An Overview of Geotechnical
engineering methods
Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions and materials; determine the
relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these materials;
evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits; assess risks
posed by site conditions; design earthworks and structure foundations; and
monitor site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.
Research undertaken for new and improved geotechnical methods and
processes can have an enormous impact on productivity. Now there is the
availability of several geotechnical methods that helps to complete
complicated work in less time, thereby increasing your productivity.
Given below is a brief of a few geotechnical methods adopted across the
globe.
Consolidation grouting
Consolidation grouting is a general term for grouting that is carried out
within a rock mass with the intent of filling rock mass discontinuities. The
process involves injecting a grout material to fill the discontinuities, which
are the pathways through which fluids or gases migrate in most rocks. With
grout filling the rock discontinuities, the hydraulic gradient is reduced as the
liquids or gases move through the grout, ultimately reducing or stopping
migration. This technology is used for Pre-excavation Grouting, Grout
Curtain, Foundation Grouting and Water Cut-Off Grouting.
Post grout engineering
Post grouting is a method for increasing the capacity of tiebacks, tie-downs,
rock anchors, and micropiles. Post grouting involves injected pressurized
grout into the bonded area of the anchor. The injection process significantly
increases the capacity of our anchors beyond their theoretical limits. Post
grouting increases the capacity in a variety of ways. First, the pressurized
grout compacts/consolidate the soil immediately surrounding the anchor.
This increases the soils shear strength and its ability to take the loads from
the anchor. Secondly, the pressurized grout creates a grout bulb effectively
increasing the diameter of the ground anchor. The larger diameter anchor
can pass an additional load to a greater volume of soil through an increased
area of contact. With post grouting, we are typically able to achieve anchor
capacities of two to five times their theoretical values.
Continuous flight auger
Continuous flight auger method involves a continuous flight auger drill which
is used to excavate a hole and concrete is injected through a hollow shaft
under pressure as the auger is extracted. Reinforcement is then inserted
after the auger is removed. This creates a continuous pile without ever
leaving an open hole. Continuous flight augering can be used to construct a
secant piled wall which can be used as a retaining wall or as shoring during
excavation. Once initial piles are set with concrete, other shafts are augured
between them, slicing into the original piles, with the new ones receiving
rebar. The finished result is a continuous wall of reinforced concrete that aids
and protects workers during excavation.
Cross passage
Cross-passages are reinforced concrete structures built between twin tunnels
or among a tunnel and the ground surface to serve as a route for access,
escape passage, fire safety strategy, and housing for electrical and
mechanical equipment, maintenance and ventilation. Generally, it is in the
shape of a horse-shoe. Minimum clear headroom and the minimum clear
width determine the size of the passage. The structure is normally
constructed by excavation done through an opening. The opening is created
by dismantling the tunnel segments in the completed section. The temporary
opening is primarily supported through a circular support frame until the
construction of permanent lintel is completed.
The cross passages are generally constructed using traditional mining
techniques to create a link between the two tunnels. These techniques
typically include the use of ground treatment measures, excavators, rock
breakers, rock bolting and shotcrete lining from within the tunnels.
Diaphragm wall
A diaphragm wall is a type of retaining wall that is used to resist the lateral
pressure due to soil or water. They are mainly used in the formation of deep
basements, underground stations or to separate two large underground
facilities. They may be carried to as deep as 50 metres. They are more
economical in such deep construction compared to other traditional methods
such as piling. They may also be used as a cutoff wall to avoid seepage of
water.
A diaphragm wall is constructed using a narrow trench excavated in ground
and supported by an engineered fluid until the mud is replaced by the
permanent material. Generally, diaphragm walls are made from reinforced
concrete, though un-reinforced walls can also be used. Walls generally range
in thickness from 500mm to 1500mm and can be excavated to depths of
50m or more.
Diaphragm walls are often used in congested areas or where the excavation
depth is very deep which would otherwise require excavation of much greater
soil volumes to provide stable battered slopes. They are well suited for deep
basements, underground rail stations, rail car unloaders, tunnel approaches,
pumping stations and such like.
Ground Anchoring
Ground anchoring is a common name applied to an engineered system that
mechanically fixes a structure to the ground, enabling load transfer into a
competent stratum. The tensile forces applied are resisted by the shear
strength of the surrounding ground.
Ground Anchors have become an essential component in modern
construction techniques and are commonly used in retaining wall tie-backs;
resistance to structure overturning; resisting landscape sliding; preloading of
ground to minimize structural settlement; pile and plate loading tests; and
resistance to structure buoyancy. Drilling rigs are used drilling vertically or at
any angle to a retaining wall, enabling our optimised design solution to be
addressed in each case, regardless of the restrictions on the access available.
Restricted access drilling rigs can be used in tight corners.
Jet grouting
Jet grouting uses high-velocity fluid jets to construct cemented soil of varying
geometries in the ground. Jet grouting creates in situ columns of soilcrete
(grouted soil), using a grouting monitor attached to the end of a drill stem.
The jet grout monitor is advanced to the maximum treatment depth. Then
high-velocity jets (cement grout with optional water and air) are initiated
from ports in the monitor. The jets erode and mix the in situ soil with grout
as the drill stem and monitor is rotated and raised.
Depending on the application and types of soils, one of three variations is
used: the single fluid system (slurry grout jet), the double fluid system
(slurry grout jet surrounded by an air jet) and the triple fluid system (water
jet surrounded by an air jet, with a separate grout port). The jet grouting
process constructs soilcrete panels, full columns, or partial columns with
designed strength and/or permeability.
Microtunneling
Microtunneling or is a digging method is used to construct small tunnels.
These small diameter tunnels make it impossible to have an operator driving
the machine itself. Instead, the microtunnel boring machine (MTBM) has to
be operated remotely from a control room.
Microtunnel boring machines are very similar to normal tunnel boring
machines (TBMs), but on a smaller scale. These machines generally vary
from 0.61 to 1.5 meters (2 ft 0 into 4 ft 11 in) but smaller and larger
machines have existed. Usually, the operator controls the machine from a
control room on the surface. The Microtunneling machine and jacking frame
are set up in a shaft at the required depth.
Pipe roofing
The pipe roof support method has been widely applied as one of the
important auxiliary methods for shallow tunnel excavation. The pipe roof
support can consolidate the ground stress and disperse the ground stress
and reduce the excavation release stress, which effectively limits the tunnel
crown settlement or prevent ground settlement.
Steel pipes are installed from the opening of the tunnel in the front. Pipes are
arranged like an umbrella or canopy around the excavation line with the help
of standard tunneling equipment. In a few isolated cases, larger diameter
pipes are installed using special rigs and Down-The-Hole (DTH) drilling
method. It helps in stabilizing and protecting the ceiling and face of the
tunnel by substantially increasing the load-bearing capacity of the ground.
The diameter of the steel pipes is usually measured between 60 mm and 200
mm along with a wall thickness of 4 mm to 8 mm. The height of the pipe is
commonly measured between 12-15m. When the end of a pipe roof field is
reached, there is around 3-6m of the pipe remaining in the ground ahead of
the face. This distance is known as the “overlapping length” of the pipe roof
system.
Slope stabilisation
Slope stabilisation method uses permanent design measures used alone or in
combination to minimize erosion from disturbed surfaces. The purpose of this
technology is to stabilise the soil, to reduce raindrop impact, to reduce the
velocity of surface runoff, and to prevent erosion. This applies to cleared,
graded, disturbed slopes, or where vegetation alone does not provide
adequate erosion protection.
Shoring system
Shoring is the process of temporarily supporting a building, vessel, structure,
or trench with shores (props) when in danger of collapse or during repairs or
alterations. Shoring comes from shore, a timber or metal prop. Shoring may
be vertical, angled, or horizontal. The support may be supplied by shoring
the wall with heavy timbers sloping upward at about 65° to 75°. The top of
the timber is so arranged that part of the wall load is transferred onto it,
while the lower end of the timber is framed onto a base to transfer the load
to the ground with minimum deformation. Wedges may be used to bring the
shore snugly into contact with the wall. If the wall is several stories high, a
vertical series of shores may be required. Shores are also used to support
the forms for cast-in-place concrete slabs, beams, and girders in reinforced
concrete frames.
Shaft sinking
Shaft sinking is excavating a vertical or near-vertical tunnel from the top
down, where there is initially no access to the bottom.
Shallow shafts, typically sunk for civil engineering projects differ greatly in
execution method from deep shafts, typically sunk for mining projects. When
the top of the excavation is the ground surface, it is referred to as a shaft;
when the top of the excavation is underground, it is called a winze or a sub-
shaft. Small shafts may be excavated upwards from within an existing mine
as long as there is access at the bottom, in which case they are called
Raises. A shaft may be either vertical or inclined (between 45 and 90
degrees to the horizontal), although most modern mine shafts are vertical. If
access exists at the bottom of the proposed shaft and ground conditions
allow then raise boring may be used to excavate the shaft from the bottom
up, such shafts are called borehole shafts. Shaft sinking is one of the most
difficult of all development methods: restricted space, gravity, groundwater
and specialized procedures make the task quite formidable.
Secant pile wall
Secant pile walls are formed by constructing intersecting reinforced concrete
piles. The secant piles are reinforced with either steel rebar or with steel
beams and are constructed by either drilling under mud or augering. Primary
piles are installed first with secondary (male) piles constructed in between
primary (female) piles once the latter gain sufficient strength. Pile overlap is
typically in the order of 3 inches (8 cm). In a tangent pile wall, there is no
pile overlap as the piles are constructed flush to each other. Secant pile wall
design when steel beams are used involves the use of weaker than normal
concrete. The pile that is lagging the wall between two main beams has to be
examined for shear and compression arching.
Rock soil bolting
Rock soil bolting method includes, a rock bolt used as anchor bolt, for
stabilizing rock excavations, which may be used in tunnels or rock cuts. It
transfers load from the unstable exterior to the confined (and much stronger)
interior of the rock mass. Rock bolts work by ‘knitting’ the rock mass
together sufficiently before it can move enough to loosen and fail by
unraveling (piece by piece). As shown in the photo, rock bolts may be used
to support wire mesh, but this is usually a small part of their function. Unlike
common anchor bolts, rock bolts can become ‘seized’ throughout their length
by small shears in the rock mass, so they are not fully dependent on their
pull-out strength.
Soldier piling
A soldier piling is a common retaining wall strategy in which H-shaped steel
beams (“piles”) are drilled deep into the earth at regular intervals – usually 2
to 4 yards apart. In between each vertical pile, horizontal support fill the
gap, helping to spread the load. The method is also commonly known as the
“Berlin Wall” when steel piles and timber lagging is used. Moment resistance
in soldier pile and lagging walls is provided solely by the soldier piles. Passive
soil resistance is obtained by embedding the soldier piles beneath the
excavation grade. The lagging bridges and retains soil across piles and
transfers the lateral load to the soldier pile system.
Soldier pile and lagging walls are the most inexpensive systems compared to
other retaining walls. They are also very easy and fast to construct.
Substructure bridge pilling
Planning and design of substructure construction is most sensitive to
tolerance requirements since it supports the entire bridge. The substructure
of a bridge comprises the piers, abutments and foundations. These portions
usually consist of masonry in some form, including under that general head
stone masonry, brickwork and concrete. The substructure work consists of
the following components- Foundations [Use of grouting methods for
improving foundation soil], Abutments [Use of semi-integral and integral
abutments, with a single row of piles], Retaining walls [Use of three-sided
precast wall culverts; use of modular retaining walls], Precast concrete
sheeting [It has been used as retaining walls, wing walls, and components of
the bridge abutment], Piers [Use of precast concrete pier caps and at river
locations; piers need to be avoided as their construction adversely affects the
fauna and flora], Bearings [Elastomeric, multi-rotational, or isolation types],
Foundation protection [Use modern scour countermeasures, other than
riprap] and Improving drainage [At bridge sites during construction].
Conclusion
The above-discussed geotechnical engineering methods are a few popular
options available. The selection criteria should be best on your project needs
and work required. It is also important to choose the best tools while
applying these methods. Geotechnical engineers are responsible for
evaluating subsurface and soil conditions and materials, using the principles
of soil and rock mechanics. They are commonly appointed as consultants on
construction projects. Engineers also examine environmental issues such as
flood plains and water tables. By doing so, they can determine whether a
particular site is suitable for a proposed project, and can inform the
engineering design process about how ground conditions can be made safe
and effective for construction.
