Introduction

Chapter 1
CEN303–1438
Chapter 1: introduction
 Objective
 get “feel” and terminology
 more depth, detail later in course
 Outline
 what’s the Internet?
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
 network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 protocol layers, service models
 networks under attack: security

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What’s the Internet
 millions of connected devices: mobile network
 hosts = end systems
 running network apps global ISP

 communication links
home
 fiber, copper, radio, satellite network
regional ISP
 transmission rate
 Packet switches:
 forward packets (chunks of data)

institutional
network

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What’s the Internet
 Internet: “network of networks” mobile network
 Interconnected ISPs
 protocols control sending, global ISP

receiving of msgs
home
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11 network
regional ISP
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force

institutional
network

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What’s the Internet
 Infrastructure that provides mobile network
services to applications:
 Web,VoIP, email, games, global ISP

e-commerce, social nets, …

home
network
regional ISP

institutional
network

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What’s a protocol?
protocols define format, order of msgs sent and received
among network entities, and actions taken on msg
transmission

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What’s a protocol?
 a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time?
2:00
<file>
time

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Network edge Components
 Outline
 what’s the Internet?
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
 network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 protocol layers, service models
 networks under attack: security

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Network Structure:
 network edge: mobile network
 hosts: clients and servers
 servers often in data centers global ISP

 access networks, physical

media: wired, wireless home
network
communication links regional ISP

 network core:
 Routers
 Switches

institutional
network

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Host: sends packets of data
 host sending function:
 takes application message
two packets,
 breaks into smaller chunks, L bits each
known as packets,
of length L bits
 transmits packet into 2 1
access network R: link transmission rate
at transmission rate R host
 link transmission rate, aka link capacity, aka link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)

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Physical media
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver pairs
 physical link: what lies
between transmitter & receiver
 guided media:
 signals propagate in
solid media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely, e.g., radio

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network core
 Outline
 what’s the Internet?
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
 network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 protocol layers, service models
 networks under attack: security

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The network core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
 forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source to
destination
 each packet transmitted at
full link capacity

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Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to transmit

(push out) L-bit packet into one-hop numerical example:
link at R bps  L = 7.5 Mbits
 store and forward: entire
packet must arrive at router  R = 1.5 Mbps
before it can be transmitted on  one-hop transmission
next link
 end-end delay = 2L/R
delay = 5 sec
(assuming zero propagation
delay)
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Packet-switching: store-and-forward

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

 queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission
rate of link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

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Two key network-core functions
 routing:  forwarding:
 determines source-  move packets from
destination route taken router’s input to
by packets appropriate router
 routing algorithms output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1

dest address in arriving

16 packet’s header
Alternative core: circuit switching
 end-end resources
allocated to, reserved for
“call” between source &
dest:
 In diagram, each link has
four circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top
link and 1st circuit in right
link.
 dedicated resources: no
sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not
used by call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in
traditional telephone
networks
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Internet structure: network of networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
(Internet Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
 Evolution was driven by economics and national
policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe
current Internet structure

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Internet structure: network of networks
 Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
 Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

access
to each other directly doesn’t access
net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
 Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
 Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A

access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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delay, loss, throughput in networks
 Outline
 what’s the Internet?
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
 network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 protocol layers, service models
 networks under attack: security

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How do loss and delay occur?
 packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds
output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
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Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output link
 determine output link for transmission
 typically < msec  depends on congestion
level of router
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Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link bandwidth (bps)  s: propagation speed in medium
 dtrans = L/R (~2x108 m/sec)
dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different
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“Real” Internet delays and routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
 traceroute program: provides delay measurement from
source to router along end-end Internet path towards
destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards
destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

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“Real” Internet delays and routes
 traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

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Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite
capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node,
by source end system, or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
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Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server, with link capacity link capacity

file of F bits Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
to send to client

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Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
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Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server, with link capacity link capacity

file of F bits Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
to send to client

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Throughput: Internet scenario
 per-connection
end-end throughput:
min(Rc,Rs,R/10) Rs
Rs
 in practice: Rs

Rc or Rs
is often bottleneck R

Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
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protocol layers, service models
 Outline
 what’s the Internet?
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
 network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 protocol layers, service models
 networks under attack: security

34
Protocol “layers”
 Networks are complex, with many “pieces”:
 hosts
 routers
 links of various media
 applications
 protocols
 hardware, software

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Why layering?
 dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification, relationship of
complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 Layering eases maintenance, updating of system
 change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to rest
of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of system

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Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network applications
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
application
 transport: process-process data transfer
 TCP, UDP transport
 network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination network
 IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements physical
 Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”
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ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow applications
to interpret meaning of data,
application
e.g., encryption, compression,
machine-specific conventions presentation

 session: synchronization, session

checkpointing, recovery of data exchange transport
 Internet stack “missing” these layers! network
 these services, if needed, link
must be implemented in application
physical
 needed?

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 Encapsulation / Decapsulation
source
message M application
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
link
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
physical
switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
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networks under attack: security
 Outline
 what’s the Internet?
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
 network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 protocol layers, service models
 networks under attack: security

40
Network security
 field of network security:
 how bad guys can attack computer networks
 how we can defend networks against attacks
 how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
 Internet not originally designed with (much) security
in mind
 original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users
attached to a transparent network”
 Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
 security considerations in all layers!

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Malicious Software
 malware can get in host from:
 virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing
object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
 worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving
object that gets itself executed
 spyware malware can record keystrokes, web sites
visited, upload info to collection site
 infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for
spam. DDoS attacks

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Bad guys: attack server, network
 Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources
(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic by
overwhelming resource with bogus traffic
 select target
 break into hosts around
the network (see botnet)
 send packets to target
from compromised hosts
target

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Bad guys can sniff packets
 packet “sniffing”:
 broadcast media (shared ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets
(e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

 wireshark software used for end-of-chapter labs is a

(free) packet-sniffer
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Bad guys can use fake addresses
 IP spoofing: send packet with false source address

A C

src:B dest:A payload

… lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8)

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References
 Course slides of Computer Networking: A Top
Down Approach, 6th edition , Jim Kurose, Keith Ross,
Addison-Wesley, March 2012

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