The Nervous System

Hansel M. Gadon, MAN

 Functions of the Nervous System
• Sensory input – gathering information
– To monitor changes occurring inside and outside
the body
– Changes = stimuli
• Integration
• To process and interpret sensory input and decide
if action is needed
• Motor output – effects a response
 Structural Classification of the Nervous System

• Central nervous system (CNS)

– Brain
– Spinal cord

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

– Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
Nervous System’s Function
 Functional Classification of the
Peripheral Nervous System
• Sensory (afferent) division
– Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system

• Motor (efferent) division

Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
the central nervous system
• Motor (efferent) division
– Two subdivisions
– Somatic nervous system = voluntary
– Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells (Neuroglia)

• Astrocytes
– Abundant, star-shaped cells
– Brace neurons
– Form barrier
between capillaries
and neurons
– Control the chemical
environment of
the brain
• Microglia
– Spider-like phagocytes
– Dispose of debris

• Ependymal cells
– Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
– Circulate cerebrospinal fluid
• Oligodendrocytes
– Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the
central nervous system
• Satellite cells
– Protect neuron cell bodies

• Schwann cells
– Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous
system
 Nervous Tissue: Neurons
• Neurons = nerve cells
– Cells specialized to transmit messages
– Major regions of neurons
– Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the
cell
– Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body
• Cell body
– Nissl substance – specialized rough endoplasmic
reticulum
– Neurofibrils – intermediate cytoskeleton that
maintains cell shape
 Neuron Anatomy

• Cell body
– Nucleus
– Large nucleolus
Extensions outside the cell body
– Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the
cell body
• Neurons have hundred branches of dendrites

– Axons – conduct impulses away from the

cell body
• Each neuron has only one axon
 Axons and Nerve Impulses
• Axons end in axonal terminals
• Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
• Axonal terminals are separated from the next
neuron by a gap
– Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons
– Synapse – junction between nerves
 Nerve Fiber Coverings

• Schwann cells –
produce myelin
sheaths in jelly-roll
like fashion
• Nodes of Ranvier –
gaps in myelin sheath
along the axon
 Neuron Cell Body Location

• Most are found in the central nervous system

– Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated fibers
– Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white
matter of the central nervous system
• Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the
central nervous system
 Functional Classification of Neurons
• Sensory (afferent) neurons
– Carry impulses from the sensory receptors (in the
internal organs or skin) to the CNS
– Cutaneous sense organs
– Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension

• Motor (efferent) neurons

– Carry impulses from the central nervous system to the
viscera, muscles or glands
– Always located in the CNS
• Interneurons (association neurons)
– Found in neural pathways in the central nervous
system
– Connect sensory and motor neurons
Neuron Classification
Structural Classification of Neurons
• Multipolar neurons – many extensions from
the cell body
• Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
• Unipolar neurons – have a short single process
leaving the cell body
 Physiology (Nerve Impulses)
• Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli
• Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse

• The plasma membrane at rest is polarized

– Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside
the cell
 Starting a Nerve Impulse
• Depolarization – a stimulus
depolarizes the neuron’s
membrane
• A depolarized membrane
allows sodium (Na+) to flow
inside the membrane
• The exchange of ions
initiates an action potential
in the neuron
 The Action Potential
• If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it
is propagated over the entire axon
• Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after
sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the
membrane
• The sodium-potassium pump restores the
original configuration
– This action requires ATP
 Nerve Impulse Propagation
• The impulse
continues to move
toward the cell body
• Impulses travel
faster when fibers
have a myelin sheath
 Continuation of the Nerve Impulse
between Neurons
• Impulses are able to cross the synapse to
another nerve
– Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon
terminal
– The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors
that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter
– An action potential is started in the dendrite
 The Reflex Arc
• Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary
responses to stimuli
• Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector
– Involve both CNS & PNS
Simple Reflex Arc
 Types of Reflexes
• Somatic reflexes
– Activation of skeletal muscles

• Autonomic reflexes
– Smooth muscle regulation
– Heart and blood pressure regulation
– Regulation of glands
– Digestive system regulation
 Central Nervous System (CNS)
• CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
– The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal
cord
– The opening of the neural tube becomes the
ventricles
• Four chambers within the brain
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 Regions of the Brain
• Cerebral
hemispheres
• Diencephalon
• Brain stem
• Cerebellum
 Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
• Paired (left and
right) superior
parts of the brain

• Include more than

half of the brain
mass
The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)
 Lobes of the Cerebrum
• Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum
into lobes

• Surface lobes of the cerebrum

– Frontal lobe
– Parietal lobe
– Occipital lobe
– Temporal lobe
The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
• Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from
the body’s sensory receptors (parietal lobe)
• Primary motor area – sends impulses to
skeletal muscles
• Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral
Cortex
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
• Cerebral areas involved in special senses
– Gustatory area (taste)
– Visual area
– Auditory area
– Olfactory area
• Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
– Speech/language region
– Language comprehension region
– General interpretation area
 Layers of the Cerebrum
• Gray matter
– Outer layer
– Composed
mostly of neuron
cell bodies
• White matter
– Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
– Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres

• Basal nuclei
– – internal islands of gray matter
 Diencephalon
• Sits on top of the brain stem
• Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
• Made of three parts
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Epithalamus
 Thalamus
• Surrounds the third ventricle
• The relay station for sensory impulses
• Transfers impulses to the correct part of the
cortex for localization and interpretation
 Hypothalamus
• Under the thalamus
• Important autonomic nervous system center
– Helps regulate body temperature
– Controls water balance
– Regulates metabolism

• An important part of the limbic system

(emotions)
• The pituitary gland is attached to the
hypothalamus
 Epithalamus
• Forms the roof of the third ventricle
• Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
• Includes the choroid plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid
 Brain Stem
• Brain Stem
• Attaches to the spinal cord
• Parts of the brain stem
– Midbrain
– Pons
– Medulla oblongata
 Midbrain
• Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
• Has two bulging fiber tracts –
cerebral peduncles
• Has four rounded protrusions –
corpora quadrigemina
– Reflex centers for vision and hearing
 Pons
• The bulging center part of the brain stem
• Mostly composed of fiber tracts
• Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
 Medulla Oblongata
• The lowest part of the brain stem
• Merges into the spinal cord
• Includes important fiber tracts
• Contains important control centers
– Heart rate control
– Blood pressure regulation
– Breathing
– Swallowing
– Vomiting
 Reticular Formation
• Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
stem
• Involved in motor control of visceral organs
• Reticular activating system plays a role in
awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
 Cerebellum
• Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
• Provides involuntary coordination of body
movements
 Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Scalp and skin
• Skull and vertebral column
• Meninges
• Cerebrospinal fluid
• Blood brain barrier
 Meninges
• Dura mater
• Double-layered external covering
– Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
– Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
• Folds inward in several areas
• Arachnoid layer
– Middle layer
– Web-like
• Pia mater
– Internal layer
– Clings to the surface of the brain
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Similar to blood plasma composition
• Formed by the choroid plexus
• Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
• Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and
central canal of the spinal cord
Ventricles and Location of the
Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Blood Brain Barrier
• Includes the least permeable capillaries of the
body
• Excludes many potentially harmful substances
• Useless against some substances
– Fats and fat soluble molecules
– Respiratory gases
– Alcohol
– Nicotine
– Anesthesia
 Traumatic Brain Injuries
• Concussion
– Slight brain injury
– No permanent brain damage
• Contusion
– Nervous tissue destruction occurs
– Nervous tissue does not regenerate
• Cerebral edema
– Swelling from the inflammatory response
– May compress and kill brain tissue
 Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
• Commonly called a stroke
• The result of a ruptured blood vessel
supplying a region of the brain
• Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that
blood source dies
• Loss of some functions or death may result
 Alzheimer’s Disease

• Progressive degenerative brain disease

• Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in
middle age
• Structural changes in the brain include
abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers
within neurons
• Victims experience memory loss, irritability,
confusion and ultimately, hallucinations and
death
 Spinal Cord
• Extends from the
medulla oblongata to
the region of T12
• Below T12 is the cauda
equina (a collection of
spinal nerves)
• Enlargements occur in
the cervical and lumbar
regions
 Spinal Cord Anatomy
• Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
• Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
– Dorsal (posterior) horns
– Anterior (ventral) horns
• Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Meninges cover the spinal cord
• Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
– Dorsal root
• Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections of
cell bodies outside the central nervous system
– Ventral root
 Peripheral Nervous System
• Nerves and ganglia outside the central
nervous system
• Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
• Neuron fibers are bundled by connective
tissue
 Structure of a Nerve

• Endoneurium
surrounds each fiber
• Groups of fibers are
bound into fascicles by
perineurium
• Fascicles are bound
together by
epineurium
 Classification of Nerves
• Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers
• Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses
toward the CNS
• Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away
from the CNS
 Cranial Nerves
• 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head
and neck
• Numbered in order, front to back
• Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
only
Distribution of Cranial Nerves
1. O-olfactory 10. V-vagus
2. O-optic 11. A-accesory
3. O-oculomotor 12. H-hypoglossal
4. T-trochlear
5. T-trigeminal
6. A-abducens
7. F-facial
8. V-vestibulocochlear
9. G-glossopharygeal
• Sensory – 1, 2, 8
• Motor – 3, 4, 6, 11, 12
• Mixed – 5, 7, 9, 10
• I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
• II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
• III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye
muscles
• IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye muscles
• V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the face;
motor fibers to chewing muscles
• VI Abducens nerve –
motor fibers to eye muscles
• VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste; motor
fibers to the face
• VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve –
sensory for balance and hearing
• IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for
taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
• X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor fibers for
pharynx, larynx, and viscera
• XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and
upper back
• XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to
tongue
 Spinal Nerves
• There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of
each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
• Spinal nerves are formed by the combination
of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal
cord
• Spinal nerves are named for the region from
which they arise
 Anatomy of Spinal Nerves
• Spinal nerves divide
soon after leaving the
spinal cord
– Dorsal rami – serve the
skin and muscles of the
posterior trunk
– Ventral rami – forms a
complex of networks
(plexus) for the
anterior
Examples of Nerve Distribution
 Autonomic Nervous System
• The involuntary branch of the nervous system
• Consists of only motor nerves
• Divided into two divisions
– Sympathetic division
– Parasympathetic division
 Differences Between Somatic and
Autonomic Nervous Systems
• Nerves
– Somatic – one motor neuron
– Autonomic – preganglionic and postganglionic
nerves
• Effector organs
– Somatic – skeletal muscle
– Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands
• Neurotransmitters
– Somatic – always use acetylcholine
– Autonomic – use acetylcholine, epinephrine, or
norepinephrine
 Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

• Originates from T1 through L2

• Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the
spinal cord)
• Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long
postganglionic neuron transmit impulse from
CNS to the effector
• Norepinephrine and epinephrine are
neurotransmitters to the effector organs
Sympathetic Pathways
 Anatomy of the Parasympathetic
Division
• Originates from the brain stem and S1 through
S4
• Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
• Always uses acetylcholine as a
neurotransmitter
Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
 Autonomic Functioning
• Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
– Response to unusual stimulus
– Takes over to increase activities
– Remember as the “E” division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
• Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites
– Conserves energy
– Maintains daily necessary body functions
– Remember as the “D” division - digestion,
defecation, and diuresis
 Development Aspects of the Nervous System

• The nervous system is formed during the first

month of embryonic development
• Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop
• No more neurons are formed after birth, but
growth and maturation continues for several
years
• The brain reaches maximum weight as a young
adult