Session two
Fundamental Concepts of GIS
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Session Objectives
At the end of the session, Participants will be
able to:
Understand the structure and importance of
different spatial data structures in GIS
Apply different GIS techniques in creation of
topological data
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Structure of Geographic Data
Geographic data come from a variety of sources:
Digitized maps
Analog Maps
Aerial photography
Point data from GPS
Point Data from Ground Surveying
Textual or Tabular data
Appropriate structure is essential for GIS
success/fail
GIS utilizes two primary data models:
Raster data model
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Vector data model
Structure of Geographic Data…
Raster Data Models: Raster data structures
characterize continuous data
Boundaries and point information are not well defined
Raster data provide data as a pixel grid/cell
Vector Data Models: Vector data structures
characterize discrete data
Distinct boundaries and point information are well defined
Constructed on ordered two- and three-dimensional coordinates
Features are represented as geometric shapes
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Structure of Geographic Data…
Vector vs. Raster data representation
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Vector and Raster Feature
Geometries
Three primary types of feature geometries: Point, Line, Polygon
Vector Raster
Point
Line
Polyline
Polygon
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Definition of raster and
source of raster data
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Definition of Raster
Raster - A format for storing, processing, and
displaying graphic data in which graphic
images are stored as values for uniform grid
cells or pixels.
Pixels - Abbreviation for picture element, the
smallest indivisible element that makes up an
image. In raster processing, data is
represented spatially on a matrix of grid cells,
called pixels, which are assigned values for
image characteristics or attributes.
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5.2.2 Generic structure for a grid
Grid extent
Grid
cell
Rows
Resolution
Columns
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Generic structure for a grid cont..
One grid cell is one unit or holds one attribute.
Every cell has a value, even if it is “missing.”
A cell has a resolution, given as the cell size in ground
units.
Raster Data Model
Rows and Columns of Cells (Array)
Area of Cell equals Spatial Resolution
Cells are considered Homogeneous Units
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Sources of Raster Data
From where do we get Raster Data?
Scanned Maps
Satellite Images
Aerial Photos
Examples
Satellite data
LANDSAT
SPOT
Quick bird
Ikonos
Scanned aerial photography
Digital Orthophotography
Scanned maps
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Raster Data Sources
Air Photos
Satellite
Imagery
Scanned Maps
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Some Common Image Formats
JPG – Used for most digital photos but “lossy.”
GIF – Best for line drawings. 256 colors maximum. No
loss
TIFF – Standard in many technical applications. No
loss
PNG – Lossless image format
RAW – Data as captured by digital camera
IMG- Image format
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Advantages and Disadvantages
of Raster (Field Based) Model
Advantages:
Simple data structure
Simple implementation of overlays
Efficient for image processing
Disadvantages:
Less compact data structure
Difficult to represent topology
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Definition of VECTOR
and source of VECTOR
data
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Vector GIS
A GIS in which graphic data is stored in
the form of discrete points, lines, or
polygons.
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Sources of Vector Data
RASTER-VECTOR conversions from
scanned images
DIGITIZING
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Structure of Vector Data
There is a relationship between vector
data types.
Each data type is often dependent upon
one another and stored as
Points: points are zero dimensional
objects, and represent geographic Point
features such as wells, sample
locations, or trees.
Lines: lines represent linear features,
such as road and stream centerlines. Line
Lines are made up of a series of
interconnected points.
A line typically starts and end with a
special point called a node, and the
points that make up the rest of a line are Polygon
called vertices.
Polygons are made up of a series of
connected lines where the starting point of a
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polygon is the same as the ending point
Points
Points are zero dimensional objects which
have locations and attribute information but
are too small to be represented as areas.
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Points
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Light Poles
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Lines or Arcs
Lines are one dimensional objects
which have length but no area.
Each line must begin and end at a
node.
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Lines or Arcs
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Street Centerlines
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Polygons
Polygons are closed mathematical
figures of any shape or size. They
are formed by a series of
connected lines.
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Polygons
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Polygons
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Polygons
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Attribute Data
Information which describes an entity
represented by a graphic feature.
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“Linked” Attributes
Courtesy Village of Garden City
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How Vector data are represented
Point features
Line features
Polygon features
Annotation features
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Vector – Advantages and
Disadvantages
Advantages
Good representation of reality
Compact data structure
Topology can be described in a network
Accurate graphics
Disadvantages
Complex data structures
Simulation may be difficult
Some spatial analysis is difficult or impossible to
perform
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Topology
A collection of numeric data which
clearly describes adjacency,
containment, and connectivity between
map features
and
which can be stored and manipulated
by a computer.
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Topology
Topology
describes the
spatial
relationships
Coincident
boundary
between
features
Adjacency overlap
Connectivity gap
Overlap
nodes
Intersection
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Topology
Describes how well the features imitate
the real-world situations
Usually confined to testing for topology
errors
undershoot
overshoot
overlap
gap
Improper
dangle intersection pseudonode loop
Topological errors can occur when editing is not carefully performed.
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Topology
Contiguity: spatial relationship of
adjacency
Connectivity: interconnected pathways
or networks
i.e., street and trail networks, stream networks
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Topological Model
Topology: mathematical method to
define spatial relationships
Arc-node data model
Arc: a series of points that start and end at a
node
Node: an intersection point where two or more
arcs meet
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Topological Data Model…
Polygon topology
P1 Arc 1 Arc 3 E
Arc 2 Arc 3 N1 P1
P2
E outside coverage
N2
Node topology P2
N1 Arc 1 Arc 2 Arc 3
N2 Arc 1 Arc 2 Arc 3 E
Arc topology Arc coordinate data
Arc start end left right Arc start intermediate end
node node polygon polygon Arc 1 x 1, y 1 x2,y2, ..,.. x6,y6 x7,y7
Arc 1 N1 N2 E P1 Arc 2 x 7, y 7 x8,y8, ..,.. x11,y11 x1,y1
Arc 2 N2 N1 E P2 Arc 3 x 7, y 7 x12,y12 x1,y1
Arc 3 N2 N1 P2 P1
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Topological Model cont..
Relationships between features:
Polygons can share parts of boundaries
Polylines can share endpoints
Supposed to prevent:
Gaps
Slivers
Overlaps
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Advantage of Topology
Topology allows automated error detection and
elimination.
Rarely are maps topologically clean when digitized or
imported.
A GIS has to be able to build topology from
unconnected arcs.
Nodes that are close together are snapped.
Slivers due to double digitizing and overlay are
eliminated.
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Advantage of Topology cont…
The tolerances controlling snapping,
elimination, and merging must be
considered carefully, because they can
move features.
Complete topology makes map overlay
feasible.
Topology allows many GIS operations to
be done without accessing the point
files.
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Problems
Common problems:
Slivers
Gaps
Caused by:
Reprojecting
Different sources
Editing or digitizing without snapping
Any tool that changes the values of
coordinates in vector data
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Slivers
Sliver
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Unsnapped node
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Topology rules
Topology rules establish
Shannon Bennett how features should be
County County spatially related.
Pine Ridge Indian Topology rules may
Reservation apply within a feature
class or between feature
classes.
• No gaps or overlaps
between counties
•boundaries should
These three layers show several match (overlap)
topology errors.
•The boundaries should
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Topological Data Model…
5 Rules of topological consistency
1. Every arc must be bounded by nodes (begin and end)
2. Every arc borders 2 polygons (its left and right polygon)
5. Arcs only intersect at their bounding nodes
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Topological Data Model…
5 Rules of topological consistency…
3. Every polygon has a closed boundary consisting of an
alternating sequence of nodes and arcs
4. Around every node exists an alternating sequence of arcs and
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polygons
Comments/Questions
Thank you!
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