STRATEGI~S FOR TOTAL QUALITY EDUCATION

As is clear in the Downey's Quality Fit framework, (Refer sub-section 16.13.4)

the sir 1ttGY building for the total quality management in education involves three
basic aspects and they are :
• Stating clearly the purpose and mission of the organization.
• E".suring proper structural characteristics with system thinking.
• Establishing strong relationship among all stakeholders.
We shall discuss all the three basic aspects in the following sub-sections:

18.3.1 Clarifying purpose and mission

The first step needed to initiate the total quality management in an organization is to
clarify the purpose and mission for which the organization is created. In this context
four quality premises have to be addressed: focus on the customer, shared mission
and vision, constancy of purpose, and continuous improvement. Let us discuss each
.premise in details.

i: Customers and their needs: In any organization, the customer is the most
important person who needs our careful attention. Customers should not be
considered as interruption in our work.
In a school, for example, a teacher's customers are students whereas he/she is a
customer of the principal. In the traditional framework, students serve the teachers
who work for the principal. But, in the quality fit framework this sort of organization
is just the reverse of traditional framework. Students are our primary customers.
You can not conceive an educational institution without the students. Any educational
activity conducted in schools ismeant to serve the students' needs. Similarly, the
teachers' main customers are students closely followed by their parents. Again,
teacher is a customer of the principal who in turn is a customer of the district educatisa --.
officer or management.
-~
......•.

School as an organization has both internal and external customers depending on

whether they are within or outside the school system. Besides students as the prime
customers, parents, teachers, support staff, administration authorities, etc., are the
internal customers of the school. Students as adults, institutions of higher education,
vocational or technical institutions, business and industry are some examples of the
external customers of the school.
In the framework of the total quality management the customer is the boss in both
the top-down or bottom-up approaches. The involvement of the customer in the
management is important. The customers are involved in partnerships, setting,
giving real-time feedback, and allocating resources. Since students are our most
important customers, meeting their needs is our first and foremost responsibility. To
serve them effectively, we should know them thoroughly:
(a) Who are our customers?

76 (b) What our customers want?

I
 (c) How well we are meeting their needs? and Strategies for Quality
Improvement
(d) How we are improving the ways we meet these needs?

One way of maintaining the customer focus is, as Kano suggests, enhancing the
quality of the organization, i.e. the school or any educational iristitution in our case
(Lillrank & Kano, 1989). He points ourthat quality is defined by customers.'
expectations arid excitement. When our need are met beyond the expected level,
we feel excitement which has immense multiplier effect. If our students are excited
about being in our schools and experience joy in their learning and the teacher feel
satisfaction and happiness in their work, then it is easier to sustain quality of our
education system.

Through we are more concerned with needs of our customers, it is also important to
take the needs of the service providers or suppliers into consideration. As you know,
each of us is a customer at the same time a supplier. For instance, a teacher is a
• customer of the principal or the district education officer while acting as
the main
.
, supplier for the students. In the quality movement, we have to help our suppliers to
help us in meeting the customers' needs. This is rarely done in the existing school
environment. For instance when we are unsatisfied or disgruntled with a product or
service being provided, how .often do w.e help that supplier to serve us meet our
needs better? When suppliers are not meeting our needs, spending time to help
them may be beneficial to us in the long run,

ii. Shared mission and vision: In the total quality framework every organization
must have its mission and \ ision to achieve The mission statement exprcs S ~ ." ,,-
intent with our customers and draws the focus of our actions. Ami ..sion ~r?:-:::,~~,!
of an educational organization may have four basic elem nts. The) me, , -.s.

• Who are the customers of the ..rganization (who receives the service)?

• Who delivers the service to the customers (who are the suppliers)?

• What is the purpose of our service (what customers' needs are met)? .

• What are the basic means to achieve our purpose (how

.
do we achieve the.
service or product)?

Fromthe above stated basic elements we can say that a mission statement of an
educational organization describes the aims, general actions to achieve those aims
and criteria for making the choices for actions. A mission statement is achievement-
oriented which we try to accomplish for our customers, the students. Each institution,
department, professional group and even individual in the organization need to have
separate mission statements.

Sample Mission Statements

• It shall be the mission of the school to develop the skills, attitudes, and
motivation in our students using contextual materials and experiences
so that they will become' responsible citizens and be capable of making
positive contributions to society.

• My mission is to offer instructional leadership that provide experiences

that facilitate the growth of each student to fulfill the district mission.

Once a mission is established, then a vision is needed to make the mission an ever-
evolving reality realizing the ever-changing nature of the customers' needs. Visions
look beyond what we are doing today to what we want to be doing in the future.
77

I
 Toral Quality Management Visions are about imaging the foture to create new possibilities. A vision statement
includes the following:

• Where do we want to be in future?

• What will we look like at that time?
• What will we be doiJg differently?
Sample Vision Statement

• Shahid Memorial School is dedicated to providing the highest quality

educational program with the cornerstones of value learning, self-worth
among students and staff, quality performance among students and staff,
and transition for students to a productive and responsible participation
in society at large.
• Five year from now, the district is committed to bring all out of school
.
,
children within the school going age to the schools through massive
community involvement and'ensure quality education to all.
Although it is relatively difficult task to help others to develop shared vision statements,
it is worthwhile to have such participation in developing visions for the organization.
It develops ownership of the vision and can inspire all concerned have a distinct
·course of action as they move to actualize their vision. Institution's vision, therefore,
need to be collaborative with direct involvement of all stakeholders. The task of
synthesizing multiple vision directions in a collaborative effort requires six leadership
qualities. They are as follows:
•
•
Foresight, so that we can determine how the vision fits into the evolving school
environment in future.
- ,
• Hindsight, so that the vision does not violate the traditions and culture of the
society around the school. .
• A worldview within which to interpret the impact of possible new developments
and trends.
• Depth perception, so that vision can be seen in appropriate detail and
perspective.
• Peripheral vision, so that the possible responses of stakeholders to a new
direction can be comprehended.
• Revision, so that all visions previously synthesized are constantly reviewed as
the environment changes.
(Downey et al., 1994 pp.42-43)
Shared vision is more important in the sense that it binds all stakeholders together
around a common identity and sense of destiny (Senge et al., 2000).
iii. Constancy of purpose. Deming (1982) in the first of his famous 14 points
advocated to create constancy of purpose toward the mission of the organization
(school system). After the mission statements are fmalized in an organization, it
is important to reflect the statements i~ our action or plans . Keeping the
mission alive ismore difficultthan creatinga mission statement.Ithelps in focusing
the energy of staff members. Having a sense of mission or constancy of purpose
means each member of the staff is passionate about the aim of the organization
78 and a commitment to ensuring that decision.

I
Downey (1993) suggests several strategies for maintaining a constancy of purpose Strategies for Quality
towards the mission: Improvement

• Ask in every situation whether this action, activity, thought.' or behavior

contributes in some way to assign value to our students and their learning.
• Have staff members and other stakeholders answer the question for each
decision point of how the decision facilitates the fulfilling of the mission ..
• Search out opportunities in all discussions to coach and influence others to
think about and act on the mission.
• Revisit the mission and vision statements regularly to revitalize employee
commitment, and have individuals check their work groups and their own
activitiesfor alignment with the mission.
• Have all work groups prepare and review mission statements in alignment with
the systemmission-groups such as administration, management, teams, teaching
faculties, department staff, grade-level groups, and interdisciplinary teams.
• Have groups identify critical success factors that will create opportunities to
bring about the mission and vision.
• Orientation of new employees for preparing their own mission and vision
statements. Place mission statements in documents such as yearlytargets, annual
reports, newsletters, letter heads, and name cards;
• Critique agendas for meetings for value to the mission. Debrief meetings and
ask whether the discussion and the proposed actions helped us to reach our
mission and vision.
• Ensure that management board meetings start with a focus on learning and the
student performance activities of work groups are in line to the mission and
VISIon.

• Establish yearly process goals and strategies tied to the mission and vision.
Of all the strategies, the most important is the way the main or core educational
leaders express their belief and personal commitment to the organization's mission
and vision. This behaviour would influence others to a great extent.
iv.. Believes in continuous improvement: In Downey's Quality Fit Framework,
continuous improvement or as many experts term it as 'continuous quality
improvement (CQI)' is a powerful idea that recognizes change as a continuous
process and accordingly quality improvement is also a continuous process.
CQI is an approach to quality management that builds upon traditional quality
assurance methods by emphasizing the organization and systems. It focuses
on "process" rather than the individual; it recognizes both internal and external
"customers"; and it promotes the need for objective data to analyze and improve
processes.
Deming's fifth of his 14 points is to improve constantly and forever the system.
Constantly andforever are the two key words on which he stressed. For him
quality is a never-endingj ourney. CQI is a management philosophy which contends
that most things can be improved. This philosophy does not subscribe to the theories
that "if it ain t broke, don'tfix it." At the core ofCQI is serial experimentation (the
scientific method) applied to everyday work to meet the needs of those we serve
and improve the services we offer. CQI requires that we need to change our mental
models constantly (Senge, 1990).Mental models or paradigms are the way we set 79

/
 Total Quality Management rules or regulations that define our thinking. Some of the paradigm shifts that quality
brings to school system are as follows.

CQI PARADIGM SHIFT

OLD PARADIGM NEW PARADIGM
Technology/machine resources- People as valuable resources
Narrow tasks, simple tasks Broad tasks, multiple skills
External control: Self-control: teams and ' o
mandated procedures Departments
o .
Hierarchical, autocratic style Flat organizations, partjcipative style. "
0., "

Competitive
"

Cooperative
Alienation: "It's only ajob" Commitment: "It's my job"
c
Low risk taking" Challenge, c~eativity, and high risk t~king
Maintain the status quo- don't Continual improvement and .:
rock the boat innovation ,'
..
Avoid or resist change
Stay on top of change

Core concepts of CQI: The following are the core concepts of cot. ,.
• Quality is defined as meeting and/or exceeding the expectations of our customers,

o Success is achieved through meeting the needs of those we serve.

.
• Most problems are found in processes, not in people. CQI does noi seek to
blame,. but rather-to improve processes. ' ~ .

• Unintended variation in processes can lead to unwanted variation in outcomes,

arid therefore we seek to reduce or eliminate uriwanted variation.

• 'It is possible to achieve continual improvement through small, incremental

changes using the scientific method.

• Continuous improvement is most effective when it becomes a natural part of

e
the 'Yay everyday work is done,"

Core steps in continuous improvement: We shall follow certain steps to ensure

continuous improvement of quality of education. The mainsteps are as follows:

•
••
•• U ncferstand the needs of the people who are served by the system:
"
.' '.
• Identifyand define measures of success. Find the bestpractices in your district,
or institution and set that as a benchmark for others. '

. '
• Brainstorm potential change strategies for producing improvement.

• Plan, collect, and use data for facilitating effectivedecision making.

. .
• Apply the scientific method to test and refine changes ...

Shewart's Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) or its popular variation Plan-Do-Check-

Act (PDCA) is the most widely used basic model for CQI .Each step can be
80

I
 r 0 '

improved with process charts, data charts, and team brainstorming. Following this Strategies for Quality
Improvement
simple model we can implement any CQI programme effectively. (For detail
, please refer to section 17.7.3 of Unit 17).

o ~8.3";2 Structur~ through systems thinking

The quality movement has' based in systems thinking, a powerful concept, into the
'educationalmanagement. A system is a dynamic and complex based entjty,interacting
~ a structured functional unit. Senge, defines a system as " any perceived whole
, whose elements 'hang together' because they continually affect each other over
time" (Senge et aI., 2000). Deming (1991) is of similar view and described it as "a
network of functions or activities within an organization that works together for the
<rimofthe organization". ., "
. ,

. The word.vsystem" is derived from the Greek verb sunistanai which originally
meant "to cause to stand together." As this origin suggests, the nature of a system
"
includes the perception with which the observer causes the system to stand together.
Within every educational district, community, school; or classroom, we can notice
.
.
,
dozens of systems: the policy of operfing of schools, deployment of teachers, school
, governance; curriculum development,' management of school discipline, conduct of
",~xan1inations.are all examples of.systems functioning, In thisconsideration, as .
Sengeet al:(2000) state, "every child's life is-a system, and every educational
. practice is asystem" (i,.7S). This statement ISin accordance with the philosophy of
,the quality ~ovement. : .., " '. . " ,
. . ~ '. J

Skyttner (2009) ~uinmariZ~.;;the nl!ii~characteristics-of a system:

• Q ".. '. • co.

• Interdependence of objects and their attributes -independent elements can , '

•• Q • • ". Cl...· 0.".
.". "",
, ..' •• 0

~ver constitute. a .system. ' '.' ',' , .' ' ~ '

. . '. ...
'. . (
(, ,

• ' '.H6lisrh ~emergent properties not po~si~le.to detect,byana:lysisshould be possible

", to define bya holistic app~oach., ' " . . . ' .
•• 0 " Goal seeking -systemic Interaction must result in some goal or 'fi~al state.
. . ... ' . 0,0:. " . o. •• 0 .
•. lnputs and outputs ', ina dosed, sYstem.'inpUts.are.determined onceand
constant; in an ~pensystein'adilitiof1al.:inp.~1i?
ard admitted fromrhe environment,
• 'T;an~fo~at~~~ oJi~f'~tS int~ '~utP~ts.:
.are obtained.: . ' '.'.:~.
i~sis t~e'," process
,
by Which the g~IS '
..
.
0 .' .: ". • ,.' " • '

.'. . . ...
/ <- "

' ..'

• Entf0py - the amount of disordero'r.randomne~s present in any-system .. ,,' ", , ,

• Q • '. • • ~. c '. • ." • • ",

• Regulation - a method offeedback is necessaryfor the system to operateas '

per expectations. .' '.' . .
~.
• Hierarchy - complex
. ".
wholes are rriade up of smaller subsystems.
. •
. . . :
• '11',
.
'

• Differentiati?n - specialized units perform specialized functions.' "

.
• Eguifinality - altemativeways of attaining the same objectives (convergence).

• Multifi~alitY- attaining alte~ative objecti~es from the

"
same ~puts (&~e;g~nce). ,

Systems thinking is the ability to understand (and sometimes to predict) interactions

and relationships in complex, dynamic systems: the kinds of systems we are
suIToumi~d by and embedded in (Senge etal., 2000). System approaches require
changes in the usualthinking from.. ,

81

1 \
Total Quality Management • Straight line to circular causality.
• Independent to interdependent relationsuips.
• External to internal focus.
• Knee-jerk, short-term, fragmented problem solving to proactive, long-term,
holistic solution seeking.
~
• Thinking something is wrong with a person to acknowledging a problem in the
system.
Peter Senge oftl.c Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) has been the most
influential contributor to the study of systems and systems thinking He points out
several important ideas regarding systems thinking:
• The world is independent and dynamic with multiple events happening
simultaneously.
• The focus of systems thinking is on patterns of events and the structures
generating behavior.
• The most important effects are often delayed.
• The emphasis needs to be on internal locus of control of people and leadership
in terms ofinfluence.
• In solving problems, there are no final right answers, but there are better answers.
(Senge, 1990)
Senge et al.(2000) suggests that systems thinking is shaped by four components:
l. Events: Whatjust happened? Critical event or events that engage us for
finding a solution is the starting point of the process of system thinking. Quick
responses to these events are not the solution to the problem, because they
only constitute the tip of the iceberg of the major portion of which remains
hidden from the sight. "

11. Patterns/Trends: What's been happening? What is the history of the

event that has just taken place? We have to study the pattern of the system
behavior and the trend of events for quite a long period which may throw light
on the nature of the real problem.
lll. Systemic Structure: What are the forces at play contributing to these
patterns? Solving the problem means changing the pattern of events that are
indicative of the problem to grow to the present state. Behind each pattern of
behavior is a systemic structure - a set of unrelated factors that interact, even
though they may be widely separated in time and place, and even though their
relationships may be difficultto recognize. When studied, these structuresreveal
the points of greatest leverage: the places where the least amount of effort
provides the greatest influence for change. These are not necessarily the points
of highest authority; they are the places where the ingrained channels of cause
and effect are most susceptible to influence.
Many of these systems have developed over time as the result of habitual
approaches to chronic problems. Study of the patterns would bring such
unintended yet influential structures to the fore.
N. Mental Models: What about our thinking that allows the situation to
82 persist? Systems often take their shape from the values, attitudes, and beliefs

)'
 of the people in them. That's because our mental models, our theories about Strategies for Quality
the way the world works, influence our actions, which in turn influence the Improvement
interactions of the system.
Each element of the systemic structure is based on a set of attitudes and beliefs.
Some of them have remained unchallenged, even though they are misleading or
counter productive, because they are unseen. Bringing them safely to the surface
and inquire about them is a significant part of systems thinking.
• Focus on optimization: Close to the concept of systems thinking is
optimization of organizations' functioning. Deming (1991) emphasized that in
order to obtain quality the system must be optimized i.e. to perform at its highest
possible level.During the process of optimization not all departments or divisions
in an educational organisation or an education system can be optimized. He
believes that it is the obligation of the department or division in the school
system to contribute its best to the system, not to maximize its own production
or service. Some components of an education system may need to operate at
a loss to optimize the entire system. Optimization for everyone should be thy
basis for negotiation between any two people, divisions, or groups in the
education system.
There are many examples of how optimization and sub-optimization can work
in an educational system. For example, for giving more time for learning in the
school or college, the availability of classroom time is optimized while other
activities like sports and cultural functions are suboptirnized at times. To achieve
this, the institution can take et cumber of steps for further optimizing several
components while suboptirnizing other components of the system.
Once the faculty members and others realised that not every unit can be
optimized, they will identify numerous areas where they can begin to work.
The key is to determine what they wish to optimize.
• School as a rational organization: A rational organization is one in which
the activities of the institutions are related to its goals and one that is able to
relate internal activities to its purposes (English, 1987). Any institution desirous
of maintaining quality need TO be a rational institution. Are our schools, colleges
or other educational organisation fall into the category of rational institutions?
The goals ofmost of our schools are nebulous because of various reasons,
one being that the groups that control schools desire ambiguity as a matter of
continuing to control them thus perpetuating the irrationality of the schools. A
rational education system establishes long-range plans for movement toward
system's mission and vision. Such plans will have the following minimal
components: .
• Mission: General purpose, beliefs, and educational goals of an educational
organization on which all programmes and services are built.
• Critical analysis: Collection and analysis of vital data of all facets of the
organization which is used to define the status and future ofthe organization.
• Assumptions: Assumptions about the visions of institutions in future are helpful
in bridging the gap between needs and action goals in the planning process.
• Components: Means of grouping goals for the purposes of communication
and management,
• Objectives: Statement of results that are measurable and that have time
constraints. Objectives are written for each goal. As objectives are attained,
goals are accomplished. 83

7
Total Quality Management • Evaluation: Each objective should be evaluated and the evaluation
procedures should be developed at t],p time the objective is written.
• Action plans: Actions to be taken that will help achieve the objectives: Each .
. ".

objective will have one or more activities.

• Monitoring: Systems for assessing the status of activities, analyzing the results,
and reporting outcomes.
• Stakeholders' involJement : All stakeholders in a ~ystem are tepresented in
the plan development.
• Linkage documents: All documents in a system are aligned to the plan.
• Establishing integrated webbed structure: This systems thinking process i,

is also influenced by the type of organizational structures. In the traditional

education systems the organizational structure is hierarchical as shown in the
figure 18.1 below.

Traditional Hierarchical Structure

of Management

Fig. -18:1 : ,Traditional Hierarchical Structure of Management

.
Hierarchical structures is usually top-down in' command, disconnected and
fragmented. '
. .." .
In suchastructure, the levels of employees or institutions are well defined and the
.. flow of communication is from one level to the next immediate level (higher or lower).
Such a system 'of management levels creates barriers for free flow of information
,and free interaction among employees' at ditrerent levels is not easy, Hence, involvement
and commitment of the stakeholders are rarely ensured. Most of our educational
'organisations and even education system use hierarchical system that is typically
paternalistic and dependent.

,Senge( 1990) suggests an integrated, webbed organizational structure. Such structures

are fluid and share power( figure 18.2). Irrespective of one's position in the system
; he/she can share arid communicate freely with any other members of the organization
to solve problems.
WEB STRUCTURE OF
. SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

84
__ -.- F::..;i:2.g.:
18.2: Web Structure ofSvstems Manazemenr _ _ _

I
 There are several advantages of the integrated web structure. Important among Strategies for Quality
them are as follows: Improvement

• Flexibility without lowering morale- people are not primarily concerned with
rank and position.
• One can serve in various teams without worrying about whether the assignment
is appropriate to status. ~
• The inclusive, webbed structure takes full advantage of staff skills and talents.
• It flattens the organization so that staff can be rotated, resulting in fewer
promotions and demotions.
• There is greater flow of information.
• There is more direct, free-flowing, integrated communication.
Transition or switching over from a dependent hierarchical structure to an
interdependent web structure is not easy. For years every one in the education
• system, the teachers and students, have been comfortable in dependency roles.
.. Quality leadership challenges us to become interdependent leaders. We share power
and become equal colleagues with others to solve system's problems and to fulfill
the mission. Such a transition is difficult but not impossible. But it is an exciting
journey when administrators, staff, parents, students, and external customers come
together in a systemic way to fulfill the institutuion's mission. Each member becomes
a highly competent, best-in-the- field person working collaboratively with all the
others- a dream team (Downey, 1992).
Using adhocracy approach: Adhocracy is a way of doing something different
than you are doing now. There are several critical attributes of an effective adhocracy
(Waterman, 1990). An effective adhocracy
• Requires broad participation.
• Cuts across conventional lines and boundaries.
• Directly confronts ineffective communication.
• Encourages a team effort.
• Requires trust and integrity.
• Minimizes mindless bureaucracy.
• Works only when the leaders expect it to work.
Focus on process: Focusing on the process rather than on the product or output
has been unequivocally advocated in the quality movement. Improving the process
is the personal responsibility of every employee of the school system. Each of us can
add value to the learning of children through our processes.
Deming expressed strongly that the goal must focus on quality issues, not on the
number produced. In school learning, the achievement scores have been the
indicators of quality education. Every thing in the school has become test-driven. If
these tests arenot measuring the important learningfor students,the student is probably
being harmed. Therefore, ensuring quality in the learning process is more important
than the achievement scores which can be obtained even without excellence in
learning.

The process unlike product demands continuous efforts. Ensuring quality means
monitoring process at appropriate points to improve its quality. Sashkin and Kaiser 85
"T'

/
Total Quality Management (1991) have proposed five qualitycheck points where the processes can be
improved:
User point:. We need to know as to how well our service useful to our customers
in meeting their need in real life. For our students, this would mean following them
into society to see how well their education is.coming to their help in solving their
real life problems. Only wheg we know customer needs, wants, and expectations
the desired transformation processes be designed.
Distribution point: This check point is the final inspection prior to customer use.

Process of actual production or service delivery:. The use of statistical process

control here to assess quality in the process becomes very important. Using best
practices in our educational institutions with a focus on curriculum and instructional
delivery would be valuable.
Incoming quality assurance: As we receive our products from suppliers and
vendors, we should check the quality of the product. In education, textbooks, and
other teaching-learning materials and facilities can be checked during their production
for quality. So far as non-material inputs are concerned those can be checked with
appropriate measures, such as the competence of new staff can be checked through
diagnostic tools and specifying areas of growth.
Supply point: The main intention is to work with suppliers to improve their products
and services before they reach us. This is comparatively easier in case of suppliers
of instructional materials and textbooks. But the main suppliers to the education
system are parents who are providers of children with whom we work. Working
with parents will help them to prepare their children before they come to our school,
and while they are in our schools.
Those who manage each of the five quality checkpoints effectively, as a part of a
complete, continuous, and constant process will successfully attain quality in all
fimctions of the education system.
Understanding variation: Knowledge of variation is one ofDeming's (1991)
four areas of profound knowledge. Variation occurs in every sphere of our life and
is unavoidable. In our schools the variations are observed in the performance of
students, teachers, provision of materials and resources and in all other aspects.
Enhancing quality is implied by minimizing variation.
Shewhart first recognized the importance of understanding and measuring variability
in a process (Sashkin and Kaiser, 1991 ).Deming(1991) pointed totwo types of
errors that arises while attempting to improve results by the study of variation. There
are two types of causes of variation- causes common to all variations, and causes
specific to particular variation. One type of error is committed when we treat the
outcome as a result of special cause of variation when it actually is due to the
common causes. The second error is caused when we attribute the variation due to
common causes when actually it is due to special causes. Common cause problems
of variation are recurrent while special causes are not.
Reduction of variation in any aspects enhances quality of that aspect. There are two
ways to remove or control the causes of variation. First, we want to identify and
eliminate the special causes by bringing them into a state of statisticalcontrol. Second,
we need to work on improving the processes by reducing common causes - causes
that still exist when the process is in statistical process control. /'
For control of the common cause rework, using contingency plans or asking people
86

I
to work harder will not work. Giving people new tools or changing the procedures Strategies for Quality
Improvement
might help. Whereas the special causes can effectively be controlled by using
contingency plans.
Encouraging data orientation: To deal with variations in systems, the quality
movement has a process called statistical process control (SPC). A number of
'quality tools' have been in use for SPC and ensuring quality of processes. (Ref.
Unit 17).

18.3.3 Building Interpersonal Relationships

Thethirdmajorleveragepoint in Downey's qualityfitframeworkisbuildingmeaningful
interpersonal relationships among all types of stakeholders and employees in our
education system. In developing a mission and a vision for our schools, we must
involve all stakeholders. Providing support to teachers while they are interacting
with students should be our priority. When we are engaged in transforming our
schools to quality schools, we need to mobilize the students, teachers, staff,
administrators, parents and community members to work in unison for providing
better opportunities for learning. Here mobilization means building meaningful
interpersonal relationships to bring about the desired changes in our schools.
• Mobilizes the employees. Employees in a quality organization function together
on their own initiatives to achieve the mission objectives. They are coordinated and
interdependent members in contrast to the employees of the traditional educational
organizations who are mostly either totally dependent or isolated and independent.
In order to transform the organization into a quality educational institution, its
employees have to be motivated to become interdependent.
Possibly, the following three actions conducted in right manner can bring about such
changes:
First, provide adequate training in interdependency cutting across the divergent
functions within an organization. The training inputs must include among other things
the basic premises and beliefs of quality, the nature and use of quality tools and
processes the understanding of which would help the employees to incorporate
those into their actions as they work together to solve real problems in the schools.
Second, an environment of mutual respect among employees must be established.
This would help in the occurrence of equitable treatment in the area of policy
development. A sense of fairness and appreciation should also be reflected by
developing regard for all employee contributions to the common purpose of the
organization. Finally, cross-fimctional teams of employees in an organization need
to be established. This will facilitate adequate access to one another, other teams,
available resources, and a shared information base that will allow them to make
decision at the lowest level possible in the organization.
Encouraging interdependent employees: Once the mobilization of employees
to become collaborative and interdependent is initiated, the educational organization
should encourage simultaneously the interdependent behaviors among them. At
this point we must distinguish among the three terms- dependence, independence
and inter dependence. Where administrators are autocratic and think that whatever
they do and think are always right, then the employees would be unmotivated and
in need of constant inspection of their work. They would be looking to the top for
any decision and direction. This creates an environment of dependency. In the long
run, the employees either become totally dependent or due to extreme frustration
they try to break the shackle of dependency and try to be independent. By seeking
independence through further dependent behavior one cannot be interdependent. 87
.,'

7
Total Quality Management Covey(1989) suggested development of seven habits mid employees that manifest
//
.0
in consistent behavior. Theyare:
i. Be proactive: Being proactive means taking responsibility - the ability to "
choose the response to a situation. Proactive behavior is a product of conscious
choice based on values rather than reactive behavior, which is based on feelings.
We may choose to be preactive by identifying mid clarifying our basic values
without being defensive, protective or offensive.
ii. Begin with end in mind:. The fundamental application of this habit is to
begin each day with an image, picture, or paradigm of the end of our life as
our frame of reference, By being proacti ve and using our imagination mid
conscience, we can vividly visualize our ultimate potential.
iii. Putfirst thingsfirst: It is the "Just do it" part of reaching interdependence.
It is the practice of self-management that impacts a person's personal mid
professional life.
iv. Think win-win: Win-win is a frame of mind and heart that constantly seek
mutual benefit in all human interactions. The concept of win-win is one in which
all parties involved in an issue arrive at amutually satisfactory resolution. It is
opposed to compromise wherein all parties involved in an issue had to give up
something. It is possible in a system that supports it - you can't talk win-win
mid reward win-lose. In any event, win-win is the creation of a third alternative
that seeks better solution to a problem. /
v. Seek first to understand, then to be understood: Seek first to understand
involves a paradigm shift since we usually try to be understood first. Empathetic
listening is key to effective communication. It focuses on learning how the
other person sees the world, how they feel. The essence of empathetic listening
is notthat you agree with someone, it's that you fully mid deeply understand
the person emotionally as well as intellectually.
vi. Synergize: Simply put synergy means, "the whole is greater than the sum ofits
parts." Together, we can accomplish more than what we can achieve individually
together, Synergizing is becoming truly interdependent.
vii. Sharpen the saw: It is renewing of four dimensions of your nature - physical,
spiritual, mental mid socio-emotional, All the four dimensions of your nature
must be used regularly in wise mid balanced ways. People in high performing
teams make time for such experiences and incorporate them into their weekly
activities. They are as follows:
• Creating organizational culture of'shared values and beliefs.
Interdependence, the hallmark of quality organization, is possible within a
culture of fairness, openness, trust, mid respect for dignity of others. To
create and sustain a clear standards or norms for behaviors and conflict
managements must be collaboratively developed and incorporated into
the organizational culture. Sashkin mid Kiser (1991) support the creation
of a culture based on shared beliefs. The development of an understanding
of an effective team environment is the first step in developing
interrelationships among the group members leading to interdependence.
• Understanding ;;;qJioyeesmotivation. Leaders must have knowledge
of the strategiesof motivating people intrinsicallyas opposed to extrinsically.
Employees should be encouraged to become self-motivated in the areas
88 of skill development, skill improvement, and quality improvement ofide4s

,
/
 and processes. Any organizational reward should be gained from this Strategies for Quality
premise and not be generated on performance .. The rewards and Improvement

recognitions should be based on those generating intrinsic motivation and

not extrinsic motivation. .
Divergence of personalities in a group striving to become a team can have
adverse effect on the group. A sensitive leader tries to assist group members
in transforming their need for extrinsic praise, rewards,
~ and. motivation to
meet their self-esteem and worth needs to learning how to have these
. , needs met intrinsically.By honoring individuals with trust, the leader can
empower them becoming innovative. As a person become innovative
divergent in his or her thinking, 'he or she will begin to make systems
improvement. ' J

• Recognizing failures in the system. Rather than believing that most

problems are a result of employee behavior, the quality movement
recognizes that most failures are attributable to system problems.
Performance evaluation of the system and not that of teachers and other
.. employees ia advocated by quality movement. A school transforming its
evaluation system from an individualized inspection model to a system
model subscribes to the Deming concept of improving the process not the
person.
• Provision for a community of learners. Establishing a community of
learners is achieved by providing ongoing education and training to intemal
and external customers and learning teams in a continuous efforts to
improve the system. Deming(1982) has identified a worker's education
and training as critical to the well-being of the employee and the
organization.

Whenever teams are actively engaged in constant improvement and taking·

action for change, they are learning the task at hand from one another
. and from their own actions. The notion of continuous learning is one that
every team and individual in an organization must strive to make a part of
his or her core being and practice in his or her behaviors every minute of
everyday.
• Provides for constant communication andfeedback. More and more
ongoing communication among management and employees effects
improvement in the organization.Communicationbecomes essentialamong
all stakeholders to solve intricate problems. The following ideas about
communication are important in building quality organizations:

i) Communication must be interactive so that stakeholders' ideas and

concerns can actively impact the direction the organization is taking.
il) One way communication by letters, memoranda, news letters are
becoming highly ineffective.

iii) Open communication removes reservations and misunderstanding from

the participants.
iv) Interpersonal communication behaviors can make or mar the environment
of trust and openness which is necessary for a group to transform into a
high performance team.
-.I
- 89

/
 Total Quality Man .-ement Some basic tenets for effective communication management are:
• ensure that each member of the team has a ~!~anceto be heard, develop a
shared knowledge base, go slow to go fast, listen with respect.
Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
5: How do the interpersonal relationship will be build up ?

6. List any three advantages ofthe integrated web structure .

..
--

18.4 IMPLEMENTING TQM IN EDUCATION

The decision regarding the implementation of the TQM in our system of education
has to be taken by the policy makers. But there has been clear trend towards
improving quality of education and making it learning centric is quite pronounced in
the National Curriculum Framework, 2005 and other recent efforts . Whether or
not we totally adopt TQM in education system of our country, we need to be aware
of the ways of implementing it so that it can be useful for infusing quality elements
into our system. In this section we discuss briefly the process of implementing TQM .
from the beginning.

• Before ann education system decides to start implementing TQM , it is highly

recommened that the policy makers, the decision makers, the members of top
management and administration, teacher's representatives, opinion leaders
- :sfUciythe basics of the movement in detail. Being a learner first is a critical
attribute in deciding about quality.

• Know who the customers are, direct and indirect, as well as internal and
external.

• Work on a shared mission and then on shared vision.

• Work on improving customers' services with internal customers. Particular
emphasis should be placed on improving the conditions ofteachers and other
employees, services and staff, the primary service providers and so on.
• Move the employees to refocus from themselves as customers to other
customers- especially our studen~s.
• Modeling from senior officers is critical. Model behaviors shown by the top
90 managers/administrators shall have direct effect on others in the organization.

1
 .• Decide and finalize using a collaborative approach regarding the essential guiding Strategies for Quality
Improvement
features on the three main points of quality i.e. Purpose, Structure and
Relationships for the respective education systems.

• Plan elaborately for each main point in the light of the Quality Fit Framework
which have been discussed briefly in this unit.

While implementing quality ideas in our education system, itis important to remember
what we know about change. Scholtes (1988) identifies several aspects of change
as they relate to our quality endeavors:

Keep in mind the laws of organizational change.

Things are the way they are because they got that way.

Unless things change, they are likely to remain same.

Change would be easy if it was not for all the people.

• People do not resist change, they resist being changed .

..
• Break down barriers.

• Identify informed networks.

• Build a critical mass.

• Treat change like a courtship.

• Anchor the change.

At the end let us see what Downey et al.(1994) had to conclude. The question for
us now is, do we begin? It means a long-term commitment to bringing about
meaningful reform in our educational organisations. But not doing it well could mean
another decade where quality is lost to increased productivity. Just another fad-
quality. Let us hope not. There are too many important quality premises to sacrifice
another opportunity, go for it. (p 122)

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answer with that given at the end of this unit.

7. What are the process of implementing TQ M in your organisation.

,
18.5 LET US SUM UP .,'
..

• The concept of quality in terms of customer's satisfaction has been reflected in

all definitions by all those associated with the Total Quality Management. The
dimensions of quality and quality education as per the basic premises of quality
education have been drawn.
,/
• The famous 14 points ofDeming about quality and its educational implication, I

91

/ /

I
Total Ouali-y Management along with the premises about quality given by two eminent quality gurus-JlI!JIl
and Crosby have also been presented 111lJ similarity of views of the three quality
gurus have been discussed.
• Basing on the premises of quality education, particularly on the Deming's 14 -
Points, dimensions of'Downey's (1997) Quality Fit Framework with its three
leverage points- Purpose, Structure, and Relationships have been presented.
~
• Under strategy for TQE, the conceptual discussions have been made under
three sub sections - Clarifying purpose and mission, Strucure through systems
thinking, and Buildingmeaningful relationships.
• Finally a short presentation on the implementation ofTQM in education have
been attempted. .

18.6 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1. Select any strategy and use it in your organisation for quality education.
2. Develop a strategy for implementing TQM in teaching-learning situations in
your school or college.

18.7 REFERENCES

Besterfield, D.H., Besterfield-Michna.C; Besterfield, G.H., and Besterfield-Sacre,

M. (2003). Total quality management (3rd• ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
British Standard Institution (1991). Quality vocabulary Part 2: Quality concepts
and related definitions. London: BSI.
Covey, S.R. (1989). The 7 habits of highly effective people. New York: Simon
& Schuster.

Crosby, P.B (1984). Quality without tears. Singapore: McGraw Hill.

Deming, W.E. (1982). Out of the crisis. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Deming, W.E. (1991, March). A system of profound knowledge. Paper presented
at the Quality Seminar, Santa Clara, California.
Downey, C.J. (1992, September). Can the Lone Ranger join the dream team?
Quality Network News, AASA,Arlington, Vancouver.
Downey, C.l, Frase, L.E., and Peters J.J. (1994). The quality education
challenge. California: Corwin Press.
Feigenbaum,A.V (1991). Total quality control (yd. ed.). New York: McGraw
Hill.
Johnson, R. and Winchell, W. (1990). Management and quality. Milwaukee, WI:
American Society for Quality Control.
Lillrank, P. and Kano, N. (1989). Continuous improvement: Quality circles in
Japanese industry Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Miller, D. (1993, August). Total quality management and the curriculum audit
seminar. Paper presented at the National Academy of School Administrators
Workshop, American Association of School Administrators, Gurnee, Illinois.

92 Mishra, S. (2006). Quality assurance in higher education: An introduction.

/
 Bangalore: National Assessment and Accreditation Council, and Commonwealth Strategies for Quality
ofLeaming. Improvement

Naik, J.P.(1'7/ 5). Equality, quality and quantity: The elusive triangle in Indian
education. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Owlia, M.S. and Aspinwall, E.M. (1996). A framework for the dimension of quality
in higher education. Quality Assurance in Education, 4~2), 12-20.
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, Y.A. and Berry, L.L. (1985). A conceptual model of
service quality and its implications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 49,
Fall, 41-50.
Pfeffer, N. and Coote, A. (1991). Is q1!ality goodfor you? A critical review of
quality assurance in the welfare services. London: Institute of Public Policy
Research.
Pirsig, R.M. (1974). Zen and the art of motor cycle maintenance. New York:
Vmtage.
..
Sashkin, M. and Kaiser, K. (1991). Total quality management.
Seabrook,NewYork: Ducochon.
Scholtes, P.R. (1988). The team handbook. Madison, WI: Joiner.
Senge, P. (1990). Thejifth discipline. New York: Doubleday.
Senge, P.,Cambron-McCabe, N., Lucas, T., Smith, B., Dutton, 1., and Kleiner, A.
(2000). Schools that learn. London: Nicholas Brearly Publishing.

Shewhart, W.A. (1931). Economic control of quality of manufactured product.

New York: D. Van Nostrand.
Skyttner, L. (2006). General systems theory: Problems, perspective, practice.
New York:World Scientific Publishering Company.
Waterman, R.H. Jr. (1990). Adhocracy: The power to change. New York:
W.W.Norton.
Watts, R. A: (1987). Measuring software quality. Oxford: National Computing
Center.
Weisbord, M.R. (1987). Productive workplaces: Organizing and managing for
dignity, meaning, and community. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

18.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Ref. section 18.3

2. Quality may have several dimension. Garvin listed as many as nine dimensions
of quality. They are -Performance, Features, Conformance, Reliability,
Durability,Service,
3. Juran 1974, recommends a ten steps approach in quality improvement. These
are as follows:
L Build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement.
ll. Set explicit goals for improvement.
lll. Organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify problems, 93

7
 rotal Quality Management select projects, appoint teams, designate facilitator).
IV. Provide appropriate training.

V. Carry out projects to solve problems.

VI. Report progress.
vii. Give recognition and reinforce success ..
IX. Communicate results.

x. Keep records of changes.

Xl. Build an annual improvement cycle into all organizational processes.

4. a) the definition of quality is conformance to requirement
b) the system of quality is prevention
c) the performance standard

d) the measurement of quality is the price of non-conformance.

5. Ref subsection 18.5.3

6. There are several advantages of the integrated web structure. Important among
them and as follows:

• Flexibility without lowering morale- people are not primarily concerned

with rank and position.

• One can serve in various teams without worrying about whether the
assignment is appropriate to status.

• The inclusive, webbed structure takes full advantage of staff skills and
talents.

• It flattens the organization so that staff can be rotated, resulting in fewer

promotions and demotions;
• There is greater flow of information.
• There is more direct, free-flowing, integrated communication
7. Ref. sub-section 18.6

.
r

~4

------------------------------------------------------------~~~.~.~~~~~~
1
 UNIT 19 ROLE OF DIFFERENT AGENCIES
Structure
19.1 Introduction

19.2 Objectives

19.3 Agencies Associated with School Education

19.3.1 Advisory Bodies at School Education
19.32 Examining Boards at School level
19.3.3 Others Agencies

19.4 Bodies at Higher Education Level

19.4.1 University Grants Commission (UGC)
19.42 State Councils of Higher Education
19.4.3 National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
19.4.4 All India Council ofTechnical Education (AICTE)
.. 19.4.5 Distance Education Council (DEC)
'19.4.6 Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR)
19.4."7 Bar Council of India (BCI)
19.4.8 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
19.4.9. Rehabilitation Council ofIndia (RCI)
19.4.10 Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR)
19.4.11 Council of Architecture (CoA)
19.4.12 In'stitute of Company Secretaries ofIndia (lCSI)
19.4.13 Institute of Cost and Works Accountant ofIndia (lCWAI)
19.4.14 National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI)
19.14.15 Association ofIndian Universities (AIU)

19.5 Let Us Sum Up

19.6 Unit-endActivities

19.7 References

19.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

19.1 INTRODUCTION
You might have come across in the colleges/universities/professional education
institutions/ school's admission notification regarding their grade by NAAC or
recognition by AICTE, NCTE, CBSE, ICSE and so on. These agencies orbodies
are responsible for accreditation/recognition ofthe institutions. India's commitment
to progress immediately after attaining independence system has led to rapid
expansion at both the school and higher education levels. The quantitative growth
of educational institutions, the student enrollment and the number of teachers in a
short span of time led to the dilution of quality of education at all levels that is input,
process and output. Similarly increase in the participation of private and international
partners in education and use ofICTs in education have led educational institutions
in the country to provide services to a good qualify and also comparable to its
international counterparts. In this context, the education system confronted with
many questions such as: -
• What are the determinants of quality in education?
95
• How to measure or assess an instifution objectively?

/
 Total Quality Management • Who will assess the educational institution?
• What are the different bodies associated with it at the national level?
• What are the major challenges faced by them?
These are sonie questions and you may be thinking of many more in this aspect.
In this present unit we will be discussing about them and their role in quality education
either at the school education or higher education.

19.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• list various agencies involved in total quality management;
• discuss the role of various agencies involved in improving the quality of school
education; and

.. • discuss the role of various agencies involved in improving the quality of higher
education.

19.3 AGENCIES ASSOCIATED WITH SCHOOL

EDUCATION

Youhave studied about various national bodies in the Course MES 042 :Dimensions
of Educational Management. Many of those bodies/agencies are associated
with quality control and/or quality assurance at the school and higher education
levels. In this section you shall study various bodies engaged in quality assurance of
school level education. They are advisory bodies, examination bodies, and other
miscellaneous bodies.

19.3.1 Advisory Bodies at School Education

National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is anational
level advisory body for school education in the country. The NCERT undertakes,
supports and finds educational research and offers training in research
methodology. Developmental activities in school education include development
and renewal of curricula and instructional materials for various levels of school.
education and making them relevant to changing needs of children and society. The
innovative activities include development of curricula and instructional materials in
the area ofpre-school education, formal and non-formal education, vocational
education and teacher education. These also include the domains of educational
technology, population education, inclusive education and other important areas.
The N CERT and its regional institutes of education are involved in pre-service and
in-service training ofteachers at pre-primary, elementary, secondary and higher
secondary levels. Vocational education, educational technology, guidance and
counseling, and special education are the areas with in which NCERT is associated.
NCERT through its various departments of the National Institute of Education
(NIE), Regional Institutes of Education (RIEs), Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET) and Pandit Sundarlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational
Education (PSSCIVE) are engaged in various extension activities in all the States
and Union Territories of the country.
(

NCERT publishes textbooks for different school subjects for classes I to XII and
96 also workbooks, teachers' guides, supplementary readers, research reports, etc.

I
In addition, it publishes instructional materials for teacher educators, teacher trainees Role of Different Agencies
and in-service teachers. These materials are adapted/ adopted by various state
governments for school education. The textbooks are published in English, Hindi
and Urdu. Besides, it publishes educational journals in the area of school education
and teacher education in English and Hindi languages.
NCERT interacts with international organizations such,as UNESGO, UNICEF,
UNDP, and World Bank in specific educational problems and arranges training
programmes for personnel from other countries. N CERT is one of the centers of
APEID.1t also acts as the Secretariat of the National Development Group (NDG)
for educational innovations. In this way the NCERT acts as a major agency for
implementing the bilateral cultural exchange programmes entered into by the
Government of India with the governments of other countries in the fields of school
education and teacher education.
State Council of Educational Research And Tr~ining(SCERTs), States
Institutes of Education (SIEs) and State Institutes of Educational
Management and Training (SIEMATs): States have various bodies/agencies
for advisory, regulatory and accreditation purposes concerning school education.
Institutions like SIE, SCERT , SIEMAT, etc are responsible for quality education
in institutions under their jurisdiction.
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): It has provided an alternative
school education opportunities to all those students who could not avail formal school
education due to one of the other reason.
As an apex body, NIOS functions as a resource organization for all the States and
Union Territories in the country. NIOS has also the responsibility to expand the
open distance learning system (ODL) at the school level throughout the country. It
has been playing the lead role in developing a network of open schooling channel in
the country and as a result ten State Open Schools have come up. The National
Consortium of Open Schooling (NCOS) set up by NIOS has an important role in
the promotion and development of open schooling in the country.
The NIOS provides opportunities of continuing education to the learners through
its basic education, secondary education, senior secondary education, vocational
education and life enrichment courses.
The NIOS provides opportunities to learners to choose vocational subjects in
combination with academic subjects at both the secondary and senior secondary
levels. There is unique blending of academic courses with the vocational courses so
that learners can make a choice about whether to pursue both or one of the streams.
State Open Schools (SOSs): A number of states have established open schools to
cater to educational oppurtunities for all those who cannot afford formal school
education due to one or the other reason. The SOSs have been assigned regulatory,
accreditation, examination and quality assurance role, in respective states.

19.3.2 Examining Boards at School Level

Being in the concurrent list, education in the country is controlled by both the states
as well as central governments. Therefore provision and maintenance of the quality
in educational institutions is the responsibility of the respective states and central
governments. The constitutional position of education under centre as well as
respective state governments has given the administering authority for education in
the country to Government of India at different levels, starting from primary school
97

1
Total Quality Management education to university level education and research. Therefore, education is managed
by the various apex bodies created by the government. There are various Boards
of education which affiliate schools and conduct examinations. The role and functions
of some of the examining boards are discussed as follows:
i) The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): It is an apex body of
education under the supervision of Ministry of Human Resource Development
(fvfHRD). Government of India. The CBSE acts as a controlling agencies for entrants
for various professional courses. The CBSE was established to achieve certain
interlinked objectives in the direction of quality initiatives in education in general and
examination cum certification in particular. The CBSE is an examination body for
secondary and senior secondary school certification. It conducts entrance
examinations, for various professional courses like medical, dental, engineering. It
also looks after the functioning of schools accredited to Central Education System.
It also affiliates schools, thus has control over the central education system. All the
schools of Delhi, Union Temtories, states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim falls
under the j urisdiction ofCBSlir But the jurisdiotion of CB SE also goes beyond the
national boundaries. The objectives of the CBSE are as follows:
• . Prescribe norms and guidelines for examinations and conduct public
examinations at the 'end of secondary and senior/higher secondary stages ..
• Grant qualifying certificates to successful students of the affiliated schools.
• . Fulfillthe educationalrequirements of children of people employed intransferable
jobs .:

• prescribe and update the course of instructions of examinations.

• Affiliate institutions for the purpose of examination and raise the academic
standards of the country.
The prime focus ofthe Board is on:
• Innovations in teaching-learningmethodologies for student-friendlyand students-
centered paradigms.
• Reforms in syllabus and evaluation methodologies.
• Skill based learning by includingjob-oriented and job-linked inputs in existing
and newer courses.
• Regular in-service training programmes for teachers and educational
administrators in current and crucial issues related to pedagogy, affiliation.
examination and rela!ed aspects. '
ii) Council oflndian School Certificate Examination (CIS~.E): It has been
established as an apex organization to control the system ofISCIICSE education in
India. It is aBoard for Anglo-Indian Studies in India. It was established in 1958 by
the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate to ensure that its
examinations become adapted to the educational needs of the country. The main
purpose of setting up this council was to replace the overseas Cambridge School
Certificate Examination conducted by British authorities.
It conducts two examinations' Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE)'
and 'Indian School Certificate' . Indian Certificate of Secondary Education is a K-
10 examination for those studying class X and Indian School Certificate is a K-12
public examination conducted for those studying in class XII. Indian School Certificate
98

1
 (Class XII) is treated as equivalent to Senior Examination of the University of Role of Different Agencies
Scotland. This implies that students will no longer be required to obtain' A' level
qualifications or complete bridge courses, while seeking entry to Universities in the
UK and other overseas Universities in the Commonwealth. Indian School Certificate
qualification is the only qualification from India that has been granted this special
recognition. Majority of schools affiliated to the B03.fdare in India and a number of
schools in other countries with non-resident Indian populatiens.
ill) The State Government Boards:
Apart from CB SE and CISCE each state in India has its own State Boards of
Education, which looks after the educational issues at school level in the State. A
school can also get affiliated to the State Government Boards.
iv) National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): the other functions of the
NIOS under advisory, regulatory and affiliating have been covered earlier. It is also
an examining as well as accrediting body and also dev.elops its own curriculum. It
• also accredits institutions fulfilling the required norms and conditions as its study
.. centres for offering its various programmes. Its study centres for secondary and
senior secondary courses are set up in the affiliated schools either by CBSE or state
boards of School Education.

19.3.3 Other Agencies

i) Central Tibetan Schools Administration (CTSA): The Central Tibetan
Schools Administration is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of
Hutna.nResource Development, Government of India established in 1961. The
objective ofCTSA was to establish, manage and assist schools for the Tibetan
children living in India while preserving and promoting their culture and heritage.
The schools are affiliated to CBSE and follow NCERT curriculum. The CTSA
is responsible to assure quality of the schools under its control.
0) Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS) :The Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti is
also an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Human Resource
Development, Govt oflndia that runs Navodaya Vidyalayasthrough the country.
These schools were created to identify and foster talented children from the
rural area ofIndia. These schools are located all over the country, including
Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar islands except Tamil Nadu.
The objectives of the NVS are as follows:
• serve the objectiv~ of excellence coupled with equity and social justice.
• promote national integration by providing opportunities to talented children,
largely rural, :fromdifferent parts of the country, to live and learn together and
develop their full potential.
• provide good qualitymodem education, including a strong component of culture,
inculcation of values, awareness of the environment, adventure activities and
physical education.
• ensure-that all students ofN avodaya Vidyalayas attain a reasonable level of
competence in three languages as envisaged in the Three Language Formula;
and
• serve, in each district, as focal point for improvement in quality of school
education through sharing of experiences and facilities.
Navodaya Vidyalayas are residential in nature where the students and teachers live
99
-- --- ---------------------------------------------------------

1
 Total Qnah y Management on campus. These schools draw their student strength from talented children, selected
on the basis of a merit test, called the Jawalc, Navodaya Vidyalaya Selection Test,
The test is held annually on all India basis and at block and district levels. The NVS
scheme ensures that rural children get high quality education, at par with their
counterparts in cities.

Admissions in Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas art: primarily for children from the
rural areas, with provision of75 percent seats for rural children and 30 percent
seats are earmarked for the children from the urban area. Seats are reserved for
children from the SC and ST communities in proportion to their population in the
district but no: less than the national average. One-third of the seats are for girl
students. Three percent ofthe seats are reserved for disabled children.

Navodaya Vidyalayas, affiliated to the CB SE offer free education to talented children

from Classes-VI to XII. Entry to a Navodaya Vidyalaya is in Class-VI only along
with lateral entry into Class IX and Xl. Each Navodaya Vidyalaya is a co-educational
residential institution providing free boarding and lodging, uniforms, text books,
stationery, to and from rail bus fare to the children. However; a nominal fee @ Rs.
200/- per month is charged from the students of Class IX to XII for Vidyalaya
"
VikasNidhi (school development fund). The fee exemption facility is provided to
the children of the families below poverty line.

ill) Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS) :The Kendriya Vidyalayas (Central

Schools) established in 1965, have come to be known as centres of excellence in
the field of secondary and senior secondary education promoting national integration
and a sense of "Indian-ne ss" among the children while ensuring their total personality
development and academic excellence. The Kendriya Vidyalayas have a four - folds
nussion;
• To cater to the educational needs of children of transferable Central
Government including Defence and Para-military personnel by providing a
common programme of education.
• To pursue excellence and set the pace in the field of school education.
• To initiate and promote experimentation and innovations in education in
collaboration with other bodies like the Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) and the National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERn etc.
• To develop the spirit of national integration and create a sense of "Indian ness"
among children.

There is a Quality Council of India and National Accreditation Board of Education

and Testing (NABEn under the Government of India that orient schools on various
aspects of quality education in the country, Conductionoftraining programmes for
teachers, evaluators and administrators at the school education levels in the prime
focus of these bodies. They have only advisory or facilitating functions in the direction
of quality school education.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end ofthis unit.

1. What is the main purpose behind setting up ofICSCE in the country?

100
•••••••••••••••• ~ •• * ,,, ••• ~ ••• f···..."...."~

/
I \
 Role of Different Agencies

2. Mention the four folds objectives of Kendriya Vidyalayas.

19.4 BODIES AT HIGHER EDUCATION LEVEL

Quality is the benchmark for development of infrastructure, curriculum, human
resources and research alongwith the establishment of centres of excellence,
interdisciplinaryand inter-institutional centres. In the earlier section,you have studied
that institutions providing school education at the secondary senior secondary level
need to be affiliated with an examining board. The same is applicable in case of
Institutionsofferinghigher education.
In the present context, it is mandatory for all the Indian institutions to be recognized
by the appropriate national and for state level statutory bodies established by the
Government of Indiafor compliance to qualitystandards.Accreditationforuniversities
in India is required by law unless it was created through an act of Parliament. Without
accreditation, the government notes "these fake institutions have no legal entity
to call themselves as UniversityNishwavidyalaya and to award 'degree'
which are not treated as valid for academic/employment purposes".
There are various bodies responsible for quality assurance. Atpresent, India has
two government-run accreditation bodies: the National Board of Accreditation
(NBA), constituted by the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), an autonomous body
established by the University Grants Commission (UGC).
The various professional councils that are responsible for recognition of courses,
promotion of professional institutions and providing grants to undergraduate
programmes and various awards. Some of the statutory professional councils are
as follows:
• All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
• Distance Education Council (DEC)
• Indian Council ofAgricultural Research (ICAR)
• Bar Council ofIndia (BCI)
• National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
• National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
• Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
• Medical Council of India (MCI)
• Pharmacy Council ofIndia (PCI)
• Indian Nursing Council (!NC)
• Dental Council of India (DCI)
101
+

7
loud Quality Management • Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH)
• Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM)
• Veterinary Council of India (VCl)
In addition to these bodies there are agencies not having statutory functions but are
associated with quality aSPfcts. One of them at the higher education level is
Association of Indian Universities (AID). Brief description of these bodies is given
as follows.
19.4.1 University Grants Commission (UGC): UGC is a co-ordinating as well
as a grant giving body for academic purposes to the universities and colleges. As
you know, as per our Constitution education is the subject of both the centre as
well as the states. The "coordination and determination of standards in institutions
of higher education, research and scientific and technical institutions" is exclusively
the responsibility of the centre. To take care of this provision the UGC was established
as a statutory body required to regulate academic standards in addition to allocation
of funds. The National Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC) of India is
an autonomous body under the UGC and helps in quality maintenance through
accreditation procedures for universities.
19.4.2 State Councils of Higher Education: Following the National Policy on
Education, some state governments have established State Councils of Higher
Education (SCHE). These councils prepare coordinated programmes of development
of higher education in the respective state. The Andhra Pradesh State Council of
Higher Education (APSCHE) is the first body established by the Government of
A.P. A detailed description of this body has been covered in the Unit 3: Role of
National Bodies of the Course MES 042: Dimensions of Education.
19.4.3 National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC):The was
established by UGC to assess and accredit institutions of higher learning in the
country. It was established in 1992 as a result of recommendations ofN ational
Policy on Education ~1986' which emphasized on the deteriorating quality of higher
education in the country.
The NAAC certifies institutions of higher learning (colleges, universities, institutes,
etc) in the country; however, it does not include the institutes providing technical
education. As discussed earlier, the technical education institutions are accredited
by National Board of Accreditation (NBA), an organization established by All India
Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi. NAAC stresses on quality
assurance, as integral part of the functioning of higher education institutions. The
main functions of the organization are as follows:

• arrange for periodic assessment and accreditation of institutions ofhigher

education or units thereof, or specific academic programmes or projects;
• stimulate the academic environment for promotion of qualityofteaching-leaming
and research in higher education institutions;
.
• encourage self-evaluation, accountability, autonomy and innovations in higher
education;
• undertake quality-related research studies, consultancy and training programme;
• collaborate with other stakeholders of higher education for quality evaluation,
promotion and sustenance.
102

7
 19.4.4 All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE):The AICTE was Role of Different Agencies
established for ensuring proper planning and coordinated development of technical
education (this ;::",i.udesengineering and management education amongst others)
and for the regulation of proper norms and maintenance of standards. The purview
of A ~~TE covers programmes of technical education including training and research
~1 Engineering, Technology, Architecture, Town Planning, Management, Applied

Arts and Crafts, etc. at different levels. ,

AlCre continuouslystrivesto maintain the qualityoftechnical educationin the country.
The National Board of Accreditation (NBA) of AICTE aims to maintain level of
some of the programmes offered in technical institutions on par with programme
offered in institutions in other countries by inducing a quality auditing system and
establishing a datum for measuring the quality and excellence in engineering and
management education. The NBA periodically reviews and evaluates technical
institutes or programmes and recommends their recognition or de-recognition.
19.4.5 Distance Education Council (DEC): DEC is responsible for coordination
.. and maintenance of standards in open and distance education system in the country.
Established as a statutory body, it strives for coordinated development ofleamer-
centric open and distance learning (ODL) system and ensures high quality education,
meet challenges of access and equity to reach the un-reached. Mission of Distance
Education Council (DEC) is as follows:
• Encourage state governments/conventional universities to establish open
universities/ distance education institutes and create a network of such
institutions.

• Provide financial support and grants and academic guidelines to institutions of

open and distance education.
• Evolve norms, procedures and guidelines in respect of admission, evaluation,
and certification.
• Assess and accredit institutions of open and distance learning to ensure quality.
• Promote convergence of conventional ODL and other systems to facilitate
mobility oflearners through credit transfer/sharing.

The functions ofDEC are as follows:

• develop a network of open universities/distance education institutions in the
country in consultation with the State Governments, Universities, and other
concerned agencies;
• identify priority areas in which distance education programmes should be
organized and to provide such support as may be considered necessary for
organizing such programmes;
• identify the specific client groups and the types of programmes to be organized
for them, and to promote and encourage the organization of such programmes
through the network of open universities/distance education institutions;

• promote an innovative system of University level education, flexible and open,

in regard to methods and pace oflearning, combination of courses, eligibility
for enrolment, age of entry,conduct of examination and organize various courses
and programmes;
• promote the organization of programmes of human resource development for
the open university/distance education system; 103

7
Total Quality Management • initiate and organize measures forjoint development of courses and programmes
and research in distance education technology and practices;
• recommend to the Board of Management the pattern and nature of financial
assistance that may be sanctioned to open universities/distance education
institutions and the conditions that may have to be fulfilled by them to receive
such assistance;
• take such steps as are necessary to ensure the coordinated development of the
open university/distance education system in the country;
• establish and develop arrangements for coordinating and sharing the instructional
materials prepared by different open universities/distance education institutions,
and the student support systems with a view to avoid duplication of efforts;
• evolve procedures for sharing of courses and programmes and for the payment
of royalty or other c arges to the members of the network whose courses and
programmes are used by other members;
• prescribe broad norms for charging fees from students who join various
programmes offered by the network of open universities/distance education
institutions;

• collect, compile and disseminate information relating to the courses and

programmes offered by various open universities/distance education institutions;
• advise State Governments, universities and other concerned agencies on their
proposals to set up open Universities, or to introduce programmes of distance
education;
• appoint Review Committees from time to time to study and assess the
performance of the open universities/distance education institutions participating
in the network on any aspect relevant to the functioning of the network;
• prescribe a broad framework for courses and programmes including their pattern
and structure;
• evolve norms, procedures and practices in respect of admission, evaluation,
completion of course requirements, transfer of credits, etc. of students admitted
to the programmes of the open university/distance education network and for
the award of certificates, diplomas and degrees to them;
"
.' evolve guidelines for the organization of student support services for the open
university/distance education programmes;
• take such measures as are necessary, consistent with the objects of the University
to provide an innovative, flexible and open system of University education, for
the promotion, including introduction and continuation, of courses and
programmes which conform to the standards prescribed by the DEC, to
maintain such standards inthe institutionsofferingdistance education programmes
and to prevent, through such measures as are considered appropriate, institutions
from offering courses and programmes which do not conform to the standards
laid down by the Council;
• Appoint Committees for advisirig and assisting the DEC in the performance of
any of its functions or exercise of any of its powers.

104
~ ~~;P"
..- ... ..:-;

7
 Check Your Progress Role of Different Agencies

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
3. Mention three categories where the open and distance universities CCJIl meet
the needs of the learners.

4. Enumerate any three functions ofDEC.

..

19.4.6 Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR): This is an organization

under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education of the Ministry of
Agriculture with the role of developing agricultural technologies, input material, and
critical scientific base for attaining self-sufficiency in food. It is a national autonomous
body. It has been instrumental in the setting up and growth of agricultural universities
iJ1the country.
19.4.7 Bar Council of India (BCI): The BCI is an autonomous body which
governs the legal/law institutions in India. It was constituted under the Advocates
Act 1961 has to lay down the standards of professional conduct and etiquette and
also standards oflegal education. Some of the functions are as follows:
• promote legal education and to lay down standards of such education in
consultation with the Universities in India imparting such education and the
State Bar Councils;
'.. recognize Universities whose degree in law shallbe a qualification for enrolment
as an advocate and for that purpose to visit and inspect Universities or cause
. the State Bar Councils to visit and inspect Universities in accordance with such
directions as it may be given in this behalf;
• to recognize on a reciprocal basis foreign qualifications in law obtained outside
India for the purpose of admission as an advocate under this Act.
19.4.8 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE): NCTE was set up
by Government ofIndia in 1973 as an advisory body to the government at the
, Center and the State, on matters related to teacher education. However, on the
I recommendation of National Policy on Education (NPE), in 1986 a statutory body
to look after the teacher education in the country was set up as a first step to produce
effective teacb'ng professionals in the country. On 17August 1995,National Council
for Teacher Education (N CTE) was conferred the status of a stat~tory body in
pursuance to the National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993.

105

1
 Total OUb ~yManagement The main objective of the NCTE is to achieve planned and coordinated development
ofthe teacher education system throughcc: ~hecountry, the regulation and proper
maintenance ofNorms and Standards in the teacher education system and for matters
connected therewith. One ofthe functions assigned to NCTE is grant of recognition
/ permission to teacher training institutions for running various programmes.
Regulations laying ::!vWll the procedure for grant of recognition to various teacher
training programmes have also been promulgated. The mandate of to the NCTE
covers tiie whole gamut of teacher education programmes including research and
training of persons for equipping them to teach at pre-primary, primary, secondary
and senior secondary stages in schools, and non-formal education, part-time
education, adult education and distance (correspondence) education courses. '.
19.4.9 Rehabilitation Council ofIndia (RCI): RCI was set up as a registered
society in 1986 under the aegis of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
(then Ministry of Social Welfare) to standardize and maintain uniform standards of
training of professionals. The Council has the twin responsibility of standardizing
and regulating the training of professional and personnel in the field of rehabilitation
and special education. The objectives of the RCI are as follows:
.
,
• regulate the training policies and programmes in the field of rehabilitation of
persons with disabilities.
/",' ~.

• bring about standardization of training courses for professionals dealing with

persons with disabilities.
• prescribe minimum standards of education and training of various categories of
professionals/ personnel dealing with people with disabilities.
• regulatethese standardsin alltraininginstitutionsuniformlythroughoutthe country.
• Recognize institutions/ organizations/ universities running master's degree/
bachelor's degree/ P.G.Diploma! Diploma! Certificate courses in the field of
rehabilitation of persons with disabilities.
• recognize degree/diploma/certificate awarded by foreign universities!institutions
on reciprocal basis.
• maintain Central Rehahilitation Register for registration of professionals!person.
• recognize Vocational Rehabilitation Centres as manpower development centres.
• register vocational instructors and other personnel working in the Vocational
Rehabilitation Centres.
• recognize the national institutes and apex institutions on disability as manpower
development centres.
19.4.10 Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR): The body established
for medical education, is the body that formulates, coordinates and promotes
biomedical research in India. It funds research institutes in the field entirely and
through grants-in-aid given to non ICMR institutes.
19.4.11 Council of Architecture (CoA): The Council of Architecture (CoA) has
been constituted by the Government of India under the provisions of the Architects
Act, 1972, enacted by the Parliament of India. The Act provides for regisuation of
Architects, standards of education, recognized qualifications and standards of practice
to be complied with by the practicing architects. The Council is charged with the
responsibility to regulate the education and practice of profession throughout India
besides maintaining the register of architects.

106

I
 19.4.12 Institute of Company Secretaries ofIndia (ICSI): The Company Law Role of Different Agencies
Board 1960 started in a course in company secretary ship leading to the award of
Government Diploma in company secretary ship. The Institute of Company
Secretaries of India under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956 for taking over
fromthe Governmentthe conduct of company Secretaryshipexamination.The Institute
of Company Secretaries oflndia has established a statutory body in 1981 under
.the Company Secretaries Act, 1980 to develop and regulate the profession of
Company Secretaries in India. Its vision is to be global leader in development of
professionals specializing in corporate governance".
19.4.13 Institute of Cost and Works Accountant ofIndia (ICWAI): The Institute
of Cost and Works Accountants of India (lCWAI) is the only recognized statutory
professional organization and licensing body in India specializing exclusively in Cost
and Management Accountancy .It imparts education and conducts qualifying
examination for Cost and Management Accountants. It also regulates and develops
the profession thereof has chapters situated elsewhere in India and abroad. It also
exercises supervision for the entrants to the profession and to ensure strict adherence
.. to the best ethical standards by the profession,
19.4.14 National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions
(NCMEI): National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI)
has been established through an act of Parliament i.e. National Council for Minority
Educational Institutions Act (2004 ).It provides inter alia, for the rights of minority
educational institutions to seek affiliation to any university of their choice, provided
the relevant law under which such universities are created, allow such affiliation.
Disputesrelatingto the minority status of educationalinstitutionsare alsoto be resolved
by the commission. Thus, for the first time, Article 30(1) of the Constitution, which
gives minorities the right to establish and administer educational institution of their
choice, is being effectively implemented through the NCMEIAct.
19.4.15 Association of Indian Universities (AIU): Association of Indian
Universities (AIU) is an organization to evaluate the courses, syllabi, standard and
credits offoreign Universities and to equate them in relation to various courses
offered by Indian Uni vcrsitics.This is a body comprising the Vice chancellors of all
member universities, with a view to coordinate the work of all universities, establish
equivalence between degrees awarded by Indian and foreign universities, conduct
research on various aspects of university development, organize training and
development programmes for higher education administrators, develop databases
on higher education and publications, represent the universities in national and
internationalforums.
TheAIU is mainly concerned with the recognition of Degrees/Di piomas awarded
by the accredited Universities in India and abroad for the purpose of admission to
higher courses at Indian Universities. The AID is also an implementing agency for
. the agreements signed under the Cultural Exchange Programme executed between
India and other countries in the field of education, insofar as it relates to the recognition
of foreign qualifications (except for medicine and allied courses).
Its opinion as to legitimacy or recognition of any foreign qualification is not binding
upon anyone, as it is neither a statutory body, nor a part of the government. It is in
fact a society registered under the societies act.
In a nutshell ,the Higher Education sector ensures quality of the educational process
with the help of accreditation agencies established for the purpose.As you may be
aware that the main agency which accredits University and Colleges in general
education is the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) established 107

7
 Total Quality Management by the UGC in 1994, where is similar function for Technical Education is done by
the National Board of Accreditation (NBA~ set up by AICTE in 1994, and for
Agricultural education by Accreditation Board (AB) set up by ICAR in 1996. Some
of the other professional regulatory bodies have set up their own accreditation
agencies, for instance both the Distance Education Council(DEC) and the National
Council for Teacher EJucation(NCTE). In addition to National accreditation, local
quality inspection of affiliatql colleges are carried out by the affiliating University to
ensure provision of adequate academic infrastructure and satisfactory teaching-
learning processes. Analysis of examination performance of students is also used by
Universities to assess the quality of educational offerings ofindividual colleges.
Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
S. What are the main objectives and functions ofNCTE.
'. • ••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••• 0 ••••••

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ¥ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,.. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

6. Write any three objectives of RCI

19.5 LET US SUM UP

Role of regulating bodies or agencies have been crucial in the quality education at
any level. This unit aimed at discussing on various points related to this aspect. It
covered the points regarding different agencies associated with quality education:at
school, vocational, higher and professional education in the country.It also discussed
their specific functions as regulation,maintenance, funding/grantsand so on. Similarly
the common issues pertaining to quality education management in the country has
been discussed.

19.6 UNIT-ENDACTIVITIES
1. Select anyone regulatory body responsible for quality elementary education in
your state. Interview few school heads and elementary teachers regarding
guidelines provides to the school regarding quality education. Write a report
based on the information you received by interviews as well as your analysis.
2. Visit a website of a regulatory body for professional education and write a
report regarding its functions in providing quality education in the country.

108
---~ ._-

7
 Role of Different Agencies
19.7 REFERENCES

MES 042 Dimensions of Education, Block 1:Role ofNational Bodies, IGNOU,New

Delhi, 2009.
Dhar, TN (Edi); Modules on Quality Dimensions of Elementary Education Under
SSA, NCERT, New Delhi, 2004. i

Parikh K.S., Radhakrishna R.(2002), India Development Report 2002, New Delhi
:Oxford University Press.
Mathur, S.S. (1990). Educational Administration and Management. Ambala Cantt:
The Indian Publication.
Department of Education( 1997) District Primary Education. Programme
Guidelines; Ministry of Human Resource Development.New Delhi: Government
of India.
Agarwal, Y.P(1997) Database on Elementary Education in India: Scope, Coverage
and Issues. In N.V.Varghese (edited), Module on District Planning in
Education.NIEPA. New Delhi.

Government of India (1992) National Policy on Education:1986 (Revised Undertaken

in 1992),New Delhi: Department of Education.

Government of India (1992) Programme ofAction: 1992,New Delhi: Department of

Education
Government of India (1993) CABE Committee on Decentralised Management of
Education, New Delhi: Department of Education (Chairman: M. VeerappaMoily).
Darak, Kishor, G. (2008) Community Participation as Resource in Elementary
Education, Paper presented at National Seminar on Community and School
Linkages: Principles and Practices (March 17-19, 2008), New Delhi: NUEPA
Gaysu, R.Arvind(2008) Locating Community in School Education: Emerging
Perspectives and Practices to Empowered Participatory Governance, Paper
presented at National Seminar on Community and School Linkages: Principles and
Practices (March 17-19,2008), NUEPA, New Delhi.
Government of India(undated) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan- Framework for
Implementation. Ministry ofHRD, Department of Elementary Education and
Literacy, New Delhi.
Govinda. R. & Diwan, Rashmi (2003) Community Participation and
Empowerment in Primary Education, New Delhi: Sage Publications.

http://www.nos.org/
http://www.cisce.org/
http://www.cbse.nic.inI
http://ctsanic.inI
www.navodayanic.inl
http://www.kvsangathan.nic.inI
http://www.aicte.emet.inI
109
 Total Quality Management http://www.dec.ac.in!
http://www.icar.org.in!
http://www.ncte-india.org/
http://naacindia.org/
http://rehabcouncil.nic.inlhoine.htm
http://www.mciindiaorgi
http://www.pci.nic.in!
http://www.dciindia.orgi
www.cchindia.com
http://www.studentsguide:inIspecialized-research-institutesl central-coucil-of-indian-
medicine-new-delhi.html
.. http://www.ugc.ac.in!
http://www.nba-aicte.ernet.inlacc_doc.htm
http://www.icwai.org/icwailindex.asp
http://www.coa.gov.in!
http://www.aiuweb.orgi
www.icsi.edu
http://education.newkerala.comlindia-educationlBar-Council-of-India.html

19.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The main purpose of setting up overseas Cambridge School Certificate

Examination coducted by British authrities.
2. The four folds ofK vs are :
• To cater to the educational needs of children of transferable Central
Government including Defence and Para-military personnel by providing
a common programme of education.
• . To pursue excellence and set the pace in the field of school education.
• To initiate and promote experimentation and innovations ineducation in
collaboration with other bodies like the Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) and the National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) etc.
• To develop the spirit of national integration and create a sense of "Indian
ness" among children.
3. a. Those who reside in remote ares and do not have access to the higher
education
b. Those who can not join regular courses due to financial and other
constrains.
c. Professional aspriring for additional qualification.

110

I
 The functions ofDEC are to: (any three) Role of Different Agencies
4.

• develop a network of open universities/distance education institutions in

t!1ecountry in consultation with the State Governments, Universities, and
other concerned agencies; \

• identify priority areas in which distance education programmes should be

organized and to provide such support as may be considered necessary
for organizing such programm~s;

• identify the specific client groups and the types of programmes to be

organized for them, and to promote and encourage the organization of \,

such programmes through the network of open universities/distance,

education institutions.

5. The main objectives of the NCTE is to achieve planned and coordinated

development of the teacher education system throughout the country, the
regulation and proper meintenance of norms and standard in the teacher
.
, education system. One of the fuction assigned to NCTE is grant of recognition!
permisson to teacher training institutions for running various programmes.

6. a) Regulate the training policies and programme in the field of rehabilitation

of persons with disabilites.

b) Bring about standardisation of training courses for professionals dealing •

with person with disabilities.

c) Regulate these standards in all training institutions uniformly througout the

country.

'.
111

7
 UNIT 20 QUALITY CONCERNS AND ISSUES
FOR RESEARCH
Structure

20.1 Introduction
20.2 Objectives
20.3 Status of Research in Educational Management
20.4 Issues and Concerns for Research in Educational Management
20.4.1 Research in Educational Management
20.4.2 Priority areas of research in educational management

20.5 Educational Institutions and Research in Educational Management

.. 20.6 Quality Dimensions in Research of Educational Management

20.7 LetUsSumUp
20.8 Unit End Activities
20.9 References
20.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

20.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 19, you have studied different agencies/bodies associated with issues of
management in the field of higher education. One of the objectives of research in
educational management is to generate knowledge on the basis of experiences and
discovering truth from further improvement. Even NPE - 1986 focused on
strengthening research and development in its recommendations. In this unit, you
would study various aspects of research in educational management and the issues
related to improvement of the quality of research in educational management.
Focus has also been laid on priority areas of research in educational management
and the role and responsibilities of institutions associated with the research in the
field of educational management.

20.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• Describe the status of research in educational management;
• appreciate the issues and concerns for research in educational management;
• discuss the nature and scope of research in educational management;
• identify the priority areas of research in educational management; and
• explore the quality indicators of research in educational management

20.3 STATUS OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL

MANAGEMENT

In our country educational management is usually not an area of priority in the past
112 in Universities and other higher education institutions. The total focus of management

/~
 was into business and other corporate sectors. Therefore, it was not a subject of Quality Concerns and
priorityin the education sector.But the situationis changing with the recommendations Issues for Research

ofNPE-1986 where emphasis has been laid on the need for professionalisation of
educational management. In view of improving the quality of education, it is quite
essential to have a review and analyse research in educational management for
various resources, such as
• Developing clear understanding of managerial difficulties.
• Understanding issues and concerns related to service.
• Developing a conceptual framework for the benefit of educational structure.
• Identifying difficulties in bringing effectiveness in management system of
education.
Analysis of research in educational management
Success of implementation of any policy would be a function of its management
process. It would be an essential requirement to examine the studies that have
already been done by experts and researchers. Table 20.1 presents classification of
researches in educational management in the first three surveys of Research in
'. Educational Management.
Table 20.1: Classification of Researches in Educational Management
S.No Survey I Survey 11 Survey III
1 Education authority or Educational History and
agencies agencies development of
educational
institutions
2 Inspection and Inspection & Administration &
supervision supervisron organization of
institutions
3 Different branches of .Stage of education Supervision and
education teaching methods
4 Educational problems Organization and Wastage, stagnation
such as compulsory planning and dropout
education, wastage &
stagnation
5 Organization and Organisational Psycho-social,
planning climate and teacher factors/aspects of
. morale teachers
6 Organizational behaviour Policies and Special institutions
reforms, teachers Studies on
problems and universal elem.
attitudes etc. education, medium
of instruction,
effectiveness if
N.C.C.
programmes,
manpower,
nutrition for pre-
scholars, etc.
7 Education policy,
reforms, teacher's
participation in school
administration, teacher
organizations etc.
Source: Fourth Survey of Research in Educational management a trend report,NCERT
113
Publications.

1
 Total Quality Management To get a clear picture of the researches, it is essential to have an understanding of the
various aspects of the analysis of the content of research. Table 20.2 presents
analysis of content of abstracts provided in the first three surveys of educational
management in the surveys of Researches in Education by NCERT, India.
l
Table 20.2: Analysis of Content of Abstracts of Research i~ Educational
Management
S.No Survey J Survey n Survey III
1 Administration of Administrative Academic achievement,
schools agencies behaviour, administrative
I administrative coordination,
climate administrative process,
aggregate approach.
2 Attitude of teachers Attitude of teachers
3 Conditions of pre- Centre-State
I
primary education relations In
education;
classroom climate
" 4 Communication
5 Dropouts Dropouts
6/ Evaluation criteria for Educational
school inspection facilities
7 Evaluation of different Educational
,- educational settings planning
8 Evaluation of Govt. Evaluation Educational Management
, educational policies
9 Evaluation of • Educational status
teacher training • Expenditure on
programmes education
• Educational planning
• Educational structure
• Evaluation of education
structure &
management practices
• Educational facilities
• Educational agencies
• Educational forecast
• Effective
communication
• Educational
environment
• Institutional
" Environment
• Home Environment
• Examination
Committees
• Admission policy
10 Historical:
evaluation of
education
11 Human relations Human attitude and values

114

1
 12 Implementation Inspection • Industrial-polytechnic Quality Concerns and
Issues for Research
institutional collaboration
improvement • Implementation
• Innovation
• Innovations in teaching
methods
~•
Insufficient equipment
• Inefficient functioning
13 Job-satisfaction of Job motivation Leadership aspects of
teachers superviston
14 Leadership role Leadership Leadership training
behaviour programmes
Lack of specialization, staff
Source: Fourth survey of research in educational management a trend report, NCERT, India.

Analysis of the above tables 20.1 & 20.2 will help us to identify the types and
nature of problems and variables studied in the field of educational management. It
• is clearlyevident that large number of studies in the areas of organizational processes
.. and behavioral aspects have been conducted. But there are many more areas of
management which have yet to be explored. Similarly the aspects covered are
unrelated, scattered, thus need indepth research exploration to arrive at indepth and
relevanttrends forpolicymakers for qualityimprovement in educationalmanagement.

The structure and process of management of education is influenced by the

developments arising out ofimplernentation of National Policy ofEducation 1986
and 1992 (revised). It is disheartening to find to see that there has been a decline in
the number of studies on educational management over the years. Analysis the
studies conducted so far could be classified under two broad aspects namely; i)
history and status, planning, special groups and special problems; and ii) goals of
management, decentralization, participation, professionalism, autonomy,
. accountability, structures, behavioral aspects, resources, practices, legal supports
and personnel. .

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

1. State the need of review of research studies in educational management.

2. On the basis of your understanding of researches in educational management

state emerging areas of research in this area .

...................................................................................................................

.. ..................... ........................ ......... .. .. ..~ .

...................................................................................................................
115

7
 Total <? .at;' i Management
20.4 ISSUES AND CONCERNS FOR RESEARCH IN
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Research and development are two sides of the same coin. This is equally true for
educational management also. Though many studies have been undertaken in this
area of study during last few decades but there are certain issues that need special
attention for facilitating researchers to undertake quality study in educational
management. The specific issues which need to be addressed for accelerating the
process of research, development and extension in educational management are:
• Developing a pre-requisite for managerial position in the field of educational
management.
• Establishing set of criteria for research in educational management.
• Establishing criteria for undertaking research in educational management.
• Criteria of assessing research findings.
.. • Assessing quality in practice-based research in educational management.
• Initiatives related to applied research in the field of educational management.
• Explore understanding on the use of different modalities for research in
educational management.

• Lack of thrust area under researches in the management in educational field

and at the same time neglect of key areas like systemic management, strategy,
philosophical foundation in the research studies in the area of educational
management etc.

• Absence of due orientation of researchers in conducting research studies in

educational management.
.• Lack of quality research studies in the area.
• Minimum professional support system for undertaking research in educational
management.

• Developing need based professional approach to research studies in the

educational management.
• Assessment of the validity,adequacyreliabilityof,researchfindingsin educational
management.

• Due consideration in research methodology is another crucial issues in

educational management.
It has been observed that large number of research studies are in the areas of process
of organization or behavioural aspects whereas there are hardly any researches in
other aspects. At the same time, it is evident that many such studies in the
organizational behaviour area are influenced by the availability of standard research
instruments.

20.4.1 Research in Educational Management

Management of education at different levels aims at maximising output in terms of
learningachievement of children.Functionaries associatedwith effectivemanagement
education should be adequately trained in the changed senario. Educational
116 management nlanninz is quite diffe=»r fr()m inrlll<:tri~l """l"\"~ementplanning. It

I \
demands strategic approaches for the national development and reconstruction. This Quality Concerns and
is considered to be in initial stages. Research and development in educational Issues for Research
management has not been given due priority yet. As you may be aware of that
research in educational management requires certain special ability, aptitude and
interests on the part of researcher but in our country, this is one of the neglected
area. Research in this field should include utilization aspects and cater to the need
of excellence. i

20.4.2 Priority areas of research in educational management

Some broad areas of research which need immediate attention for continuous updation
'.
and up gradation of institutions and its functioning in the field of educational
management are as follows:
• Systemic planning for educational management at different levels.
• Assessment and accreditation of educational institutions.
t. Performance of management in different kinds of educational institutions.
• Disciplinary approaches in management of education.
• Effectiveness of implementation approaches and reform processes and practices
in the field of education.
• Educational planning at different levels.
• Functioning of state level boards/councils/universities in the management of .
education.
• Alternative and innovative forms of education for inclusive growth.
• Delivery strategy/mechanism of school boards and councils.
• Functioning ofNGOs and other institutions in educational planning and
management.

• Management of change and quality in education.

• Globalization and its impact on educational administration and management in
the country.
• Reforms in educational system and its management in 21 st Century.
• Policy research in educational management and administration at all levels.
• Management of school education and quality parameters.
I

• Functioning of national and state level institutions at the grassroot level

functionaries.

• Decentralization of educational programmes and policies.

•
.
Innovations in educational management at different levels.
There are many more areas which required immediate attention of researchers in the
field of education management. Practically it is not possible to listthe whole. National
resources must be utilized effectively for bringing out a desired change in the field of
education through systemic planning and its execution.

117

/
Total Quality Management Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.
b) Check youranswers with those given at the end of this unit.
3. State three limitations in the areas of educational management in our country.
~
...................................................................................................................

4. What are the new dimension of research in educational management?

........................................................................................ , .

20.5 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND RESEARCH

IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Large numbers of educational institutions are associated with research and innovations
in educational management. Though different institutions have their own goals but
they are interdependent and interrelated. Pertaining to the development of systemic
management in education, the basic thrust of research in educational management is
to ensure institutionalsustainabilitywith high quality.National institutions likeNational
University of Educational Planning andAdministration(NUEPA),National Council
of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), University Grants Commissions
(UGC), National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU) and international organizations like UNICEF, UNESCO,
World Bank, etc, focus on research and extension in educational management and
associated with the development of bench mark in quality assurance and accreditation
system.
Research and innovations provide vision and help us to move towards achievement
ofthe goals. Focusing on research and innovations in the field of educational
management should be the major concerns of all academics and educational
administrators, planners and implementers. Certainly this aspect linked to innovations
in curriculum, in institutional management and in teaching learning strategiesas well.
The reality is that today institutional focus on quality research and its integration
needs reviewing. Exploiting the creativity of students and their research potentials is
a real challenge. Supporting and motivating students to bring innovations in the design
and development of their thoughts should be given priority in all educationalinstitutions
for thy development of better system of management in the field of education.
Facilitating research in educational management
Today there is an increasing in demand for trained human resource. for quality
research and development in educational institutions. National level institutions like
NCERT, NUEPA, IGNOU, UGC, DEC, etc., can play a major role in preparing
individuals and institutions to meet the demand of the society. These institutions
118
'-=~
-:t

7
 provide financial assistance to other institutions and individuals for undertaking quality Quality Concerns and
research for meeting the challenges of effective management of educatioIialinstitutions. Issues for Research

Promotion of research in educational management is essential for improving quality

offunctioning and mode of delivery system. Certain common strategies to facilitate
researchin educational management are as follows:
• Ensuring participation of faculty in developmental programmes, workshops and
conferences for up-dating and up grading their knowledge and skills in
undertaking research.
• Providing financial assistance to faculty in exploring
I
new ideas in the field of
educational management and administration.
• Encouraging provision of grants and other facilitieswith academic, administrative
and financial autonomy to the educational institutions to undertake research' in
educational management.
•• Motivating students, research scholars and other stockholders to undertake
•. research in different aspects of educational management.
• Focusing more on functions like planning, organization and coordination of
educational institutions,
• Reorienting the research strategies towards developing excellence in educational
management.
• Promoting training and orientation of functionaries associated with functioning
of educational management and administration.
\
'. Understanding the significanceof research in the fieldof educational management.
• Developing collaboration with N GOs and other organizations for promoting
research ill educational management.
• Promoting research centers for exploring knowledge.
• Focusing on research based teaching learning processes which can certainly
facilitate vertical integration.
• Identifying the priority areas of research in educational management with the
view to improve systemic strategies .
. Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
5. Mention the role of national level institutions in providing support to undertake
research on educational.management.
...................................................................... ~ .

6. Listthe benchmark for improving quality of research in educational management.

119

1
Total Quality Management

20.6 QUALITY DIMENSIONS IN RESEARCH OF

EDUCATION~L MANAGEMENT
Quality of research in educational management and administration is an index of
development of education. Assessment of research quality must be in accordance
with appropriateness of methodology, contribution to the growth and development
of institutional and individuals, and cost effectiveness.
A research study in the field of educational management needs to be evaluated in
terms of its value forpractitioners and policy makers, and its contributionto knowledge
as well.
Quality indicators in research and development

National level organizations and institutions like NUEPA, UGC, DEC, NCERT,
etc., should effectively collaborate with one another and develop modalities for
improving quality of research in educational management and administration. At the
same time they can develop some indicators for improving quality of research and
development in the area of educational management. Some of the dimensions are :
• Continuous professional of the faculty who undertakes and uses product of
research.
• Motivation to faculty for undertaking innovative practices under educational
practices (practice-based research in educational management.
• Potential value for use of research product i.e. focus on being of use.
• Respond to the need of target group and focus on appropriate specification.
• Link to development with reference to the design of appropriate research
questions.
• Development of computers and value for people.
• Development of partnership, collaboration and engagement with institutions.
• Accepting the viewpoint of practitioners and policy makers:
• Originality in terms of nature of work and efficiency in terms of valuejudgment.
Check Your Progress

Note: a)· Space is given below for writing youranswers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end ofthis unit.
7. List the dimensions of research in educational management.

120
....l: -. ~. l'~"...,.--,,~
, '

I
 ,8. State the indicators of research in educational management for improving its Quality Concerns and
quality. Issues for Research

.....................................................................................................................

20.7 LET US SUM UP

Research is an important aspect of quality practice in every field of education. It
aims at contributing to knowledge and bringing development for strategies,techniques
and functioning of institutions and organizations. The thrust of this unit is to facilitate
institutions in undertaking quality research projects in the field of educational
management in one hand and exploring priority areas which need immediate attention
t on the part of researchers, policy makers and administrators for strengthening services
r. in the field of educational management and administrations.

20.8 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

I. Critically discuss the indicators for improving the quality of research in
educational Management.
2. Discuss the scope of educational management in Indian context.
3. Explain the role of national institutionslorganizations in facilitating research in
educational management.

20.9 REFERENCES
Koul, L. (2007) Methodology of Educational Research. Vikas publishing House
Pvt Ltd., New Delhi
Crowl, T. K. (1996) Fundamental of Educational Research. Mc cr,ewHill Company.
NCTE (2004) Some Specific Issues and Concerns of Teacher Education, National
Council for Teacher Education, New Delhi.
Menon, M and Rama, K. (2006) Quality Indicators of Teacher Education, National
Assessment and Accreditation Council, New Delhi
Mukhopadhya, M. et. al, (1988) Research in Educational Management - A Trend
Report; Fourth Survey of Research in Education 1983-88 (Vol. II)
,http://www.ugc.ac.inI
http://www.nuepa.org/
http://www.education.nic.inlcd50years/g/Z/9J/OZ9J0301.htm

20.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. • Understand ing of researcheron the area of research.
• Developing analytical framework for the proposed study.
• Searching the need for the proposed study.
121
• Providing~~sic f<:mndationfor the study.

7
 Total Quali. \ Management 2. a. Operational aspects of educational management.
S>. Professional development of functions associated at various level of
educational management.
c. support services/ and its integration for effective implementation.
3. Ref. subsection 20.4.2
~
4. Limited scope on the

• Development of new research tool/instruments.

• Motivational aspect of researcher in educational management. "

• Low priority to research and development in educational management.

5. • Providing financial support to institutions for undertaking research.

• Offering scholarship to researchers.

.. • Exploring new scope in the field of educational management.

6. Ref. subsection20.S.1
7. Ref. subsection 20.3.1
8. Ref. subsection 20.6.1

122

I
 MES-044 Institutional Management
B1ock-l Management of Curriculum

Unit-1 Classroom Management (Instructional Management)

Unit-2 Curriculum Transaction .,
Unit-3 Management of Evaluation
Unit-4 Management of Academic Resources
Unit-S Management of Curricular & Co-curricular Programmes &
Activities
B1ock-2 Management of Financial Resources

Unit-6 Educational Finance: Meaning, Importance and Scope

Unit-7 Cost and Budgeting

Unit-8 Accounting and Auditing

Unit-9 Resource Mobilization

Block- 3 Management of Human and Administrative Resources

Unit-lO Management of Student Support System

Unit-I 1 Management of Administrative Resources
Unit-12 Management of Human Resources
B1ock-4 Management ofInfrastructure

Unit-13 Concept, Importance, Need

Unit-14 Management of Physical Resources
Unit-IS Utilization ofInfra-structural Resources
Block-S Total Quality Management

Unit-16 Quality Control, Quality Assurance and Indicators

Unit-17 Tools of Management
Unit-I 8 Strategies for Quality Improvement
Unit-I 9 Role of different Agencies
Unit-20 Quality Concerns and Issues for Research