GPS Primer 3/10/99 6:00 PM Page a2
The
Global
The Aerospace Corporation
Positioning
P.O. Box 92957
Los Angeles, CA 90009-2957
http://www.aero.org/
System
THE AEROSPACE
C O R P O R AT I O N
Printed in U.S.A./AC/PAD/7M/Aug 97/RH0039
GPS Primer 3/10/99 6:00 PM Page a4
Has anyone ever asked you what
career you wanted to pursue?
Imagine being an archaeologist on an ex-
pedition to the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexi-
E. C. “Pete” Aldridge, Jr. co. After preparing for your trip for months, you
President and are certain that somewhere close by are the
Chief Executive Officer ruins of villages once populated by Mayan
The Aerospace Corporation Indians. The forest is dense, the sun is hot,
and the air is moist and humid. The only way
The men and women who created the Glob- you can record where you have been, or find
al Positioning System (GPS) were once young peo- your way back to civilization, is by using the
ple like yourself. Each had a special interest in almost magic power of your GPS receiver.
the marvelous order of mathematics and the Or let’s suppose you are an oceanograph-
physical laws affecting all our lives. They pur- er for the International Ice Patrol. You may
sued a career in science or engineering and de- be responsible for finding icebergs that form
veloped a navigation system that can tell you in the cold waters of the north Atlantic Ocean.
exactly where you are on Earth, any time of Some of these icebergs are 50 miles long.
day or night, in any type of weather. The Aero- They are a major threat to the ships that trav-
space Corporation is pleased to provide this el those waters, and more than 300 of them
booklet as an aid to your understanding of GPS. form every winter.
If you are interested in pursuing an exciting Using a GPS receiver, you are able to help
career in navigation or a related field, I en- ships avoid disaster by zeroing in on the po-
courage you to study mathematics and science sition of the icebergs and notifying ship cap-
in junior high and high school. By becoming pro- tains of their locations, perhaps averting disaster.
ficient in these areas, you will lay the ground- There will probably be a time soon when
work for an understanding of physics and every car on the road can be equipped with
astronomy—the building blocks of the science a GPS receiver, including a video screen in-
of navigation. stalled in the dashboard. The in-dash monitor
This booklet provides basic information on will be a full-color display showing your lo-
the subject. It is intended to stimulate your in- cation and a map of the roads around you. It
terest. Your school librarian can help you locate will probably monitor your car’s performance
additional details on the many fascinating fields and your car phone as well. Systems as amaz-
supporting the use and exploration of space. ing as this one are already being tested on
highways in the United States.
Cover: Photo illustration by The Aerospace Corporation/NASA 1
GPS Primer 3/10/99 6:00 PM Page 2
What is GPS? The next major developments in the quest
GPS, which stands for Global Positioning Sys- for the perfect method of navigation were the
tem, is the only system today able to show magnetic compass and the sextant. The nee-
you your exact position on the Earth anytime, dle of a compass always points north, so it is
in any weather, anywhere. GPS satellites, 24 always possible to know in what direction
in all, orbit 11,000 nautical miles above the you are going.
Earth. They are continuously monitored by The sextant uses adjustable mirrors to mea-
ground stations located worldwide. The satel- sure the exact angle of the stars, moon, and
lites transmit signals that can be detected by sun above the horizon. However, in the early
anyone with a GPS receiver. Using the re- days of its use, it was only possible to deter-
ceiver, you can determine your location with mine latitude (the location on the Earth mea-
great precision. sured north or south from the equator) from the
GPS is one of history’s most exciting and rev- sextant observations. Sailors were still unable
olutionary developments, and new uses for it to determine their longitude (the location on
are constantly being discovered. But before we the Earth measured east or west). This was
learn more about GPS, it’s important to un- such a serious problem that in the 17th cen-
derstand a bit more about navigation. tury, the British formed a special Board of
Longitude consisting of well-known scien-
What is Navigation? tists. This group offered £20,000, equal to
Since prehistoric times, people have been about a million of today’s dollars, to anybody
trying to figure out a reliable way to tell where who could find a way to determine a ship’s long-
they are and to help guide them to where itude within 30 nautical miles.
they are going. Cavemen probably used stones The generous offer paid off. In 1761, a cab-
and twigs to mark a trail when they set out hunt- inetmaker named John Harrison developed
ing for food. The earliest mariners followed the a shipboard timepiece called a chronometer,
coast closely to keep from getting lost. When which lost or gained only about one second
navigators first sailed into the open ocean, they a day—incredibly accurate for the time. For the
discovered they could chart their course by next two centuries, sextants and chronometers
following the stars. The ancient Phoenicians used were used in combination to provide latitude
the North Star to journey from Egypt and and longitude information.
Crete. According to Homer, the goddess In the early 20th century several radio-
Athena told Odysseus to “keep the Great Bear based navigation systems were developed,
on his left” during his travels from Calypso’s which were used widely during World War II.
Island. Unfortunately, the stars are only visi- Both allied and enemy ships and airplanes
ble at night—and only on clear nights. used ground-based radio-navigation systems
as the technology advanced.
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GPS Primer 3/10/99 6:00 PM Page 4
Map courtesy of Dr. Seymour Schwartz
A few ground-based radio-navigation sys- accurate. High-frequency radio waves (like
tems are still in use today. One drawback of UHF TV) can provide accurate position lo-
using radio waves generated on the ground is cation but can only be picked up in a small,
that you must choose between a system that localized area. Lower frequency radio waves
is very accurate but doesn’t cover a wide area, (like AM radio) can cover a larger area, but are
or one that covers a wide area but is not very not a good yardstick to tell you exactly where
you are.
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Scientists, therefore, decided that the only
way to provide coverage for the entire world
was to place high-frequency radio transmitters
in space. A transmitter high above the Earth
sending a high-frequency radio wave with a
special coded signal can cover a large area and
still overcome much of the “noise” encoun-
tered on the way to the ground. This is one of
the main principles behind the GPS system.
GPS Elements
GPS has 3 parts: the space segment, the user
segment, and the control segment. The space
segment consists of 24 satellites, each in its GPS consists of three major segments: the space seg-
own orbit 11,000 nautical miles above the ment, the user segment, and the control segment.
Earth. The user segment consists of receivers,
which you can hold in your hand or mount The GPS system can tell you your location
in your car. The control segment consists of anywhere on or above the Earth to within
ground stations (five of them, located around about 300 feet. Even greater accuracy, usually
the world) that make sure the satellites are within less than three feet, can be obtained with
working properly. corrections calculated by a GPS receiver at a
One trip around the Earth in space equals known fixed location.
one orbit. The GPS satellites each take 12 To help you understand the GPS system,
hours to orbit the Earth. Each satellite is let’s take the three parts of the system—the satel-
equipped with an accurate clock to let it lites, the receivers, and the ground control—
broadcast signals coupled with a precise time and discuss them in more detail. Then we’ll
message. The ground unit receives the satel- look more closely at how GPS works.
lite signal, which travels at the speed of light.
Even at this speed, the signal takes a mea-
Satellites in Space
surable amount of time to reach the receiver. As we’ve said, the complete GPS space
The difference between the time the signal is system includes 24 satellites, 11,000 nautical
sent and the time it is received, multiplied by miles above the Earth, which take 12 hours to
the speed of light, enables the receiver to cal- go around the Earth once (one orbit). They
culate the distance to the satellite. To measure are positioned so that we can receive signals
precise latitude, longitude, and altitude, the re- from six of them nearly 100 percent of the
ceiver measures the time it took for the signals time at any point on Earth. You need that
from four separate satellites to get to the receiver. many signals to get the best position information.
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The Aerospace Corporation
The Aerospace Corporation
The 24-satellite constellation orbits 11,000 nautical miles GPS Block II is a production satellite first launched in 1989.
above Earth. Each satellite completes its orbit every 12 Block II consists of 24 satellites, the last one launched
hours. This diagram gives you an idea of satellite posi- in 1994.
tions and is not to scale.
Satellites are equipped with very precise clocks Ground Control Stations
that keep accurate time to within three nano- The GPS control, or ground, segment con-
seconds—that’s 0.000000003, or three bil- sists of unmanned monitor stations located
lionths, of a second. This precision timing is around the world (Hawaii and Kwajalein in the
important because the receiver must know Pacific Ocean; Diego Garcia in the Indian
exactly how long it takes for its signal to get Ocean; Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean;
to each satellite and return. By knowing the and Colorado Springs, Colorado); a master
exact amount of time the signal has taken to ground station at Falcon Air Force Base in
get back from each satellite, it can calculate Colorado Springs, Colorado; and four large
its position. ground antenna stations that broadcast sig-
The first GPS satellite was launched in nals to the satellites. The stations also track and
1978. The first 10 satellites were develop- monitor the GPS satellites.
mental satellites, called Block I. From 1989 to
1993, 23 production satellites, called Block II, Receivers
were launched. The launch of the 24th satel- GPS receivers can be hand carried or installed
lite in 1994 completed the system. on aircraft, ships, tanks, submarines, cars,
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GPS Primer 3/10/99 6:01 PM Page 10
Photo courtesy of Magellan Systems
GPS is used by surveyors, utility companies, and oil Principles behind the Global Positioning System are
and gas explorers for precise positioning. simple. The system is based on the measurement of
the distance between the receiver and the satellites.
and trucks. These receivers detect, decode, something like this: If we know our exact dis-
and process GPS satellite signals. More than tance from a satellite in space, we know we
100 different receiver models are already in are somewhere on the surface of an imaginary
use. The typical hand-held receiver is about sphere with radius equal to the distance to
the size of a cellular telephone, and the newer the satellite radius. If we know our exact dis-
models are even smaller. The hand-held units tance from two satellites, we know that we are
distributed to U.S. armed forces personnel located somewhere on the line where the two
during the Persian Gulf war weighed only 28 spheres intersect. And, if we take a third mea-
ounces. surement, there are only two possible points
where we could be located. One of these is
How GPS Works
usually impossible, and the GPS receivers
So you can more easily understand some of have mathematical methods of eliminating
the scientific principles that make GPS work, the impossible location.
let’s discuss the basic features of the system. The
principle behind GPS is the measurement of An Amazing System
distance (or “range”) between the receiver We now have a fairly clear picture of the GPS
and the satellites. The satellites also tell us system. We know that it consists of satellites
exactly where they are in their orbits. It works whose paths are monitored by ground sta-
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GPS Primer 3/10/99 6:01 PM Page 12
tions. Each satellite generates radio signals
that allow a receiver to estimate the satellite
location and distance between the satellite
and the receiver. The receiver uses the mea-
surements to calculate where on or above
the Earth the user is located.
Now that we have an idea about how the
Photo courtesy of Magellan Systems
GPS functions, let’s see how we can put it to
work for us. As you might imagine, GPS has
many uses in both military and civilian life.
Military Uses for GPS
Although the GPS system was completed
only recently, it has already proved to be a most
valuable aid to U.S. military forces. Picture the More than 9,000 GPS receivers were used by U.S. and
desert, with its wide, featureless expanses of coalition forces during Operation Desert Storm.
sand. The terrain looks much the same for
miles. Without a reliable navigation system,
dition, it is used on satellites to obtain highly
U.S. forces could not have performed the ma-
accurate orbit data and to control spacecraft
neuvers of Operation Desert Storm. With GPS,
orientation.
the soldiers were able to go places and ma-
GPS is based on a system of coordinates
neuver in sandstorms or at night when even
called the Worldwide Geodetic System 1984
the troops who lived there couldn’t. Initially,
(WGS-84), similar to the latitude and longitude
more than 1,000 portable commercial re-
lines you see on wall maps in school. The
ceivers were purchased for their use. The de-
WGS-84 system provides a built-in frame of
mand was so great that, before the end of the
reference for all military activities, so units
conflict, more than 9,000 commercial re-
can synchronize their maneuvers.
ceivers were in use in the Gulf region. They
were carried by foot soldiers and attached to GPS Uses in Everyday Life
vehicles, helicopters, and aircraft instrument The GPS system was developed to meet
panels. GPS receivers were used in several military needs of the Department of Defense,
aircraft, including F-16 fighters, KC-135 aer- but new ways to use its capabilities are con-
ial refuelers and B-52 bombers; Navy ships used tinually being found. As you have read, the sys-
them for rendezvous, minesweeping, and air- tem has been used in aircraft and ships, but there
craft operations. are many other ways to benefit from GPS.
GPS has become important for nearly all mil- We’ll mention just a few.
itary operations and weapons systems. In ad-
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During contruction of the tunnel under the
English Channel, British and French crews
started digging from opposite ends: one from
Dover, England, one from Calais, France. They
relied on GPS receivers outside the tunnel to
check their positions along the way and to
make sure they met exactly in the middle.
Photo courtesy of Magellan Systems
Otherwise, the tunnel might have been crooked.
Remember the example of the car with a
video display in the dashboard? Vehicle track-
ing is one of the fastest-growing GPS appli-
cations. GPS-equipped fleet vehicles, public
transportation systems, delivery trucks, and
courier services use receivers to monitor their
A biologist in Brazil uses a hand-held GPS receiv-
locations at all times. er in wildlife research projects.
GPS is also helping to save lives. Many po-
lice, fire, and emergency medical service
help determine population distribution patterns
units are using GPS receivers to determine
and possible sources of disease.
the police car, fire truck, or ambulance near-
GPS-equipped balloons are monitoring
est to an emergency, enabling the quickest
holes in the ozone layer over the polar re-
possible response in life-or-death situations.
gions, and air quality is being monitored using
Automobile manufacturers are offering
GPS receivers. Buoys tracking major oil spills
moving-map displays guided by GPS receivers
transmit data using GPS. Archaeologists and
as an option on new vehicles. The displays can
explorers are using the system. Anyone
be removed and taken into a home to plan a
equipped with a GPS receiver can use it as a
trip. Several Florida rental car companies are
reference point to locate or find another lo-
demonstrating GPS-equipped vehicles that
cation. With a basic knowledge of math and
give directions to drivers on display screens and
science, plus a hand-held GPS receiver, you
through synthesized voice instructions. No
could be an instant hero if you and friends got
more getting lost on the way to Disney World!
temporarily lost on a camping trip.
Mapping and surveying companies use
The future of GPS is as unlimited as your
GPS extensively. In the field of wildlife man-
imagination. New applications will contin-
agement, endangered species such as Montana
ue to be created as technology evolves. The
elk and Mojave Desert tortoises are being fit-
GPS satellites, like handmade stars in the sky,
ted with GPS receivers and tiny transmitters to
will be guiding you well into the 21st century.
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The Aerospace Corporation
Photograph courtesy of McDonnell Douglas
The Aerospace Corporation was one of the GPS
team members honored with the 1992 Robert
J. Collier Trophy, awarded by the National
Aeronautic Association for the “greatest
achievement in aeronautics in America.”
An Air Force-launched Delta II carried the 18th GPS satellite into
orbit in February 1993. By March 1994, all 24 GPS satellites were
orbiting the Earth.
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The
Global
The Aerospace Corporation
Positioning
2350 East El Segundo Blvd.
El Segundo, CA 90245-4691
Mail: P.O. Box 92957
System
Los Angeles, CA 90009-2957
THE AEROSPACE
C O R P O R AT I O N
Printed in U.S.A./AC/PAD/5M/Aug 97/RH0039
