SUSTAINABILITY

D e s i g n e r ’s
NOTEBOOK
 SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability Concepts Table 1 Integration Strategies.
Sustainability is often defined as development
INTEGRATION STRATEGY SUSTAINABILITY ATTRIBUTE
that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to Use precast concrete panel as
Saves material; no need for additional framing and drywall.
meet their own needs. Worldwide, people are currently interior surface.
using 20% more resources than can be regenerated. Saves material and energy; eliminates ductwork and charges
Use hollow-core panels as ducts.
In particular, the U.S. population consumes more thermal mass of panel.
resources on a per capita basis than any other Use thermal mass in combination Thermal mass with insulation provides energy benefits that
nation. with appropriate insulation levels exceed the benefits of mass or insulation alone in most
in walls. climates.
The environmental impact of constructing and
operating buildings in most countries is significant. Design wall panels to be
Consider that buildings consume 65% of the disassembled for when building Saves material; extends service life of panels.
electricity generated in the U.S. and more than function changes.
36% of the primary energy (such as natural gas); Materials with a long life cycle and low maintenance will require
Use durable materials.
produce 30% of the national output of greenhouse less replacement and maintenance during the life of the building.
gas emissions; use 12% of the potable water in the Use natural resources such as
U.S.; and employ 40% of raw materials (3 billion tons daylight as a source for building Reduces lighting and cooling energy use. Increases indoor air
annually) for construction and operation worldwide. lighting, trees for shading, and quality and employee productivity.
natural ventilation
Building materials can have a significant effect
on the environmental impact of the construction Reduces transportation and disposal costs of wastes. Less
Reduce and recycle construction
virgin materials are used if construction waste is recycled for
and operation of a building. Some materials may waste.
another project.
have to be used in special configurations, or employ
different combinations, to achieve sustainability; the Use building commissioning quality Energy savings and indoor air quality are most likely attained
inherent properties of precast concrete, however, control, and inspections to ensure during the building life if inspections are made to ensure
make it a natural choice for achieving sustainability that building standards are met. construction was completed as designed.
in buildings. Precast concrete contributes to
sustainable practices by incorporating integrated far beyond those of the buildings themselves, to be considered from a global as well as regional
design, using materials efficiently, and reducing such as: perspective in a global market.
construction waste, site disturbance, and noise. • Using less materials means fewer new quarries
Although most consumers are concerned with
are needed. Cost of building green
the present and future health of the natural • Using less energy means fewer new power plants A sustainable design can result in reduced project
environment, few are willing to pay more for a building, need to be constructed, less pollution is emitted costs and a building that is energy and resource
product, process, or innovation that minimizes into the air, and dependence on foreign energy efficient. Energy and water efficient buildings have
environmental burdens. The concept of sustainability, sources is reduced. lower operating costs (in the range of $0.60 to
however, balances sustainable design with cost- • Less emissions to air means a reduction in $1.50 versus $1.80 per sq ft) and a higher facility
effectiveness. Using integrated design (also called respiratory conditions, such as asthma. value than conventional buildings. Lower energy
holistic or whole building approach), a building’s costs translate into smaller capacity requirements
materials, systems, and design are examined from • Using less water means a reduction in demands for mechanical equipment (heating and cooling) and
the perspective of all project team members and on the infrastructure to find and deliver new lower first costs for such equipment. Effective use of
tenants. Energy efficiency, cost, durability (or service sources of water. daylighting and passive solar techniques can further
life), space flexibility, environmental impact, and reduce lighting, heating and cooling costs. Reusing
All of these examples indicate how building energy
quality of life are all considered when decisions are materials, such as demolished concrete for base
and utility use affect the local community. These
made regarding the selection of a building design. or fill material, can reduce costs associated with
are especially important since most communities do
hauling and disposing of materials.
not want new power plants, quarries, or landfills built
Triple bottom line near them. When sustainability is an objective at the outset
The triple bottom line — environment, society, of the design process, the cost of a sustainable
and economy — emphasizes that economic The community can also be considered globally. building is competitive. Often green buildings cost
consequences are related to environmental and Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the U.S. were no more than conventional buildings because of
social consequences. Consequences to society reduced in 2002 for the first time; this reduction, the resource-efficient strategies used, such as
include impacts on employees, communities, and however, was due to a decrease in manufacturing downsizing of more costly mechanical, electrical,
developing countries, as well as ethics, population and a stagnant economy. That same year, China’s and structural systems. Reported increases in first
growth, and security. Reducing material, energy, production of CO2 increased by more than the costs for green buildings range from 0 to 2% or
and emissions used by buildings has impacts reduction realized in the U.S., but this increase was more, with costs expected to decrease as project
primarily due to production of materials consumed
 U.S. Green Building Council, “An Introduction to the U.S.  U.S. Green Building Council, “An Introduction to the U.S.
Green Building Council and the LEED Green Building Rating
by U. S. citizens. Energy and material consumption, Green Building Council and the LEED Green Building Rating
System,” PowerPoint presentation on the USGBC website, waste, and emissions to air, land, and water need System,” PowerPoint presentation on the USGBC website,
October 2005, www.usgbc.org. October 2005, www.usgbc.org.

Glossary
Admixture: material, other than water, aggregate, and hydraulic cement, used as an
ingredient of concrete, mortar, grout, or plaster and added to the batch immediately
before or during mixing. Chemical admixtures are most commonly used for freeze-thaw
protection, to retard or accelerate the concrete setting time, or to allow less water to
be used in the concrete.
Albedo: solar reflectance; see reflectance. teams become more experienced with green building strategies and design.
Generally, a 2% increase in construction costs will result in a savings of 10 times
Building envelope: the components of a building that perform as a system to separ- the initial investment in operating costs for utilities (energy, water, and waste) in
ate conditioned space from unconditioned space.
the first 20 years of the building’s life.
Calcination: process of heating a source of calcium carbonate, such as limestone, to
high temperatures, thereby causing a chemical reaction that releases CO2. This CO2 is Buildings with good daylighting and indoor air quality — both common
not related to the fuel used to heat the calcium carbonate. features of sustainable buildings — have increased labor productivity, worker
Cement: see portland cement. retention, and days worked. These benefits contribute directly to a company’s
Cementitious material (cementing material): any material having cementing profits because salaries — which are about ten times higher than rent, utilities,
properties or contributing to the formation of hydrated calcium silicate compounds. and maintenance combined — are the largest expense for most companies
When proportioning concrete, the following are considered cementitious materials: occupying office space. In schools with good daylighting and indoor air quality,
portland cement, blended hydraulic cement, fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace students have higher test scores and lower absenteeism.
slag, silica fume, calcined clay, metakaolin, calcined shale, and rice husk ash.
Concrete: mixture of binding materials and coarse and fine aggregates. Portland
cement and water are commonly used as the binding medium for normal concrete Holistic/integrated design
mixtures, but may also contain pozzolans, slag, and/or chemical admixtures. A key tenet of sustainable design is the holistic or integrated design
Emittance: the ability of the material to emit, or “let go of” heat. approach. This approach requires coordinating the architectural, structural, and
mechanical designs early in the schematic design phases to discern possible
Green buildings: buildings designed considering the concepts of sustainable design
and reduction of environmental impacts due to site selection, water use, enegy use, system interactions, and then deciding which beneficial interactions are essential
materials and resources, the building’s impact on the environment, and indoor air for project success. For example, a well-insulated building with few windows
quality. that face east and west will require less heating and air-conditioning. This
could impact the mechanical design by requiring fewer ducts and registers and
Greenhouse gas emissions: emissions that have the potential to increase air
temperatures at the earth’s surface, including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, perhaps allow for the elimination of registers along the building perimeter. Precast
CFCs, water vapor, and aerosols (particles of 0.001 to 10μm diameter). concrete walls act as thermal storage to delay and reduce peak loads, while also
positively affecting the structural design of the building. Table 1 provides other
Portland cement: Calcium silicate hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing portland-
integrated design strategies.
cement clinker, and usually containing calcium sulfate and other compounds.
Pozzolan: siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials, like fly ash or silica fume, A holistic viewpoint will also take into account the surrounding site
which in itself possess little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided environment:
form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react in the presence of portland • Are shelters needed for people who take public transportation to work?
cement to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
• Can bike paths be incorporated for those who bike to work?
Reflectance: the ratio of the amount of light or solar energy reflected from a material
• Can native landscaping be used to reduce the need for irrigation?
surface to the amount shining on the surface. Solar reflectance includes light in the
visible and ultraviolet range. For artificial lighting, the reflectance refers to the parti- The eight elements of integrated design are:
cular type of lighting used in the visible spectrum.
1. Emphasize the integrated process.
Silica fume: very fine noncrystalline silica which is a byproduct from the production of
2. Consider the building as a whole — often interactive, often multi-functional.
silicon and ferrosilicon alloys in an electric arc furnace; used as a pozzolan in concrete.
3. Focus on the life cycle.
Slag cement (Ground granulated blast-furnace slag): a nonmetallic hydraulic
cement consisting essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium developed 4. Have disciplines work together as a team from the start.
in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace. Slag cement can be 5. Conduct relevant assessments to help determine requirements and set
used as a partial replacement or addition to portland cement in concrete. goals.
Supplementary cementitious materials: materials that when used in conjunction 6. Develop tailored solutions that yield multiple benefits while meeting
with portland cement contribute to the properties of hardened concrete through
requirements and goals.
hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both.
7. Evaluate solutions.
Sustainability: development that meets the needs of the present without compro-
mising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In more tangible 8. Ensure requirements and goals are met.
terms, sustainability refers to the following: not compromising future quality of Contracts and requests for proposals (RFPs) should clearly describe
life; remediating environmental damage done in the past; and recognizing that our
sustainability requirements and project documentation required.
economy, environment, and social well-being are interdependent.
Sustainability rating systems: a set of criteria used to certify that a construction,
usually a building, is sustainable, green, or energy-conserving. 3R’s – reduce, reuse, recycle
The 3R’s of reducing waste can be applied to the building industry.
Thermal mass: the storage properties of concrete and masonry that result in a reduc-
tion and shift in peak energy load for many buildings in many climates, compared to Reduce the amount of material used and the toxicity of waste materials.
wood or metal frame structures. Precast concrete can be designed to optimize (or lessen) the amount of concrete
Urban heat island: microclimates near urban or suburban areas that are warmer than used. Industrial wastes such as fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume can be used
surrounding areas due to the replacement of vegetation with buildings and pavements. as partial replacements for cement with certain aesthetic (color) and stripping
G  reen Value, Green Buildings Growing Assets, www.rics.org/greenvalue.
 U.S. Green Building Council, “Making the Business Case for High Performance Green
 World Commision on Environment and Development, “Report on Our Common Future,” Oxford Buildings,” www.usgbc.org.
University Press, New York, NY, 1987.  Portland Cement Association, website for sustainable solutions using concrete, www.concretethinker.com

 time restrictions. Thereby reducing the amount of cement used in concrete. and Federal Energy Management Program requirements.
Precast concrete generates a low amount of waste with a low toxicity. It is Accepted methods of performing life cycle cost analyses of buildings assume
generally assumed that 2% of the concrete at the plant is waste, but because it a 20-year life with the building maintaining 80% of its residual value at the end
is generated at the plant, 95% of the waste is used beneficially. of this time period. Buildings actually last hundreds of years if they are not torn
Reuse products and containers; repair what can be reused. Precast down due to obsolescence. Sustainability practitioners advocate the foundation
concrete panels can be reused when buildings are expanded. Concrete pieces from and shell of new buildings be designed for a service life of 200 to 300 years.
demolished structures can be reused to protect shorelines. Since the precast Allowing extra capacity in the columns and floors for extra floors and floor loads
process is self-contained, formwork and finishing materials are reused. Wood and extra capacity in roofs for roof-top gardens adds to the building’s long term
forms can generally be used 25 to 30 times without major maintenance while flexibility.
fiberglass, concrete and steel forms have significantly longer service lives. On the other end of the spectrum, real estate speculators plan for a return on
Recycle as much as possible, which includes buying products with recycled investment in 7 years and generally do not buy into the life cycle cost approach.
content. Concrete in most urban areas is recycled as fill or road base. Wood Similarly minimum code requirements for energy conserving measures in the
and steel forms are recycled when they become worn or obsolete. Virtually all building shell are generally for 5 years, meaning initial insulation levels pay for
reinforcing steel is made from recycled steel. Many cement plants burn waste- themselves in 5 years. Since it is difficult and costly to add more insulation to
derived fuels such as spent solvents, used oils, and tires in the manufacture of the building shell after it has been constructed, the 5-year payback for insulation
cement. is not consistent with the life cycle cost associated with 100 year use of
buildings.
Advanced building design guidelines from the New Buildings Institute (www.
Life Cycle NewBuildings.org), American Society for Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
A life cycle analysis can be done in terms of the economic life cycle cost or
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (www.ASHRAE.org), and others specify
environmental life cycle impact. Although the two approaches are different, they
insulation levels for those who want to build cost effective buildings above
each consider the impacts of the building design over the life of the building — an
minimum code levels. Alternatively, thermal mass and insulation can be included
essential part of sustainable design. When the energy and resource impacts
in the life cycle cost analysis to determine cost-effective levels. However, this
of sustainable design are considered over the life of the building, a sustainable
requires whole building energy analyses to determine annual costs to heat and
design often becomes more cost-effective. Conversely, when the energy consuming
cool the building. Economic levels of insulation depend on the climate, location,
impacts of a low first cost design are considered over the life of the building, the
and building type.
building may not be an attractive investment.

Practitioners of sustainable design believe that the key to sustainable building Figure 1
lies in long-life, adaptable, low-energy buildings. The durability and longevity of
precast concrete makes it an ideal choice.

Life cycle cost and service life Environmental life cycle inventory
A life cycle cost analysis is a powerful tool used to make economic decisions
for selection of building materials and systems. This analysis is the practice of and life cycle assessment
accounting for all expenditures incurred over the lifetime of a particular structure. A life cycle assessment (LCA) is an environmental assessment of the life cycle
Costs at any given time are discounted back to a fixed date, based on assumed of a product. An LCA looks at all aspects of a product life cycle — from the first
rates of inflation and the time-value of money. A life cycle cost is in terms of stages of harvesting and extracting raw materials from nature, to transforming
dollars and is equal to the construction cost plus the present value of future and processing these raw materials into a product to, using the product and
utility, maintenance, and replacement costs over the life of the building. ultimately recycling it or disposing of it back into nature. An LCA consists of the
four phases shown in Fig. 1.
Using this widely accepted method, it is possible to compare the economics
of different building alternatives that may have different cash flow factors but The LCA of a building is necessary to evaluate the full environmental impact
that provide a similar standard of service. The result is financial information for of a building over its life. Green buildings rating systems, models such as BEES
decision making, which can be used to balance capital costs and future operation, (www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/software/bees.html), and programs that focus only on
repair or maintenance costs. Quite often building designs with the lowest first recycled content or renewable resources provide only a partial snapshot of
costs for new construction will require higher costs during the building life. So, the environmental impact a building can leave. An LCA of a building includes
even with their low first cost, these buildings may have a higher life cycle cost. environmental effects due to:
Conversely, durable materials, such as precast concrete, often have a lower life • Extraction of materials and fuel used for energy.
cycle cost. In the world of selecting the lowest bid, owners need to be made aware • Manufacture of building components.
of the benefits of a lower life cycle cost so that specifications require durable
• Transportation of materials and components.
building materials such as precast concrete.
• Assembly and construction.
The Building Life-Cycle Cost software from the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) provides economic analysis of capital • Operation including energy consumption, maintenance, repair, and
investments, energy, and operating costs of buildings, systems, and components. renovations.
The software includes the means to evaluate costs and benefits of energy • Demolition, disposal, recycling, and reuse of the building at the end of its
conservation and complies with ASTM standards related to building economics functional or useful life.

 Figure 2

essentially an LCI of cement, which can be imported into an LCI of concrete. The
LCI of concrete itself can then be imported into an LCI of a product, such as an
office building.
To get the most useful information out of an LCI, precast concrete should be
considered in context of its end-use. For example, in a building, the environmental
impact of the building materials is usually dwarfed by the environmental effects
associated with building operations such as heating, ventilating, cooling, and
lighting.
The LCI of materials generally do not consider embodied energy and emissions
associated with construction of manufacturing plant equipment and buildings,
nor the heating and cooling of such buildings. This is generally acceptable if their
materials, embodied energy and associated emissions account for less than 1%
of those in the process being studied. For example, the SETAC guidelines indicate
that inputs to a process do not need to be included in an LCI if (i) they are less
than 1% of the total mass of the processed materials or product, (ii) they do not
contribute significantly to a toxic emission, and (iii) they do not have a significant
associated energy consumption.

A full set of effects includes land use, resource use, climate change, health
effects, acidification, and toxicity.
Concrete and concrete products LCI
The data gathered in an LCI is voluminous by nature and does not lend itself
An LCA involves a time consuming manipulation of large quantities of data. well to concise summaries; that is the function of the LCA. The data in typical
A model such as SimaPro (www.pre.nl/g) provides data for common building LCI reports are often grouped into three broad categories: materials, energy, and
materials and options for selecting LCA impacts. The Portland Cement emissions. These LCI data do not include the upstream profiles of supplementary
Association (PCA) (www.concrete.org) publishes reports with life cycle inventory cementitious materials (such as fly ash, silica fume, etc.) or energy sources (such
(LCI) data on cement and concrete. All models require a separate analysis of as fuel and electricity).
annual heating, cooling and other occupant loads using a program such as DOE-2 Raw Materials. Approximately 1.6 lb (0.73kg) of raw materials, excluding
(http://simulationresearchLBL.gov) or Energy Plus (www.EnergyPlus.gov). water, are required to make 1 lb (0.45kg) of cement., This is primarily due to the
calcination of limestone. In addition to the mixture water, the LCI assumes that
An LCI is the first stage of an LCA. An LCI accounts for all the individual
precast concrete consumes 17.5 gallon/yd3 (85 l/m3) of water for washout of the
environmental flows to and from a product throughout its life cycle. It consists of
mixer and equipment used to transfer concrete to molds.
the materials and energy needed to make and use a product and the emissions
to air, land, and water associated with making and using that product. Solid waste from precast concrete plants is insignificant. Waste is about 2.5%
of the mass of concrete used in production. About 95% of this waste is further
Several organizations have proposed how an LCA should be conducted. beneficially reused through crushing and recycling, resulting in about 0.2 pcf
Organizations such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (3 kg/m3) (about 0.1%) of actual waste.
(www.ISO.org), the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC),
(www.SETAC.org), and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US Fuel and Energy. The amount of energy required to manufacture or produce
EPA), (www.EPA.gov), have documented standard procedures for conducting a product can be shown in units of energy, such as joules or Btu’s, or as
an LCA. These procedures are generally consistent with each other: they are all amounts of fuel or electricity. Embodied energy per unit volume of concrete is
scientific, transparent, and repeatable. primarily a function of the cement content of the mixture. For example, cement
manufacturing accounts for about 80% of total energy in a 5,000 psi (35MPa)
LCI Boundary. The usefulness of an LCA or LCI depends on where the concrete mixture. Energy used in operations at the concrete plant contributes
boundaries of a product are drawn. A common approach is to consider all the close to 10%, while aggregate processing and transportation each contribute
environmental flows from cradle-to-cradle. For example, the system boundary in about 5%.
Fig. 2 shows the most significant processes for precast concrete operations. It
includes most of the inputs and outputs associated with producing concrete — The embodied energy of a concrete mixture increases in direct proportion to its
from extracting raw material to producing mixed concrete ready for placement in cement content. Therefore, the embodied energy of concrete is sensitive to the
forms. The system boundary also includes the upstream profile of manufacturing cement content of the mixture and to the assumptions about LCI energy data in
cement, as well as quarrying and processing aggregates, and transporting cement manufacturing.
cement, fly ash, and aggregates to the concrete plant. Energy and emissions Replacing cement with supplementary cementitious materials, such as
associated with transporting the primary materials from their source to the slag cement or silica fume, has the effect of lowering the embodied energy of
concrete plant are also included in the boundary. It does not include, however, the concrete. Fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume do not contribute to the
upstream profiles of fuel, electricity, water, or supplementary cementitious energy and emissions embodied in the concrete (except for the small energy
materials. This LCI also does not include form preparation, placing the concrete
in the formwork, curing, and stripping. A complete precast concrete LCI would  Marceau, M.L., Nisbet, M.A., and VanGeem, M.G., “Life Cycle Inventory of Portland Cement
Manufacture,” PCA R&D Serial No. 2095b, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois,
include all these steps. 2005. www.cement.org
 Nisbet, M.A., Marceau, M.L., and VanGeem, M.G., “Environmental Life Cycle Inventory of
An upstream profile can be thought of as a separate LCI that is itself Portland Cement Concrete,” PCA R&D Serial No. 2095a, Portland Cement Association,
an ingredient to a product. For example, the upstream profile of cement is Skokie, Illinois, 2002.

 Table 2 Some Impact Categories for Performing a Life Cycle Assessment.
Bulk waste Global warming potential Production capacity of drinking water
Carcinogens Hazardous waste Production capacity of irrigation water
Climate change Human toxicity, air Radiation
contributions due to slag granulation/grinding, which is included). Crop growth capacity Human toxicity, soil Radioactive waste
These products are recovered materials from industrial processes Depletion of reserves Human toxicity, water Respiratory inorganics
(also called post-industrial recycled materials) and if not used
Ecotoxicity soil, chronic Land use Respiratory organics
in concrete would use up valuable landfill space. With a 50% slag
cement replacement for portland cement in a 5,000 psi (35 Ecotoxicity water, acute Life expectancy Severe morbidity and suffering
MPa) mixture, embodied energy changes from 2.3 to 1.5 GJ/m3 Ecotoxicity water, chronic Morbidity Severe nuisance
(1.7 to 1.1 MBtu/yd3), a 34% reduction. Fly ash or slag cement
replacement of portland cement can also significantly reduce Eutrophication Nuisance Soil acidification
embodied emissions. For instance, a 45% carbon dioxide emissions Fish and meat production Ozone depletion Species extinction
reduction is achievable with 50% substitution of slag for portland Fossil fuels Photochemical smog Wood growth capacity
cement in a 7,500 psi (50 MPa) precast concrete mixture. Certain
aesthetic (color) and stripping time restrictions apply when using
supplementary cementitious materials. concrete production. Thus, concrete LCI results are significantly influenced by
Embodied energy of reinforcing steel used in concrete is relatively small the cement content of the concrete mixture and the basis of the CO2 data in the
because it represents only about a 1% of the weight in a unit of concrete and it is cement LCI.
manufactured mostly from recycled scrap metal. Reinforcing steel has over 90%
The fact that cement manufacturing accounts for approximately 70% of
recycled content according to the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (www.
fuel consumption per unit volume of concrete indicates that the amounts of
crsi.org) The process for manufacturing reinforcing bars from recycled steel uses
combustion gases, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrous oxides (NOx), are sensitive to
significant energy and should be considered if the reinforcing bar content is more
cement content of the mixture.
than 1% of the weight of the concrete.
It is assumed that at a typical site and in a precast concrete plant, concrete Cement kiln dust is a waste product of the cement manufacturing process
production formwork is reused a number of times through the repetitious nature and can be used to help maintain soil fertility. An industry-weighted average
of work, so its contribution to an LCI or LCA is negligible. Steel and wood formwork of 94 lb of cement kiln dust is generated per ton (39 kg per metric tonne) of
is generally recycled at the end of its useful life. cement. Of this about 75 lb (31 kg) are land-filled and about 19 lb (8 kg) are
recycled in other operations.
When looking at a complicated product, such as an office building, the
categories of fuel and energy are considered. However, depending on the life span Most emissions to air from the life cycle of an office building come from the
of the building, the magnitude of energy use due to operations can be quite use of heating and cooling equipment, not from the cement or concrete.
large. Building energy-use, including heating, cooling, ventilating, and lighting, is
generally 90 to 95% of life cycle energy-use. This means that the office building
life cycle energy is not sensitive to variations in cement manufacturing, concrete Life cycle impact assessment
production, or transportation. The embodied energy of the material comprising In the next phase of analysis, the LCI data is assigned to impact categories
a building is relatively minor compared to the building life cycle energy usage. The and the relative effect of the inventory data within each impact category
building life cycle energy is primarily a function of climate and building type, not is weighted. Among LCA practitioners, this phase is called life cycle impact
concrete content. assessment, and it consists of category definition, classification, and
characterization. Category definition consists of identifying which impact
Emissions to Air. The greatest amount of particulate matter (dust) categories are relevant to the product being studied. Classification consists
comes from cement manufacturing and aggregate production. The single of grouping related substances into impact categories. For example, the gases
largest contributor to particulate emissions in both cement manufacturing carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) contribute to
and aggregate production is quarry operations (quarry operations include climate change; therefore, they can be grouped together in an impact category
blasting, haul roads, unloading, and stockpiling). In cement manufacture, quarry called climate change. There are many impact categories to choose from. The
operations account for approximately 60% of total particulate emissions. In categories chosen depend on the goal and scope of the LCA. Table 2 lists some
aggregate production, quarry operations are responsible for approximately possible impact categories.
90% of particulate emissions. Approximately 30% of the particulate emissions
associated with concrete production are from aggregate production and According to ISO 14041, the only mandatory step in life cycle impact
approximately 60% are embodied in the cement. However, particulate emissions assessment is characterization. In characterization, weighting factors are
from quarries are highly variable and sensitive to how dust is managed on haul assigned according to a substance’s relative contribution to the impact
roads and in other quarry operations. category. In terms of global warming potential, one pound of CH4 is 20 times more
potent than one pound of CO2, and one pound of N2O is 320 times more potent
The amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other combustion gases associated than one pound of CO2. Therefore, in assessing the potential for global warming,
with concrete production are primarily a function of the cement content in CO2 is assigned a weighting factor of 1, CH4 a factor of 20, and N2O a factor of
the mixture designs. Emissions of CO2 increase in approximately a one-to-one 320. It is important to consider that there is no scientific basis for comparing
ratio with the cement content of concrete. That is, for every additional pound across impact categories. For example, global warming potential cannot be
of cement per cu yd of concrete, there will be an increase in CO2 emissions by compared with potential ozone depletion.
approximately 1 lb (0.45kg). Because of the CO2 emissions from calcination
and from fuel combustion in cement manufacture, the cement content of the
The methodology for life cycle impact assessment is still being developed, and
concrete mixture accounts for about 90% of the CO2 emissions associated with
there is no general and widespread practice at this time or an agreement on
 Marceau, M.L., Gajda, J., and VanGeem, M.G., “Use of Fly Ash in Concrete: Normal and High specific methodologies. As a result, it is common to use several of the available
Volume Ranges,” PCA R&D Serial No. 2604, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinos, methods to perform the life cycle impact assessment.
2002.

Green Building Rating Systems Essentially, LEED is a point-based system that provides a framework
LCI and LCA are valid methods of assessing sustainability, but they are a for assessing building performance meeting sustainability goals. Points are
complex accounting of all materials, energy, emissions, and waste; and their awarded when a specific intent is met, and a building is LEED certified if it
impacts. Conversely, green building rating systems have gained popularity obtains at least 26 points out of a total availability of 69 points (LEED-NC).
because they are comparatively easy to use and straightforward. Focus The points are grouped into five categories: (i) sustainable sites, (ii) water
groups have shown that consumers are interested in furthering sustainability efficiency, (iii) energy and atmosphere, (iv) materials and resources, and
but are unable to define it. Labeling a green building with LEED, Energy Star (v) indoor environmental quality. The more points earned, the “greener” the
or Green Globes certification sends the message the building is green building. Silver, gold, and platinum ratings are awarded for at least 33, 39, and
without having to perform a complex LCI or LCA. 52 points, respectively.
Appropriate use of precast concrete can help a building earn up to 23
points; 26 are required for LEED certification. Using concrete can help meet
LEED minimum energy requirements, optimize energy performance, and increase
The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) green building the life of a building. The constituents of concrete can be recycled materials,
rating system is a voluntary, consensus-based national standard for and concrete itself can also be recycled. Concrete and its constituents
developing high-performance, sustainable buildings. LEED is both a standard for are usually available locally. These attributes of concrete, recognized in the
certification and a design guide for sustainable construction and operation. As a LEED rating system, can help lessen a building’s negative impact on the
standard, it is predominantly performance-based, and as a design guide, it takes natural environment. Points applicable to precast concrete are summarized
a whole-building approach that encourages a collaborative, integrated design in Table 3 and explained throughout this chapter. Points must be documented
and construction process. LEED is administered by the U.S. Green Building according to LEED procedures to be earned. The USGBC website contains
Council (USGBC, www.usgbc.org). LEED-NC is a document that applies to new a downloadable “letter template” that greatly simplifies the documentation
construction and major renovation projects and is intended for commercial, requirements for LEED.
institutional, and high-rise residential new construction and major renovation.
The buildings in the corporate campus for CH2M Hill in Englewood,
 “LEED for New Construction,” Version 2.2, United States Green Building Council, October CO are framed with a total precast concrete system, including precast
2005, www.USGBC.org.

Table 3 – LEED* Project Checklist: Precast Concrete Potential Points.

POINTS
LEED CATEGORY CREDIT OR PREREQUISITE AVAILABLE
Sustainable Sites Credit 5.1: Site Development, Protect or Restore Habitat 1
Sustainable Sites Credit 5.2: Site Development, Maximize Open Space 1
Sustainable Sites Credit 7.1: Heat Island Effect, Non-Roof 1
Energy and Atmosphere Prerequisite 2: Minimum Energy Performance —
Energy and Atmosphere Credit 1: Optimize Energy Performance 1-10
Materials and Resources Credit 1.1: Building Reuse, Maintain 75% of Existing Shell 1
Materials and Resources Credit 1.2: Building Reuse, Maintain 95% of Existing Shell 1
Materials and Resources Credit 2.1: Construction Waste Management, divert 50% by weight or volume 1
Materials and Resources Credit 2.2: Construction Waste Management, divert 75% by weight or volume 1
Materials and Resources Credit 4.1: Recycled Content, the post-consumer recycled content plus one-half of the pre-consumer 1
content constitutes at least 10% (based on cost) of the total value of the materials in the project
Materials and Resources Credit 4.2: Recycled Content, the post-consumer recycled content plus one-half of the pre-consumer 1
content constitutes at least 20% (based on cost) of the total value of the materials in the project
Materials and Resources Credit 5.1: Local/Regional Materials, Use a minimum of 10% (based on cost) of the total materials value 1
Materials and Resources Credit 5.2: Local/Regional Materials, Use a minimum of 20% (based on cost) of the total materials value 1
Indoor Environmental Quality Credit 3.1: Construction Indoor Air Quality Management Plan, During Construction 1
Innovation and Design Process Credit 1.1: Use of high volume supplementary cementitious materials. Apply for other credits 1†
demonstrating exceptional performance
Innovation and Design Process Credits 1.2: Apply for other credits demonstrating exceptional performance 1†
Innovation and Design Process Credits 1.3: Apply for other credits demonstrating exceptional performance 1†
Innovation and Design Process Credits 1.4: Apply for other credits demonstrating exceptional performance 1†
Innovation and Design Process Credit 2.l: LEED Accredited Professional 1
PROJECT TOTALS 23
*LEED: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design.
† Up to 4 additional points can be earned, must be submitted and approved (not included in total).
Note: Scoring System: Certified, 26-32 points; Silver, 33-38 points; Gold, 39-51 points; and Platinum, 52-69 points.

 Fig. 3. All three total precast concrete buildings are LEED certified. CH2M Hill World Headquarters, Englewood, CO
Architect: Barber Architecture.
concrete shearwalls, double tees, inverted tee beams and loadbearing parking structure. The Arizona Department of Environmental Quality
exterior walls, Fig. 3. The buildings are some of the first total precast (ADEQ) is a 6-story, 300,000 sq ft (27,870m2) office building with a
concrete office buildings LEED-certified. 1,000 space parking structure. Both buildings are registered with the
The Arizona Departments of Administration and Environmental United States Green Building Council’s LEED program.
Quality (ADOA & ADEQ) project is a 500,000 sq. ft (46,450m2), single The 27-story LEED Platinum certified existing office building in
contract project consisting of two architectural precast concrete clad downtown Sacramento, CA, has precast concrete panels with punched
office buildings and two precast/prestressed concrete parking structures, openings, Fig. 5. The windows were pre-mounted, glazed, and caulked
Fig. 4(a and b). The Arizona Department of Administration (ADOA) is at the plant after casting. The precast concrete panels on the south
an 185,000 sq. ft (17,187m2), 4-story office building with an 800 space and west sides of the building have integral sun shades with a 1 ft

Fig. 4(a).
Arizona Department of Administration (ADOA), Phoenix,
Arizona; Architect: Opus Architects and Engineers;
Photos: Alex Stricker, Stricker LLC.

Fig. 4(b).
Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ), Fig. 5. First LEED Platinum certified existing high-rise. The
Phoenix, Arizona; Joe Serna Jr. California EPA Headquarters
Architect: Opus Architects and Engineers. Sacramento, CA; Architect: A. C. Martin Partners.

Fig. 6. LEED registered mixed-use development. Bookends, Greenville, SC; Architect & Photo: Johnston Design Group, LLC.

(3m) overhang. The building’s sustainable The rating consists of a score on a scale of Energy consumption is based on all sources of
features can be grouped into three general 1 to 100. The score represents a benchmark energy used per month. In addition to energy
categories; air quality; energy conservation energy performance. For example, buildings performance, the engineer is responsible for
and management; and recycling and recycled that score 75 or greater are among the United demonstrating compliance with industry
products. States’ top 25%. In addition, buildings must standards on thermal comfort, indoor air
The project in Fig. 6 is a USGBC LEED maintain a healthy and productive indoor quality, and illumination.
registered mixed-use development featuring environment. The professional engineer assessing the building
street level retail and residential condominiums. At the present time, five commercial- is expected to give an opinion about the capability
The structure’s framing consists of 7 in. building types are eligible for the Energy Star of the building to provide acceptable thermal
(175mm) and 12 in. (300mm) loadbearing walls certification: offices, K–12 schools, supermarket/ environmental conditions per ASHRAE Standard
which support double tees and flat slabs. The grocery stores, hotel/motels, and acute care/ 5510 and its capability to supply acceptable
precast concrete walls have a combination of children’s hospitals. These building types are outdoor air per ASHRAE Standard 6211 (see www.
sandblasted and cast-in thin brick finishes. The broken down further into a number of specific ashrae.org). The engineer is also expected to give
façade of this one building has four distinct occupancies. For example, office buildings include an opinion about the capability of the building
architectural styles to appear as four separate general office, bank branch, courthouse, and to provide minimum illumination levels per the
and unique buildings. Mechanical, electrical and financial center. Iluminance Selection Procedure in the IESNA
plumbing (MEP) accessories, such as conduit Demonstrating conformance is accomplished Lighting Handbook12 (see www.iesna.org).
boxes, and mechanical and electrical embeds and through a web-based software tool called In addition, Portfolio Manager has the
openings were cast integrally into the panels. Portfolio Manager (www.energystar.gov). The capability to manage energy data, analyze
program hinges on the unbiased opinions of trends in energy performance (to make
Energy Star a professional engineer who must visit the budget and management decisions regarding
Energy Star (www.energystar.gov) is a building and verify that data entered about the investments in energy-related projects), verify
government/industry partnership designed to building are correct. building performance, and track the progress of
help businesses and consumers protect the Through the Portfolio Manager, the engineer building improvements.
environment and save money through energy inputs the building location and energy
efficiency. Energy Star labeling is available for 10 Amercian Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
consumption and describes its physical Conditioning Engineers, ASHRAE Standard 55—Thermal
office equipment such as computers and monitors, and operating characteristics. Operating Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, Atlanta,
appliances such as refrigerators, and residential characteristics include such things as average GA, www.ASHRAE.org.
and commercial buildings. Buildings that meet 11 Amercian Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
weekly occupancy hours, number of occupants, Conditioning Engineers, ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004—
certain criteria and achieve a rating of 75 or better and number and types of equipment such Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, Atlanta, GA.
in the Energy Star program are eligible to apply for as personal computers, refrigeration cases, 12 Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America Lighting Handbook, 9th
the Energy Star (see www.energystar.gov). cooking facilities, and laundry facilities. edition. December 2000, New York, NY, www.IESNA.org.

 Green Globes Resistant to Natural Disasters
Green Globes is an online, point-based green building rating system Concrete is resistant to wind, hurricanes, floods, and fire. Properly
administered by the Green Building Initiative (www.thegbi.org). Many designed precast concrete is resistant to earthquakes and provides
of the points are similar to those in LEED, though the point structure blast protection for occupants.
differs; Green Globes has 1000 total points compared with the 69 for
LEED-NC. Certification for Green Globes is available at 35% achievement
of the total applicable points compared with LEED at 38% (26 points). It Fire resistance
is easier to obtain certification in Green Globes, however, because points Precast concrete offers noncombustible construction that helps contain a
that are not applicable to the building are subtracted from the total fire within boundaries. As a separation wall, precast concrete helps to prevent
number of applicable points, so a higher percentage is obtained for those a fire from spreading throughout a building or jumping from building to building.
criteria that are met. During wild fires, precast concrete walls help provide protection to human life
and the occupant’s possessions. As an exterior wall, concrete that endures a
fire can often be reused when the building is rebuilt.
Durability The fire endurance of concrete can be determined based on its thickness
A key factor in building reuse is the durability of the original structure. and type of aggregate. Procedures for determining fire endurance of
Precast concrete panels provide a long service life due to their durable building materials are prescribed by ASTM E119. Concrete element fire
and low-maintenance concrete surfaces. A precast concrete shell can be endurance is generally controlled by heat transmission long before
left in place when the building interior is renovated. Annual maintenance structural failure, whereas other construction materials fail by heat
should include inspection and, if necessary, repair of sealant material. transmission when collapse is imminent. So, a 2-hour fire endurance for a
Modular and sandwich panel construction with concrete exterior and precast concrete wall will most likely mean the wall gets hot (experiences
interior walls provide long-term durability inside and out. Precast concrete an average temperature rise of 250 ºF [140 ºC] or 325ºF [180ºC] at any
construction provides the opportunity to refurbish the building should one point) whereas a 2-hour fire endurance of a frame wall means the wall
the building use or function change, rather than tear it down and start is likely near collapse. Concrete helps contain a fire even if no water supply
anew. These characteristics of precast concrete make it sustainable in is available, whereas sprinklers rely on a problematic water source.
two ways: it avoids contributing solid waste to landfills and it reduces the
depletion of natural resources and production of air and water pollution
caused by new construction. Tornado, hurricane, and wind resistance
Precast concrete can be economically designed to resistant to
LEED Materials Credit 1 in Building Reuse. The purpose of this credit tornadoes, hurricanes, and wind. Hurricanes are prevalent in coastal
is to leave the main portion of the building structure and shell in place regions. Tornadoes are particularly prevalent in the path of hurricanes and
when renovating, thereby conserving resources and reducing wastes in the central plains of the U.S.
and environmental effects of new construction. The building shell
includes the exterior skin and framing but excludes window assemblies, Case Study: In 1967, a series of deadly tornadoes hit northern Illinois.
interior partition walls, floor coverings, and ceiling systems. This Damages at the time were estimated at $50 million, with 57 people were
credit should be obtainable when renovating buildings with a precast killed and 484 homes were destroyed. Two precast/prestressed concrete
concrete façade, because concrete generally has a long life. This is structures, a grocery store and a high school, were in the direct path of
worth 1 point if 75% of the existing building structure/shell is left in two of the tornadoes, which struck almost simultaneously. Repairs to the
place and 2 points if 100% is left in place structural system of the grocery store (limited to a single crack in the
flanges and stem of a beam subjected to uplift) were less than $200. In
the high school, structural damage was limited to the flange of one double-
tee member (24 ft [7.5 m] of which was broken off by flying debris) and
Corrosion resistance damaged concrete diaphragm end closures.
The inherent alkalinity of concrete results in a system of concrete and
reinforcing steel that does not corrode in most environments. The most
common reason for surface spalling of concrete in buildings is corrosion of Flood resistance
reinforcing steel due to inadequate concrete cover. Precast concrete offers Concrete is not damaged by water; concrete that does not dry
increased resistance to this type of spalling because reinforcement and out continues to gain strength in the presence of moisture. Concrete
concrete are placed in a plant, with more quality control than cast-in-place submerged in water absorbs very small amounts of water even over long
construction. This reduces variations in concrete cover over reinforcing periods of time, and this water does not damage the concrete. Conversely,
steel and reduces the likelihood of inadequate cover. building materials such as wood and gypsum wallboard can absorb large
quantities of water and cause moisture related problems. In flood-
Inedible damaged areas, the concrete buildings are often salvageable.
Vermin and insects cannot destroy concrete because it is inedible. Concrete will only contribute to moisture problems in buildings if it is
Some softer construction materials are inedible but still provide enclosed in a building system that does not let it dry out, trapping moisture
pathways for insects. Due to its hardness, vermin and insects will not between the concrete and other building materials. For instance, impermeable
bore through concrete. vinyl wall coverings in hot and humid climates will act as a vapor retarder and

10
 covered by an impermeable material on both wall
surfaces, the potential for moisture problems
within the wall system is minimal.

More information on condensation potential

and moisture control in precast concrete
walls is covered in Designers Notebook Energy
Conservation and Condensation Control, DN-15.

Ultraviolet resistance
The ultraviolet (UV) range of solar radiation
does not harm concrete. Using non-fading
colored pigments in concrete retains the color
in concrete long after paints have faded due
to the sun’s effects. Precast concrete is ideal
for using pigments because the controlled
production allows for replication of color for all
panels for a project (Figs. 3 and 4).

Mitigating the Urban Heat

Island Effect
Precast concrete provides reflective surfaces
Fig. 7 High-reflecting (usuallly light-colored) surfaces help mitigate urban heat islands. that minimize the urban heat island effect.
Cape Coral City Hall Cities and urban areas are 3 to 8 °F (2 to 4 °C)
Cape Coral, Florida warmer than surrounding areas due to the urban
Architect & Photo: Spillis Candela/DMJM. heat island effect. This difference is attributed
to heat absorption of buildings and pavements
moisture can get trapped between the concrete damage was observed in the precast concrete that have taken the place of vegetation. Trees
and wall covering. For this reason, impermeable components used for the first floor or first- provide shade that reduces temperatures at the
wall coverings (such as vinyl wallpaper) should not floor support of residential housing. It should be surface. Trees and plants provide transpiration
be used in hot and humid climates. noted that parking structures with large plan and evaporation that cool the surfaces and
areas—regardless of structural system—did air surrounding them. Research has shown the
not perform as well as other types of buildings. average temperature of Los Angeles has risen
Earthquake resistance steadily over the past half century, and is now 6
Precast concrete can be designed to be to 7 °F (3 to 4 °C) warmer than 50 years ago.13
resistant to earthquakes. Earthquakes in Weather Resistance
Guam, United States (Richter Scale 8.1);
Manila, Philippines (Richter Scale 7.2); and High humidity and wind- Warmer surface temperatures
Kobe, Japan (Richter Scale 6.9), have subjected driven rain Urban heat islands are primarily attributed to
precast concrete buildings to some of nature’s Precast concrete is resistant to wind- horizontal surfaces, such as roofs and pavements,
deadliest forces. Appropriately designed driven rain and moist, outdoor air in hot and that absorb solar radiation. In this context,
precast concrete framing systems have a humid climates. Concrete is impermeable to pavements include roads, streets, parking lots,
proven capacity to withstand these major air infiltration and wind-driven rain. Moisture driveways, and walkways. Vertical surfaces, such
earthquakes. that enters a precast concrete building must as the sides of buildings, also contribute to this
come through joints between precast concrete effect. Using materials with higher albedos, such
Case study: The 1994 earthquake in elements. Annual inspection and repair of joints as concrete, will reduce the heat island effect,
Northridge, California (Richter Scale 6.8), will minimize this potential. More importantly, if save energy by reducing the demand for air
was one of the costliest natural disasters moisture does enter through joints, it will not conditioning, and improve air quality (Fig. 7).
in U.S. history. Total damage was estimated damage the concrete. Studies indicate people will avoid using air-
at $20 billion. Most engineered structures conditioning at night if temperatures are less
within the affected region performed well, Good practice for all types of wall construction than 75 °F (24 °C). Mitigating the urban heat
including structures with precast concrete is to have permeable materials that breathe (are island effect to keep summer temperatures in
components. In particular, no damage was allowed to dry) on at least one surface and not cities less than that temperature at night has
observed in precast concrete cladding due encapsulate concrete between two impermeable the potential to save large amounts of energy
to either inadequacies of those components, surfaces. Concrete breathes and will dry out. by avoiding air-conditioning use.
or inadequacies of their connections to Therefore, as long as a precast concrete wall is
the building’s structural systems, and no allowed to breathe on at least one side and is not 13 Heat Island Group Home Page, eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/.
11
 Smog Emittance
Smog levels have also been correlated to temperature rise. Thus, as the In addition to albedo, the material’s surface emittance affects surface
temperature of urban areas increases, so does the probability of smog temperature. While albedo is a measure of the solar radiation reflected
and pollution. In Los Angeles, the probability of smog increases by 3% away from the surface, surface emittance is the ability of the material to
with every degree Fahrenheit of temperature rise. Studies for Los Angeles emit, or “let go of” heat. A white surface exposed to the sun is relatively
and 13 cities in Texas have found that there are almost never any smog cool because it has a high reflectivity and a high emittance. A shiny metal
episodes when the temperature is below 70 °F (21 °C). The probability of surface is relatively warm because it has a low emittance, even though
episodes begins at about 73 °F (23 °C) and, for Los Angeles, exceeds 50% it has a high albedo. The emittance of most non-reflecting (non-metal)
by 90 °F (32 °C). Reducing the daily high in Los Angeles by 7 °F (4 °C) is building surfaces such as concrete is in the range of 0.85 to 0.95. The
estimated to eliminate two-thirds of the smog episodes. emittance of aluminum foil, aluminum sheet, and galvanized steel, all dry
and bright, are 0.05, 0.12, and 0.25, respectively.
Smog and air pollution are the main reasons EPA mandates expensive,
clean fuels for vehicles and reduced particulate emissions from industrial Moisture
facilities such as cement and asphalt production plants. The EPA now Moisture in concrete helps to cool the surface by evaporation. Concrete
recognizes that air temperature is as much a contributor to smog as when placed has a moisture content of 100% relative humidity. The
nitrogen oxide (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The effort to concrete surface gradually dries over a period of one to two years to
reduce particulates in the industrial sector alone costs billions of dollars per reach equilibrium with its surroundings. Concrete surfaces exposed to
year, whereas reduction in smog may be directly related to the reflectance rain and snow will continue to be wetted and dried. This moisture in the
and colors of the infrastructure that surround us. Installing low-albedo roofs, concrete surface will help to cool the concrete by evaporation whenever
walls, and pavements is a cost-effective way to reduce smog. the vapor pressure of the moisture in the surface is greater than that
of the air. In simpler terms, when the temperature and relative humidity
of the air are greater than that just beneath the concrete surface, the
Albedo (solar reflectance) concrete will dry and cool somewhat by evaporation.
Albedo, which in this case is synonymous with solar reflectance, is
the ratio of the amount of solar radiation reflected from a material The albedo of concrete decreases when the surface is wet. Consequently,
surface to the amount shining on the surface. Solar radiation includes albedo is lower when concrete is relatively new and the surface has not
the ultraviolet as well as the visible spectrum. Albedo is measured on a yet dried, and when the concrete becomes wet. The albedo of new concrete
scale not reflective (0.0) to 100% reflective (1.0). Generally, materials generally stabilizes within two to three months.
that appear to be light-colored in the visible spectrum have high albedo
and those that appear dark-colored have low albedo. Because reflectivity LEED Sustainable Sites Credit 7.1 on Heat Island Effect, Non-Roof.
in the solar radiation spectrum determines albedo, color in the visible The intent of this credit is to reduce heat islands. The requirements
spectrum is not always a true indicator of albedo. are met by placing a minimum of 50% of parking places underground or
Surfaces with lower albedos absorb more solar radiation. The ability to covered by a parking structure. Precast concrete parking structures,
reflect infrared light is of great importance because infrared light is most can be used to help obtain this point. Any roof used to shade or cover
responsible for heating. On a sunny day when the air temperature is 55 °F parking must meet specified criteria. This credit is worth 1 point.
(13 °C), surfaces with dark acrylic paint will heat up to 90 °F (32 °C) more
than air temperatures, to 145 °F (63 °C). Light surfaces, such as white
acrylic, will heat up to 20 °F (11 °C) more, to a temperature of 75 °F (24 Mitigation approaches
°C). The color and composition of the materials greatly affect the surface One method to reduce the urban heat island effect is to change the albedo
temperature and the amount of absorbed solar radiation. The effect of of the urban area. This is accomplished by replacing low albedo surfaces with
albedo and solar radiation on surface temperatures is referred to as the materials of higher albedo. This change is most cost effective when done in the
sol-air temperature and can be calculated. initial design or during renovation or replacement due to other needs. Planting
Traditional portland cement concrete generally has an albedo or solar trees for shade near buildings also helps mitigate the urban heat island
reflectance of approximately 0.4, although values can vary; measured effect. Shade also directly reduces the air-conditioning load on buildings. Using
values are reported in the range of 0.4 to 0.5. The solar reflectance of deciduous trees shades the buildings in the summer and allows the sun to
new concrete is greater when the surface reflectance of the sand and reach the buildings in the winter.
cementitious materials in the concrete are greater. Surface finishing
techniques also have an effect, with smoother surfaces generally having Thermal mass and nocturnal effects
a higher albedo. For concrete elements with “white” portland cement, The thermal mass of concrete delays the time it takes for a surface to heat
values are reported in the range of 0.7 to 0.8. Albedo is most commonly up but also delays the time to cool off. For example, a white non-concrete roof
measured using a solar-spectrum reflectometer (ASTM C 1549)14 or a will get warm faster than concrete during the day, but will also cool off faster at
pyranometer (ASTM E 1918).15 night. Concrete surfaces are often warmer than air temperatures in the evening
hours. Concrete’s albedo and thermal mass will help mitigate heat island effects
during the day but may contribute to the nocturnal heat island effect. The
14 American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM C 1549, “Standard Test Method for moisture absorbed by concrete during rain events helps reduce the daytime and
Determination of Solar Reflectance Near Ambient Temperature Using a Portable Solar
Reflectometer,” Conshohocken, PA, www. ASTM.org. nocturnal heat island effect when it evaporates. The challenge is to use concrete
15 American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM E 1918, “Standard Test Method for Measuring to mitigate heat islands while keeping evening temperatures as cool as possible.
Solar Reflectance of Horizontal and Low-Sloped Surfaces in the Field,” West Conshohocken, PA.
12
Environmental Protection 5. Less dust and waste is created at the construction site because
only needed precast concrete elements are delivered and there is
Radiation and toxicity no debris from formwork and associated fasteners—construction
sites are cleaner and neater.
One goal of sustainability is to reduce radiation and toxic materials;
concrete provides an effective barrier against radiation and can be 6. Fewer trucks and less time are required for construction because
used to isolate toxic chemicals and waste materials. Concrete protects concrete is made offsite; this is particularly beneficial in urban areas
against the harmful effects of X-rays, gamma rays, and neutron radiation. where minimal traffic disruption is critical.
Concrete is resistant to most natural environments; it is sometimes 7. P recast concrete units are normally large components, so greater
exposed to substances that can attack and cause deterioration. Concrete portions of the building are completed with each activity.
in some chemical manufacturing and storage facilities must be specifically 8. Less noise at construction site because concrete is made offsite.
designed to avoid chemical attack. The resistance of concrete to chlorides
is good, and using less permeable concrete can increase the resistance even
more. This is achieved by using a low water-to-cementitious materials ratio LEED Sustainable Sites Credit 5.1 on Site Development, Protect,
(around 0.40), adequate curing, and supplementary cementitious materials or Restore Habitat. The intent of this credit is to encourage the
such as slag cement or silica fume. The best defenses against sulfate attack conservation of natural areas on the site and restore damaged areas. The
where this is an issue, are the measures suggested previously, in addition to requirements are met by limiting site disturbance to prescribed distances.
using cement specially formulated for sulfate environments. Tuck-under parking, such as precast concrete parking structures, can
be used to help obtain this credit worth 1 point. Also precast concrete
requires minimal site disturbance for erection of panels.
Resistance to noise
Precast concrete walls provide a buffer between outdoor noise and the indoor
environment. Because land is becoming scarcer, buildings are being constructed
closer together and near noise sources such as highways, railways, and LEED Sustainable Sites Credit 5.2 on Site Development, Maximize
airports. The greater mass of concrete walls can reduce sound penetrating Open Space. The intent of this credit is to provide a high ratio of open
through a wall by over 80% compared to wood or steel frame construction. space to development footprint. The requirements are met by limiting
Although some sound will penetrate the windows, a concrete building is often the size of the development footprint; specifically, by exceeding the
two-thirds quieter than a wood or steel frame building. local zoning’s open space requirement for the site by 25%. Tuck-under
parking, such as precast concrete parking structures, can be used to
Precast concrete panels also provide effective sound barriers separating help obtain this credit worth 1 point.
buildings from highways or industrial areas from residential areas.

Less concrete is generally used in precast concrete buildings than in

Security and impact resistance other concrete buildings because of the optimization of materials. A properly
Concrete is often used as a first line of defense against explosions or designed precast concrete system will result in smaller structural members,
blasts. Rows of concrete planters or bollards are now positioned in front longer spans, and less material used on-site; this translates directly into
of most federal buildings such as court houses, office buildings. and other economic savings, which can also result in environmental savings. Using less
high-security areas. Decorative concrete walls are also used as a primary materials means using fewer natural resources and less manufacturing and
line of defense to prevent vehicles from coming close to buildings. From a transportation energy—not to mention the avoided emissions from mining,
holistic perspective, the barriers may also provide benches and a visual processing, and transporting raw and finished material.
separation between the street and plaza. Concrete products can provide both the building structure, and the interior
and exterior finishes. Structurally efficient columns, beams, and slabs can be
left exposed with natural finishes. Interior and exterior concrete walls offer
Precast Concrete Production a wide range of profile, texture, and color options that require little or no
The production of precast concrete has many environmental benefits, including: additional treatment to achieve aesthetically pleasing results. Exposed ceiling
1. Less materials are required because precise mixture proportions and slabs and architectural precast concrete panels are some examples of this
tighter tolerances are achievable. environmentally efficient approach. This structure/finish combination reduces
2. Optimal insulation levels can be incorporated into precast concrete the need for the production, installation, maintenance, repair, and replacement
sandwich panel walls. of additional finish materials. It also eliminates products that could otherwise
degrade indoor air quality. This approach provides durable finishes that are
3. Less concrete waste is created because of tight control of
not prone to damage or fire. Exposing the mass of the structure moderates
quantities of constituent materials.
heating and cooling loads.
4. Waste materials are more likely to be recycled
because concrete production is in one location.
a. Gray water often recycled into future mixtures. Constituent materials
b. Hardened concrete recycled (presently about 5 to 20% of Concrete. Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: aggregates
aggregate in precast concrete can be recycled concrete; in the and paste. The paste, comprised of portland cement and water, binds the
future this could be higher.) aggregates (usually sand and gravel or crushed stone) into a rocklike mass.
c. Steel forms and other materials are reused. The paste hardens because of the chemical reaction of the cement and water.
13
 Fig. 8 [a] Fly ash Fig. 8 [b] Slag cement

Supplementary cementitious materials and chemical manufacture cement are prevalent in most
admixtures may also be included in the paste. The countries. Concrete contributes to a sustainable
absolute volume of cement is usually between 7% and environment because it does not use scarce
15% and the water between 14% and 21%. resources. Limestone and aggregate quarries are Fig. 8 [c] Silica fume (top) and white
easily reused. While quarrying is intense, it is closely silica fume (bottom)
Portland Cement. Portland cement (hereafter
contained and temporary. When closed, aggregate
called cement) is made by heating common minerals,
quarries are generally converted to their natural
primarily crushed limestone, clay, iron ore, and cement are determined by testing, the relative cost
state or into recreational areas or agricultural uses.
sand, to a white-hot mixture to form clinker. This and availability of the materials, and the specified
In contrast, other material mining operations can
intermediate product is ground, with a small amount properties of the concrete. When supplementary
be extensive and involve deep pits that are rarely
of gypsum, to form a fine gray powder called cement. cementitious materials are used, the proportioned
restored, and deforestation can have negative
To trigger the necessary chemical reactions in the concrete mixture (using the project materials)
environmental effects.
kiln, these raw materials must reach about 2700°F should be tested to demonstrate that it meets the
(1482ºC)–the temperature of molten iron. Although Fly Ash, Slag Cement, and Silica Fume. Fly required concrete properties for the project. Some
the portland cement industry is energy intensive, the ash, slag cement, and silica fume are industrial by- pozzolans increase curing times, but this is not as
U.S. cement industry has reduced energy usage per products; their use as a replacement for portland great a concern for precast concrete manufacturing
ton of cement by 35% since 1972.16,17 cement does not contribute to the energy and as it is in cast-in-place applications where
Carbon dioxide emissions from a cement plant are CO2 effects of cement in concrete. If not used construction schedule has a greater impact.
divided into two source categories: combustion and in concrete, these supplementary cementitious
calcination. Combustion accounts for approximately materials (SCMs) would use valuable landfill The durability of products with recycled content
35% and calcination 65% of the total CO2 space. Fly ash (Fig. 8 [a]) is a by-product of the materials should be carefully researched during
emissions from a cement manufacturing facility. The combustion of pulverized coal in electric power the design process to ensure comparable life cycle
combustion-generated CO2 emissions are related to generating plants. Slag cement (Fig. 8 [b]) is made performance. There would obviously be a net negative
fuel use. The calcination CO2 emissions are formed from iron blast-furnace slag.18 Silica fume (Fig. 8 impact if a product offering a 20 to 30% recycled
when the raw material is heated and CO2 is liberated [c]) is a by-product from the electric arc furnace content had only half the expected service life of a
from the calcium carbonate. As concrete is exposed used in the production of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. product with a lower or no recycled content.
to the air and carbonates, it reabsorbs some of These types of industrial by-products are considered
the CO2 released during calcination. Calcination is a post-industrial or pre-consumer recycled materials. Recycled Aggregates. The environmental
necessary key to cement production. Therefore, the Fly ash is commonly used at cement replacement attributes of concrete can be improved by using
focus of reductions in CO2 emissions during cement levels up to 25%, slag cement up to 60%, and silica aggregates derived from industrial waste or using
manufacturing is on reducing fuel and energy use. fume up to 5 to 7%. When slag cement replaces 50% recycled concrete as aggregates. Blast furnace slag
of the portland cement in a 7500 psi (50 MPa) is a lightweight aggregate with a long history of use
White portland cement is a true portland cement concrete mixture, greenhouse gas emissions per in the concrete industry.
that differs from gray cement chiefly in color. The cu. yd. of concrete are reduced by 45%. Because Recycled concrete can be used as aggregate
manufacturing process is controlled so that the the cementitious content of concrete is about 15%, in new concrete, particularly the coarse portion.
finished product will be white. White portland cement these pozzolans typically account for only 2 to 5% of When using the recycled concrete as aggregate, the
is made of selected raw materials containing the overall concrete material in buildings. following should be taken into consideration:
negligible amounts of iron and magnesium oxides–
SCMs may slightly alter the color of hardened
the substances that give cement its gray color. 1. Recycled concrete as aggregate will typically
concrete. Color effects are related to the color and
White cement is used primarily for architectural have higher absorption and lower specific
amount of the material used in concrete. Many
purposes in structural walls, precast concrete, and gravity than natural aggregate and will produce
SCMs resemble the color of portland cement and
glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) facing panels. concrete with slightly higher drying shrinkage
therefore have little affect on color of the hardened
Its use is recommended wherever white or colored and creep. These differences become greater
concrete. Some silica fumes may give concrete a
concrete, grout, or mortar is desired. White portland with increasing amounts of recycled fine
slightly bluish or dark gray tint and tan fly ash may
cement should be specified as white portland aggregates.
impart a tan color to concrete when used in large
cement meeting the specifications of ASTM C 150,
quantities. Slag cement and metakaolin (a clay SCM 2. Too many recycled fines can also produce
Type I, II, III, or V.
without recycled content) can make concrete lighter. a harsh and unworkable mixture. Many
Abundant Materials. Concrete is used in almost Slag cement can initially impart a bluish or greenish transportation departments have found that
every country of the world as a basic building undertone that disappears over time as concrete is using 100% coarse recycled aggregate, but only
material. Aggregates, about 85% of concrete, allowed to dry. about 10 to 20% recycled fines, works well.19 The
are generally low-energy, local, naturally occurring remaining percentage of fines is natural sand.
sand and stone. Limestone and clay needed to The optimum amounts of supplementary
cementing materials used with portland or blended 3. When crushing the concrete (Fig. 9), it is
16 Portland Cement Association, U.S. and Canadian Labor- difficult to control particle size distribution,
Energy Input Survey, Skokie, IL,www.cement.org. 18 S
 lag Cement Association, “Slag Cement and the
17 Portland Cement Association, “Report on Sustainable Environment,” Slag Cement in Concrete No. 22, 2003, www. 19 Portland Cement Association, Design and Control of
Manufacturing”, 2006,www.cement.org. slagcement.org. Concrete Mixes, Chapter 5, EB001, 2002, Skokie, IL.
14
 Admixtures. The freshly mixed (plastic) and hardened properties of
concrete may be changed by adding chemical admixtures to the concrete,
usually in liquid form, during batching. Chemical admixtures are commonly
Fig. 9 Crushed concrete from other sources can serve as used to (1) adjust setting time or hardening, (2) reduce water demand,
recycled aggregate. Photo: Portland Cement Association. (3) increase workability, (4) intentionally entrain air, and (5) adjust other
fresh or hardened concrete properties. Admixtures provide enhancing
meaning that the “aggregate” may fail to meet grading requirements of qualities in concrete but are used in such small quantities that they do
ASTM C33.20 not adversely affect the environment. Their dosages are usually in the
range of 0.005 to 0.2% of the concrete mass.
4. The chloride content of recycled aggregates is of concern if the material will
be used in reinforced concrete. This is particularly an issue if the recycled Color Pigments. Non-fading color pigments are used to provide the
concrete is from pavements in northern climates where road salt is freely decorative colors in precast concrete. They are insoluble and generally non-
spread in the winter. toxic, although some may contain trace amounts of heavy metals. Many
iron oxide pigments are primarily the byproduct of material recycling
5. The alkali content and type of aggregate in the system is probably unknown, (manufactured by precipitating scrap steel).
and therefore if mixed with unsuitable materials, a risk of alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) is possible. Local Materials. Using local materials reduces the transportation
required to ship heavy building materials, and the associated energy and
emissions. Most precast concrete plants are within 200 miles (300 km)
LEED Materials Credit 4 on Recycled Content. The requirements of of a building site. The cement, aggregates, and reinforcing steel used to
this credit state: “Use materials with recycled content such that make the concrete and the raw materials to manufacture cement are
post-consumer recycled content plus one-half of the pre-consumer usually obtained or extracted from sources within 200 miles of the precast
content constitutes at least 10% (based on cost) of the total concrete plant. The primary raw materials used to make cement and
value of the materials in the project.” The percentage is determined concrete are abundant in all areas of the world.
by multiplying the price of an item by the percent of recycled Precast concrete elements are usually shipped efficiently because of
materials—on a mass basis—that make up that item. To earn this their large, often repetitive sizes and the ability to plan their shipment
credit, the project must meet the threshold percentages based on during the normal course of the project.
the total of all permanently installed building materials used on the
project. Supplementary cementitious materials, such as fly ash,
silica fume, and slag cement, are considered pre-consumer. Since LEED Materials Credit 5 on Regional Materials. The requirements of this
the cementitious content of concrete is about 15%, these pozzolans credit state: “Use building materials or products that have been extracted,
typically account for only 2 to 5% of the overall concrete material in harvested, or recovered, as well as manufactured, within 500 miles (800
buildings. For this reason, LEED-NC v2.2 allows the recycled content km) of the project site for a minimum of 10% (based on cost) of the total
of concrete to be based on the recycled content of the cementitious materials value.” This means that a precast concrete plant within 500
materials. Using recycled concrete or slag as aggregate instead of miles of the building would qualify if the materials to make the concrete
extracted aggregates qualifies as post-consumer. Although most were extracted within 500 miles. Calculations can also include concrete
reinforcing bars are manufactured from recycled steel, in LEED, either manufactured or extracted locally.
reinforcement is not considered part of concrete. Reinforcing material Precast concrete will usually qualify because precast concrete plants are
should be considered as a separate item. This credit is worth 1 point generally within 200 to 500 miles (300 to 800 km) of a project. Precast
for the quantities quoted above and 2 points for double the amount. concrete plants generally use aggregates that are extracted within 50
miles (80 km) of the plant and within 200 to 500 miles of the project.
Cement and supplementary cementitious materials used for buildings are
also primarily manufactured within 500 miles of a project. Reinforcing steel
LEED Innovation Credit on Reducing Cement Content. LEED has
is also usually manufactured within 500 miles of a project and is typically
an innovation credit that allows 1 point for a 40% reduction of
made from recycled materials from the same region.
cement content compared to common practice. This can be met by
using at least 40% less portland cement or replacing at least 40% Using materials that are extracted or manufactured locally supports the
of the cement in concrete with fly ash, slag cement, silica fume, regional economy. In addition, reducing shipping distances for material and
or a combination of the three. Slag cement is commonly used at products to the project minimizes fuel requirements for transportation
replacement levels up to 60%. However, fly ash replacement levels for and handling. This credit is worth 1 point for the quantities quoted above
portland cement greater than 25% are not common, as the fly ash and 2 points for double the amount, or 20% of the materials.
and portland cement need to be chemically and physically compatible
to ensure durable quality concrete that sets properly. For quality
concrete, mixtures with fly ash at replacement levels greater than Energy Use in Buildings
25% should not be used without proven field experience or laboratory Energy conservation is a key tenet of sustainability. About 90% of the
testing. Certain aesthetic (color) and stripping time restrictions will energy used during a building’s life is attributed to heating, cooling, and
apply when using supplementary cementitious materials. other utilities. The remaining 10% is attributed to manufacturing materials,
construction, maintenance, replacement of components, and demolition.21
21 Marceau, M.L. and VanGeem, M.G., “Modeling Energy Performance of Concrete Buildings for
20 American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM C 33, “Standard Specification for LEED-NCv2.1 EA Credit 1,” PCA R&D Serial No. 2880a, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
Concrete Aggregates,” West Conshohocken, PA, www.ASTM.org. Illinois, 2006, www.cement.org.
15
 Total Electricity Use, per capita, 1960 – 2001
Thermal mass in exterior walls have the following benefits and characteristics:
(estimated for California in 2000 and 2001) 1. D
 elays and reduces peak loads.
14,000 kWh
2. Reduces total loads in many climates and locations.
12,000
U.S.
12,000 3. Works best in commercial applications.
10,000
4. Works well in residential applications.
5. Works best when mass is exposed on the inside surface.
8,000 8,000
6. Works well regardless of the placement of mass.
7,000
6,000
Mass works well in commercial applications by delaying the peak
California
summer load, which generally occurs around 3:00 p.m. to later when
4,000
offices begin to close. As a case in point, the blackout in the northeastern
2,000 U.S. in August 2003 occurred at 3:05 p.m.24 A shift in peak load would
have helped alleviate the demand and, possibly, this peak power problem.
0
Also, many commercial and industrial customers incur significant time-
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19

of-use utility rate charges for the highest use of electricity for any 1 hour
Fig. 10 in a month in the summer. Thermal mass may help shift the peak hour of
Energy savings due to implementation of energy codes in 1976 in electric demand for air conditioning to a later hour, and help reduce these
California (California Energy Commission). time-of-use charges. Nighttime ventilation can be used to cool thermal
mass that has been warmed during the day. Local outdoor humidity levels
Approximately 5% of the world’s population resides in the U.S., yet 25% of the influence the effectiveness of nighttime ventilation strategies.
world’s energy is consumed in the U.S. The U.S. dependence on foreign energy
As occupant and equipment heat is generated, it is absorbed not only by
sources is greater than ever, which has an effect on U.S political and defense
the indoor ventilated air but also by the massive elements of the building.
policies. Meanwhile, many developing nations like China have increased energy
Mass works well on the inside surfaces by absorbing the heat gains generated
demands due to increased manufacturing and urbanization.
by people and equipment indoors. Interior mass from interior walls, floors, and
ceiling will help moderate room temperatures and reduce peak energy use.
Energy codes
Energy codes provide cost effective, minimum building requirements LEED Energy and Atmosphere Prerequisite 2 on Minimum Energy
that save energy. The energy saved is a cost savings through lower Performance. All buildings must comply with certain sections on building
monthly utility bills, and smaller, and thus less expensive HVAC equipment. energy efficiency and performance as required by the ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA
More than two-thirds of the electricity and one-third of the total energy 90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
in the U.S. are used to heat, cool, and operate buildings.22 This means Buildings, or the local energy code, whichever is more stringent. The ASHRAE
that implementing and enforcing energy codes will result in fewer power standard is usually more stringent and applies for most states. This
plants and natural resources being used to provide electricity and natural prerequisite is a requirement and is not worth any points. The requirements
gas. It also means fewer emissions will be released into the atmosphere. of the ASHRAE standard are cost-effective and not particularly stringent
Emissions have been linked to smog, acid rain, and climate change. In for concrete. Insulating to meet or exceed the requirements of the standard
the U.S. most buildings are constructed to meet minimum energy code is generally a wise business choice. Determining compliance for the envelope
requirements; energy codes contribute to sustainability by saving energy components is relatively straightforward using the tables in Chapter 5 of
and protecting the environment. the ASHRAE standard. Minimum requirements are provided for mass and
non-mass components such as walls and floors.
Energy codes are effective in reducing per capita energy usage (energy
use per person). The per capita energy use in California has remained
Thermal mass is most effective in locations and seasons where the daily
steady due to the state’s active use and enforcement of energy codes
outdoor temperature rises above and falls below the balance point temperature
for buildings, while in the rest of the U.S. that energy use has increased
of the building. The balance point temperature is the outdoor temperature
(Fig. 10).
below which heating will be required. It is less than room temperature, generally
The U.S. Energy Conservation and Production Act23 requires that each between 50 and 60°F (10 and 15°C), at the point where internal heat gains are
state certify it has a commercial building code that meets or exceeds about equal to the heat losses through the building envelope. In many climates,
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1. In this sense, “commercial” means buildings with thermal mass have lower energy consumption than non-massive
all buildings that are not low-rise residential (three stories or less buildings with walls of similar thermal resistance. In addition, heating and
above grade). This includes office, industrial, warehouse, school, religious, cooling needs can be met with smaller equipment sizes.
dormitories, and high-rise residential buildings. The ASHRAE standard More information on thermal properties and energy code compliance
and most codes recognize the benefits of thermal mass and require less of precast concrete walls is available in Designers Notebook, Energy
insulation for mass walls. Conservation and Condensation Control (DN-15).
22 “An Introduction to the U.S. Green Building Council and the LEED Green Building Rating
System,” a PowerPoint presentation on the USGBC website, October 2005, www.usgbc.org. 24 U.S. Department of Energy, Final Report on the August 14, 2003 Blackout in the United
23 1992 National Energy Policy Act, U.S. Department of Energy, www.DOE.gov. States and Canada: Causes and Recommendations, 2004, Washington, DC.

16
Table 4 Measured Air Leakage for Selected Building Materials.
Average Leakage at
0.3 in.Water, cfm/ft2
Material Surface
6 mil (0.15 mm) polyethylene No measurable leakage
1 in. (25 mm) expanded Advanced energy guidelines
polystyrene 1.0 Sustainability or green building programs (such as LEED™ or EnergyStar)
/2 in. (12 mm) fiberboard
1 encourage energy savings beyond minimum code requirements. The energy
sheathing 0.3 saved is a cost-savings to the building owner through lower monthly utility
bills and smaller, less expensive heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
Breather type building
membranes 0.002 – 0.7 (HVAC) equipment. Some government programs offer tax incentives for
energy-saving features. Other programs offer reduced mortgage rates. The
Closed cell foam insulation 0.0002 EnergyStar program offers simple computer programs to determine the
Uncoated brick wall 0.3 utility savings and lease upgrades associated with energy saving upgrades.
Uncoated concrete block 0.4 Many energy-saving measures are cost-effective even though they
Precast concrete wall No measurable leakage exceed minimum codes. Insulation and other energy-saving measures in
building codes generally have a payback of about 5 years, even though the
building life may be anywhere from 30 to 100 years. The New Buildings
Table 5 LEED NC v2.2 Points Awarded for Energy Costs Saved Institute has developed the E-Benchmark guidelines to save energy
Beyond Minimum Code. beyond codes (see www.NewBuildings.org). ASHRAE Advanced Energy
Design Guide For Small Office Buildings (see www.ASHRAE.org) has a
New Buildings, Existing Buildings, similar purpose. Many utilities are interested in these advanced guidelines
Energy Saved Energy Saved Points to delay the need for new power plants.
10.5% 3.5% 1 The panelized construction of precast concrete lends itself to good
14% 7% 2 practice and optimization of insulation levels. To maximize the effectiveness
17.5% 10.5% 3 of the insulation, thermal bridges should be minimized or avoided. Metal
thermal bridges may occur as connectors that penetrate insulation to
21% 14% 4 connect concrete layers. Concrete thermal bridges may occur at the bottom
24.5% 17.5% 5 and top of concrete panels. Using fiberglass or carbon-fiber composite
28% 21% 6 fasteners or thermal breaks may minimize thermal bridges.

31.5% 24.5% 7
LEED Energy Credit 1 on Optimizing Energy Performance. This credit
35% 28% 8
is allowed if energy cost savings can be shown compared to a base
38.5% 31.5% 9 building that meets the requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-
42% 35% 10 2004, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Buildings. The method of determining energy cost savings must meet
the requirements of Appendix G “Performance Rating Method” of the
Lighting standard.
Light-colored precast concrete and other surfaces will reduce energy Many engineering consulting firms have the capability to model a
costs associated with indoor and outdoor lighting. The more reflective building to determine energy savings as required using a computer-
surfaces will reduce the amount of fixtures and lighting required. Light- based program such as DOE2. When concrete is considered, it is
colored precast concrete exposed to the interior will help reduce interior important to use a program like DOE2 that calculates annual energy
lighting requirements, and light-colored exterior walls will reduce outdoor use on an hourly basis. Such programs are needed to capture the
lighting requirements. beneficial thermal mass effects of concrete. Insulated concrete
systems, used in conjunction with other energy savings measures
will most likely be eligible for LEED points. The number of points
Air infiltration awarded will depend on the building, climate, fuel costs, and minimum
Precast concrete panels have negligible air infiltration. Minimizing air requirements of the standard. From 1 to 10 LEED points are awarded
infiltration between panels and at floors and ceilings will provide a building for energy cost savings of 10.5% to 42% for new buildings and 3.5% to
with low air infiltration. These effects will lower energy costs and help 35% for existing buildings (Table 5). A small office building less than
prevent moisture problems from infiltration of humid air. In hot and humid 20,000 ft2 (1900 m2) complying with ASHRAE “Advanced Energy
climates in the southeastern U.S., infiltration of moist air is a source of Design Guide For Small Office Buildings 2004” can achieve 4 points,
unsightly and unhealthy moisture problems in buildings. Some building and a building complying with “E-Benchmark” v1.1 (www.newbuildings.
codes25 now limit air leakage of building materials to 0.004 cfm/ft2 org) can achieve 1 point.
(0.0012 m3/min/m2) under a pressure differential of 0.3 in. (7.6 mm)
water (1.57 psf [0.75 kPa]); precast concrete meets this requirement.
Table 4 lists the measured air leakage values for selected building  Visual DOE 4.0, Architectural Energy Corporation, Boulder, CO, www.archenergy.com.
materials.

25 Massachusetts Energy Code, www.mass.gov/bbrs/780_CMR_Chapter_13.pdf.

17
 Table 6 Concentrations and Emission Rates of VOCs for
Common Materials.
VOC Concentration, VOC Emission
Building Material mg/m3 Rate, m2h
Concrete with water-based
0.018 0.003
form-release agent
Demolition
Acryl latex paint 2.00 0.43 Precast concrete panels can be reused when buildings are expanded
Epoxy, clear floor varnish 5.45 1.3 and precast concrete can be recycled as road base or fill at the end of
its useful life. Concrete pieces from demolished structures can be reused
Felt carpet 1.95 0.080
to protect shorelines. Most concrete from demolition in urban areas is
Gypsum board N/A 0.026 recycled and not placed in landfills.
Linoleum 5.19 0.22
Particle board N/A 2.0 LEED Materials Credit 2 on Construction Waste Management. This
credit is extended for diverting construction and demolition debris
Plastic silicone sealer 77.9 26.0
and land clearing waste from landfill disposal. It is awarded based
Plywood paneling N/A 1.0 on diverting at least 50% by weight or volume of the previously listed
Putty strips 1.38 0.34 materials. Since precast concrete is a relatively heavy construction
material and is frequently crushed and recycled into aggregate for
PVA glue cement 57.8 10.2
road bases or construction fill, this credit should be obtainable when
Sheet vinyl flooring 54.8 2.3 concrete buildings are demolished. This credit is worth 1 point if 50%
Silicone caulk N/A <2.0 of the construction and demolition debris and land clearing waste is
recycled or salvaged and 2 points for 75%.
Water-based EVA wall and
1,410.0 271.0
floor glue

Indoor Environmental Quality Innovation

Concrete contains low to negligible VOCs. These compounds degrade indoor
air quality when they off gas from new products, such as interior finishings, LEED Innovation and Design Process Credit 1. This credit is available
carpet, and furniture. Manufactured wood products such as laminate, particle for projects that demonstrate exceptional performance above the
board, hardboard siding, and treated wood can also lead to off gassing. In requirements in LEED or not specifically addressed in LEED. For example,
addition, VOCs combine with other chemicals in the air to form ground-level close collaboration with engineers on a given project to develop innovative
ozone. Table 6 presents the VOC concentration and emission rates for systems that are more resource efficient or use less energy may earn
common materials. Complaints due to poor indoor air quality routinely include a project an additional point. To earn credits (up to 4), the user must
eye, nose, and throat irritation; dryness of the mucous membranes and skin; submit the intent of the proposed credit, the proposed requirement for
nose bleeds; skin rash; mental fatigue and headache; cough; hoarseness; compliance, submittals to demonstrate that compliance, and the design
wheezing; nausea; dizziness; and increased incidence of asthma. approach used to meet the requirement.
Polished concrete floors do not require carpeting. Exposed
concrete walls do not require finishing materials–this eliminates
particulates from sanding drywall tape seams. VOCs in concrete
construction can be further reduced by using low-VOC materials LEED Innovation and Design Process Credit 2. One point is also
for form release agents, curing compounds, dampproofing given if a principal participant of the project team is a LEED
materials, wall and floor coatings and primers, membranes, Accredited Professional. The concrete industry has LEED-experienced
sealers, and water repellents. professionals available to assist teams with concrete applications
and help maximize points for concrete.
LEED Indoor Environmental Quality Credit 3.1 on Construction
IAQ Management Plan, During Construction. This credit prevents
indoor air quality problems resulting from the construction process. Conclusion
Sustainable practices contribute to saving materials and energy and
The intent is to reduce and contain dust and particulates during
reducing the negative effects of pollutants. The use of precast concrete
construction and to reduce moisture absorbed by materials that are contributes to these practices by incorporating integrated design, using
damaged by moisture. During construction, the project must meet or materials efficiently, and reducing construction waste, site disturbance, and
exceed the recommended Design Approaches of the Sheet Metal and noise. Concrete is durable, resistant to corrosion and impact, and inedible.
Air Conditioning National Contractors Association (SMACNA) IAQ
Precast concrete structures are resistant to fires, wind, hurricanes,
Guidelines for Occupied Buildings under Construction, 1995, Chapter
floods, earthquakes, wind-driven rain, blast forces, and moisture damage.
3 on Control Measures (www.smacna.org). Using precast concrete
Light- or natural-colored concrete reduces heat islands, thereby reducing
can help meet the requirements because it is delivered to the site in
outdoor temperatures, saving energy, and reducing smog. Recycled
pieces that do not require fabrication, processing, or cutting, thereby
materials such as fly ash, slag cement, silica fume, and recycled
reducing dust and airborne contaminants on the construction site.
aggregates can be incorporated into concrete, thereby reducing the
Concrete is not damaged by moisture and does not provide nutrients
amount of materials that are taken to landfills and reducing the use of
for mold growth. This credit is worth one point.
virgin materials.

18
 Concrete structures in urban areas are recycled into fill and road base Sustainability attributes can be evaluated by performing a life cycle
material at the end of their useful life. Cement and concrete are generally assessment. Because these procedures are time consuming, green
made of abundant local materials. The thermal mass of concrete helps building rating systems such as LEED have become popular. Precast
save heating and cooling energy in buildings. Concrete acts as an air concrete can help a project earn up to 23 points towards LEED
barrier, reducing air infiltration and saving more energy. Concrete has low certification for new buildings (a total of 26 are required.)
VOC emittance and does not degrade indoor air quality.

— Martha G. VanGeem, P.E.

Manager Building Science & Sustainability,
LEED Accredited Professional, CTL Group, Skokie, Illinois

19
DN-16 Reprinted from PCI's Ascent® magazine
Summer 2006, Winter and Spring 2007

209 W. Jackson Boulevard | Suite 500 | Chicago, IL 60606-6938

Phone: 312-786-0300 | Fax: 312-786-0353 | www.pci.org