BITP3483
GEOGRAPHIC
C
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• 3.1 Representation of Simple Features
• 3.2 Topology
• 3.3 Georelational Data Model
Vector •
•
3.4 Object-Based Data Model
3.4.3 The Geodatabase
Data •
•
3.4.4 Topology Rules
3.4.5 Advantages of the Geodatabase
Model •
•
3.5 Representation of Composite Features
3.5.1 TINs
• 3.5.2 Regions
• 3.5.3 Routes
The vector data model, also called the
discrete object model, uses discrete
objects to represent spatial features on
the Earth’s surface. Vector data are
prepared in three basic steps.
The first step classifies spatial features into
points, lines, and polygons over an empty
space and represents the location and
shape of these features using points and
Vector
Data
their x -, y –coordinates.
Model
The second step structures the properties
and spatial relationships of these
geometric objects in a logical framework.
The third step codes and stores vector
data in digital data files so that they can
be accessed, interpreted, and processed
by the computer.
FIGURE 3.1 A
REFERENCE
MAP SHOWING
IDAHO AND
LANDS HELD IN
C TRUST BY THE
UNITED STATES
FOR NATIVE
AMERICANS.
Simple Features
The vector data model uses the geometric objects of point,
line, and area to represent simple spatial features.
A point has zero dimension and has only the property of
location; a line is one-dimensional and has the property of
length in addition to location; and a polygon is two-
dimensional and has the properties of area (size) and
perimeter in addition to location.
To indicate its location, a point is represented by a pair of x
and y coordinates. For some spatial features, additional
measures may be included.
FIGURE 3.2 EACH
BUILDING IN THE 3D
FIGURE IS RAISED TO
A LEVEL
ACCORDING TO
THE HEIGHT
C
MEASURE STORED
WITH ITS X, Y
COORDINATES.
Topology
• Topology refers to those
properties of geometric objects
that remain invariant under
certain transformations such as
bending or stretching. An
example of a topological map is a
subway map.
• Diagrams or graphs are used in
topology for studying the
arrangements of geometric
objects and the relationships
between objects.
FIGURE
3.3 A
SUBWAY
C MAP OF
TAIPEI,
TAIWAN.
FIGURE 3.4
THE
ADJACENCY
MATRIX AND
C INCIDENCE
MATRIX FOR
A DIGRAPH.
• An early application of
topology in geospatial
technology is the TIGER
(Topologically Integrated
Geographic Encoding
TIGER
and Referencing)
database from the U.S.
Census Bureau.
FIGURE 3.5
a b c
TOPOLOGY
IN THE TIGER
DATABASE
Nodes:a,b,c,d,e,f
C INVOLVES
NODES,
10
Arcs:ab,ad,de,bc,
11 be,cf,ef
ARCS, AND
Faces:10,11 FACES.
d
f
FIGURE 3.6
ADDRESS RANGES
AND ZIP CODES IN
THE TIGER
DATABASE HAVE
THE RIGHT- OR
C LEFT-SIDE
DESIGNATION
BASED ON THE
DIRECTION OF THE
STREET.
• One, it ensures data quality
and integrity.
• Two, it can enhance GIS
Importance analysis.
of Topology • Three, topological
relationships between spatial
features allow GIS users to
perform spatial data query.
FIGURE 3.7 THE
GRAY LINES
REPRESENT THE
STREAMS, AND
EACH ARROW
SHOWS THE
C
FLOW
DIRECTION OF
A STREAM
SEGMENT.
• The georelational data
model stores geometries
and attributes separately in
a split system: geometries
(“geo”) in graphic files and
attributes (“relational”) in a
Georelational
relational database. The
Data Model coverage and the
shapefile are examples of
the georelational data
model; the coverage is
topological, and the
shapefile is nontopological.
FIGURE 3.8 AN
EXAMPLE OF THE
GEORELATIONAL
DATA MODEL, AN
ARCINFO
COVERAGE HAS TWO
COMPONENTS:
GRAPHIC FILES FOR
C SPATIAL DATA AND
INFO FILES FOR
ATTRIBUTE DATA. THE
LABEL CONNECTS THE
TWO COMPONENTS.
The
Coverage
• The coverage supports
three basic topological
relationships
• Connectivity: Arcs
connect to each
other at nodes.
• Area definition: An
area is defined by a
series of connected
arcs.
• Contiguity: Arcs have
directions and left
and right polygons.
FIGURE 3.9
THE DATA
STRUCTURE
C OF A POINT
COVERAGE.
