Construction Technology For Substructures and Superstructures (21CV72)

MODULE-1
Underground Construction
Underground Construction:
Definition: Underground construction is the process of building tunnels, shafts, chambers, and
passageways underground. It can also refer to the portion of traditional construction that takes place
below ground.
Tunnel Shafts:
An underground tunnel shaft is a vertical or inclined passageway that serves as the main entrance
and exit for an underground tunnel or Tunnel shafts are vertical passages that connect the ground
surface to the tunnel roof.
Shafts have many advantages and are used in constructing tunnels, including:
• Tunnel construction: Shafts are the main entrance and exit for a tunnel during construction.
• Tunnel ventilation: Shafts can be used to ventilate a tunnel or underground structure.
• Tunnel access: Shafts can provide access to a tunnel or underground structure, and can also
be used as escape routes.
• Sewerage or water tunnels: Shafts can be used as drop shafts for sewerage or water tunnels.
• Shafts are usually built from the ground surface down using conventional shaft sinking
methods. They can vary in size and depth, and their design and construction are important for
the success of a tunneling project. Shafts are often made of concrete and are usually built to
be permanent.

• Once construction is complete, the construction access shafts can be used as ventilation shafts
or emergency exits.

• When the position and course of the tunnel are correctly aligned and accordingly set out on
the surface, shafts are sunk at defined points on the tunnel line to aid tunneling operations.

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Shapes of Tunnel Shafts:

The tunnel shafts are generally circular or rectangular in shape.
• The rectangular shape may be adopted for temporary shafts, which are filled up after
the tunnel's construction.
• The permanent shafts are lined with pressed steel linear plates or concrete of circular shape.

Types of Shafts:

1. Inclined Shaft: These shafts are used when the shaft depth is less. The excavation of such shafts
proceeds in the upward direction. The excavated material falls downward and is removed from
the tunnel. The removal of muck by gravity is achieved by using a suitable gradient of 45 degrees
or less.
2. Vertical Shaft: This type of tunnel shaft is usually easier and more economical to excavate when
compared to the inclined shaft. In some cases, a pilot shaft is first driven upward before the shaft
is excavated to the full section in the downward direction. Then, the pilot shaft is used for
mucking out—the widening of the shaft to full-size proceeding downwards.
3. Circular Shaft: These shafts are usually circular and are lined with pre-stressed steel liner plates
or concrete.

Types of Tunnel Shafts based on Nature of Soil:

1. Shafts in rock/hard soil
2. Shafts in soft ground

General Construction Procedure of Tunnel Shaft:

The construction of the tunnel shaft involves the following steps:
1. Drilling of Shaft: The center cut or pyramidal cut pattern of drill holes is adopted in soil
consisting of rocks or in hard soil. For shafts in soft shallow soils, an open excavation is adopted
to a suitable depth at the given location. In the case of large shafts, the stepping method is
employed to facilitate mucking and drilling simultaneously.

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2. Mucking: The mucking process is carried out by hand, and the soil is loaded into buckets,
and lifted. However, two buckets could be used so that one descends as the other rises.The
explosive charge should be controlled so that the blasted pieces in the tunnel weigh
between 9 kg and 90 kg for easy handling. Mucking loader is also used in case the size of
the shaft is big.

3. Timbering: Though there is generally no horizontal pressure exerted, timbering is necessary to

carry guides for the cages and support lagging in rock shafts. Lagging is used to avoid small
pieces of rock from breaking loose and falling on and injuring workers.
Timber 'sets' are frames of two side plates and a pair of endplates. This is divided into two
compartments, a ladderway, and a hoistway. The sets are spaced at 5 ft. centers, and each set is
hung from the one above using 'hanging bolts.' The sets are fixed to the shaft sides by blocks
and wedges.

4. Pumping: Shafts are usually wet due to the groundwater table. The wet seams are sealed off by
cement grouting. A "sinking pump" is used when pumping is necessary to drain the excess water
logged in the shaft. The pump must be disconnected and hoisted up before commencing
blasting.

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5. Raising: If the rock is hard and strong, shafts are also "raised" from the tunnel heading instead
of sunk from above. This has the advantage that the blasted muck drops into the tunnel, and
pumping will not be necessary. The initial size of the shaft that is raised is not more than about
5 ft. in diameter.

Shaft Sinking in Soft Ground:

Soft soil tunnels are broadly divided into two types:
I. Shallow Shaft: For shafts in soft shallow soils, an open excavation is adopted to a suitable
depth at the given location.

1. Two timber sets are placed at the proper interval and braced with a diagonal piece of
timber.
2. The sheeting consisting of 1.5 inches to 3-inch thick board is placed around the sets and
kept in position by the backfilling.
3. The sheets are driven into the ground, and simultaneous digging below the sheets is
carried out, ensuring that the sheets are kept vertical.
4. The frames are correctly strutted and wedged after this first sheeting set is entirely
driven.
5. A slight benching or margin is given, and the second stage of excavation is commenced
and completed similarly.
6. The timber sets should be located and fixed at pre-designed depths to withstand the side
pressures as sheets are driven.

II. Deep Shafts: A modified system of vertical fore-polling is implemented where the shaft
depth is more. Short poling sheets of 5 ft to 6 ft are used and driven flaring out from timber
sets, and the sheets are kept in the position by double wedges.

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Precautions during Shaft Sinking Work:

1. Avoid the general movement of the earth behind the sheeting by keeping sheets tightly
against the soil's surface.
2. Deflection of sheets should be prevented as this will tend to form a cavity behind the sheets.
3. The top set near the ground surface should be strongly strutted with a heavy section to
withstand a considerable amount of surcharge due to living loads, like cranes, material
heaps, and machinery usually placed at the mouth of the shaft.
4. A 3 ft high wall is constructed around the edge of the shaft opening to form protective
fencing. This also prevents the surface water from entering the shaft.

Design of Shaft Supports:

It is based on the horizontal pressure at several depths. Therefore, the formula for the design
of shaft support is:

H=K.W.D

Where,
H is the horizontal pressure in lbs/sq. Ft.
K is a constant depending on the type of soil.
W is the weight of soil in pounds per cubic ft.
D is the depth in feet below the surface.

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Advantages of Tunnel Shafts:

1. They greatly expedite the work by adding two faces per shaft for driving.
2. They afford outlets for excavated material and means of access into the tunnel for building
materials.
3. They could be used as pumping shafts in case of a large influx of water.
4. They help correct alignment and help carry the centre line into the tunnel properly.
5. In long tunnels, they afford ventilation and are helpful for exhausting smoke and foul air out
of the tunnel.
6. The shaft also acts as an escape route in accidents.

Micro Tunneling:
Definition: Micro tunneling is a trenchless method of sewer construction. It is effective in soft,
unstable, and wet soils and can crush large boulders. The tunneling process is remotely
controlled and can be used to install larger diameter pipes and longer pipe runs than the Jack
and Bore method.
Crews dig a sending pit and a receiving pit to install a new sewer pipe. They place a micro
tunnel boring machine in the sending pit and cut a hole underground horizontally from the
sending pit to the receiving pit, without disturbing the surface above. As the machine drills the
hole, a jacking rig functions like a jack hammer to push the new sewer pipe in place between
the boring machine and the jacking rig.

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Description :
Micro tunnelling is a non-disruptive trenchless pipeline installation technique that utilizes micro
tunnel boring machines (MTBMs), usually remote controlled from the surface, to install pipes
underground.

The first Micro tunnelling projects took place in the late 1970s. The MTBM is guided by a
steering system which allows the operator to follow the desired route by using steering pistons
located just behind the cutterhead. The guidance system may be line of sight laser or more
complicated technology specially designed to allow curved bores both in the horizontal and
vertical planes. Depending on the type of installation required, potential users of Micro
tunnelling should consult with specialist tunnel navigation system manufacturers or the MTBM
manufacturer for the most appropriate system before commencing the project.
The MTBM is advanced through the ground using specially manufactured jacking pipes which
are placed in a jacking frame in a launch shaft at one end of the pipeline route. Pistons in the
jacking frame push the pipe and MTBM forward at a controlled rate to ensure effective and safe
progress of the MTBM as it cuts the soil.
As each pipe advances the MTBM through the ground one pipe length at a time, the pistons of
the jacking frame are withdrawn to allow the next pipe section to be added to the pipe string.
This process continues until the MTBM reaches the reception shaft at the far end of the route.

The work involves the following steps:

• Dig a sending and a receiving pit to the required depth.
• Place a micro tunnel boring machine into the sending pit.
• Use the machine to cut a hole through the ground and push the new sewer pipe in place.
• Remove the micro tunnel boring machine and the jacking rig.
• Connect the new pipe to the existing public sewer.

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• Cover open pits with steel plates—or secure the pits with fencing—at the end of each day as
needed while work is in progress.
• Backfill pits with sand or gravel and apply temporary asphalt patches.
• Conduct quality control inspections.
• Complete permanent pavement restoration of patched pits after work passes inspections.

Micro tunnelling Types:

There are essentially four main types of Micro tunnelling technology including:
• Pilot Tube Micro tunnelling
• Auger Micro tunnelling
• Slurry Micro tunnelling
• Earth Pressure Balance Micro tunnelling
• Pilot Tube Micro tunnelling: This is a multi-stage operation that begins with a
guided/steerable small diameter pilot tube being installed to create a pilot bore that follows
accurately the desired pipeline route. Once this has been completed successfully the pilot
tube is used to guide a steel casing of the finished bore diameter along the route. Inside this
casing is an auger which excavates the ground around the pilot tube to the desired bore
diameter for the pipeline being installed. The spoil is collected using the rotating auger and
returned to the launch shaft for collection and disposal. The auger may also be installed in
the pilot tube if this is of sufficient diameter with the spoil being transported to the reception
shaft for removal.
If required there are independently powered cutting systems that can be placed in
front of the final pipe string which assist in excavating the ground the final required diameter.
This would normally be used in ground considered too hard for the standard pilot bore
machine to handle.
Once the bore has been enlarged to the correct size the final pipes are jacked through the
route expelling the steel casings into the reception shaft for use on a later project. When the
final casing has been removed and the final pipe section jacked into place the installation is
complete and the Pilot Tube Micro tunnelling system may be removed from the shaft.
The pilot tube systems are becoming more prevalent in the market as they are smaller and
easier to set up. Pilot tube Micro tunnelling is mainly used at smaller diameters, up to DN600.
The pilot tube system is most commonly used for shorter drives which fit well with sewer
networks where distances between manholes are relatively short.

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• Auger Micro tunnelling: This method utilises an MTBM that is jacked directly through the
ground using the sectional lengths of the final pipeline material.
The spoil from the cutterhead is collected using an auger flight located inside the jacking pipe
string or in a steel casing placed inside it. The spoil is returned to the launch shaft for
collection and removal.
The pipe string advances the cutterhead one pipe length at a time with new pipe being added
when the limit of the jacking frame stroke is reached. Guidance is generally achieved using
a line of sight laser system. Once the cutterhead arrives at the reception shaft the MTBM is
removed as is any equipment in the pipe string and the installation is complete.
The open face of the cutterhead means that it is limited to ground conditions that are relatively
free of ground water. In these conditions it is a fast, effective and economical method of
accurate pipe installation.

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• Slurry Micro tunnelling: The overall method of pushing the MTBM and pipe string from
the launch shaft is as for Auger Micro tunnelling but in this instance the cutterhead is not
open to the surrounding soils; it is a closed-face method.
The cutterhead is sealed off from the main bore by a bulkhead and the spoil from the
excavation is extracted using a slurry which may be simply water or a bentonite- or polymer-
based drilling fluid/mud. As the MTBM is advanced through the ground the slurry is pumped
through the cutterhead and circulated to a settling tank on surface where the spoil is separated
from the slurry and the slurry is reconditioned as necessary to provide the correct consistency
and returned to the slurry circulation system for reuse at the face.
The slurry system has the advantage that, given the correct consistency the slurry will act as
a face support when maintained under pressure from the pumping system where ground is
less competent in nature.
It also removes spoil from the face at a controllable rate which again helps face support in less
competent ground. It also prevents ground water ingress into the bore which prevents loss of
ground at the face and therefore precludes any loss of ground around and above the bore path.
Management of the slurry properties to remove the correct amount of spoil, provide the correct
face support and minimize ground water ingress is a vital part of the success of any slurry Micro
tunnelling project to such an extent that where ground conditions are known to be very wet or
where ground variation is expected, the slurry management may be undertaken by a specialist
subcontractor with expertise in the field.

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• Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) Micro tunnelling: This again works in the same way as
Auger and Slurry Micro tunnelling in terms of how the MTBM and pipe string are advanced
through the ground. It is a closed-face system. However instead of using a slurry circulation
system the excavated spoil is retained under pressure at the face to provide the necessary face
support.
This is particularly applicable to unstable ground conditions. A screw system extracts the
spoil from within the face compartment only removing the spoil volume necessary to achieve
advance while the remainder of the spoil remains under pressure in the cutterhead chamber.
The extracted spoil is passed into either a Sludge Pump system or is loaded into an open
conveyor or truck system that removes the spoil to the launch shaft for disposal.

Other Microtunnelling Options:

There have been variations in Microtunnelling over that past 40 years, with new methodologies
still being developed. These have included a system where a set of steel cylinders are jacked
into place behind the MTBM instead of the final product pipe. Once the bore has been
completed the steel cylinders are pushed out of the bore by the final product pipe as it is jacked
into place from the launch shaft.
This adds a step so is slower and more costly than direct installation but it does eliminate the
potential for jacking pipe failure and the problems this may cause if a pipe fails in mid
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excavation in the middle of the pipe string. It also reduces the cost of the pipe since it does not
need to be designed to resist the full axial load of jacking.
A more recent development is a system that is designed to install very long steel casing pipe
directly into the ground. The system uses the standard slurry MTBM for the excavation/boring
activity but this is advanced through the ground using a welded steel pipe that is jacked forward
using a specially designed thrust unit at the surface that grips it externally so does not require
the usual intermittent stoppages as when shorter lengths of segmental pipe are uses as in
standard Microtunnelling.
The operation can therefore be continuous over a long distance which also eliminates the
potential for ground settlement around the pipe which can cause restart problems where long
lengths of pipe sit in the ground stationary during pipe changes.
Uses of Micro tunneling:
Micro tunnelling is used for a variety of purposes, including:
• Sewage and drainage construction
• Sewer replacement and lining
• Gas and water mains
• Oil pipelines
• Electricity and telecommunications cables
• Culverts
Micro tunnelling has the advantages that are:
• It minimises the need to excavate long trenches especially in urban environments
• The impact on landscapes and cityscapes is minimal
• Operations are less weather-dependant than open cut trench construction
• Faster operation than open cut construction with less disruption to the surroundings
• Significantly reduced need for large volumes of site traffic to remove excavated soil and
return with new backfill material as the volume of spoil removed is only that of the pipe itself
plus a small overcut
• It minimises disruption to the site locality, residents and businesses and tends to be
operational for a shorter amount of time overall
• Carbon emissions from both installation and site traffic are considerably lower than open cut
construction
• It is more environmentally friendly

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Tunnel Driving in Hard and Soft Strata:

Tunnel Driving in Hard Strata:
Sequence of operation;
1. Locating centre line on the ground
2. Construction of shaft
3. Transferring centre line to the inside of tunnel
4. Setting up and drilling hole for blasting
5. Loading holes and carrying out blasting
6. Providing ventilation
7. Loading and hauling muck
8. Pumping of ground water
9. Electric supports
10. Placing reinforcement steel
11. Placing concrete lining

Methods Adopted for Hard Strata:

1. Full Face method:

• In this whole section of tunnel is drilled at the same time

• It is suitable for small cross sectional area about 3m dia

• Bars are installed whose width is less than height

• Columns are installed vertically whose height is less than its width.

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2. Heading and bench method:

• It is used when tunnel is very large and the quality of rock is not satisfactory.

• If rock is hard and self supporting, heading is advanced ahead by one round of the bench.

• The bench provides platform for timber supports

• Heading is usually 3 to 3.5m ahead of bench.

3. Drift method:
A drift is a small tunnel driven through all or a portion of the length of the tunnel prior to excavating
full bore.
Types of Drift method:
1. Centre drift: Generally 3*3m to 2.5*2.5m centre drift is driven through portal to portal.
Holes for enlargement are ring drilled with a drill set upon the axis of tunnel.
2. Side drift: Two drifts are advanced along the sides of tunnel. Breakups are then made in
form of arch and permanent timbering is erected to support the roof.
3. Top drift: When the drift section chosen lies in top of the tunnel section, it is called top drift.
4. Bottom drift: In this, the lower part is first blasted and cleared for the full length.

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Tunnel Driving in Soft Strata:

Types of Soft Grounds:

• Running ground: required support immediately, e.g. dry sand

• Soft ground: roof requires immediate support while sides can remain standing for few
minutes.

• Firm ground: roof can stand for few minutes and sides for much longer time, e.g. dry earth

• Self supporting ground: remain unsupported up to short length of 1.5 to 4m, e.g. sand stone
Factors affecting the choice of a method:

• Size of tunnel

• Type of ground

• Available equipment

• Method of sequence of excavation

• The extent of ground support method

• The method of attacking the heading

Tunnel Driving in Soft Strata:

Soft-ground tunneling methods are commonly used for urban services (subways, sewers, and
other utilities). The tunnel structure in soft ground is generally designed to support the entire
load of the ground above it, partly because the ground arch in soil deteriorates with time and as
an allowance for load changes resulting from future construction of buildings or tunnels.
Soft-ground tunnels are typically circular in shape to inherit greater strength and readjust to
future load changes.
Types of Tunneling Methods in Soft Soil:
2. Forepoling method: This is probably the only system advocated for running ground and
similar soils. However, the process is slow, time-consuming, and requires skilled miners.
Nevertheless, tunnels of small dimensions required for laying sewers, gas pipes, etc., at
ordinary depths could be constructed through this method.

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It is essential that the sequence of operations strictly adheres to the correct order. For
example, the series of operations for a 5' X 5' tunnel in running ground is explained below:
1. A shaft is sunk from the surface to the grade level and adequately protected with timber
sheeting.
2. A wooden bent properly braced is set up a few inches from the sheeting.
3. Small holes at close intervals are drilled through the sheeting to facilitate sections being cut
out later, 3 inches apart above the cap and another line of holes below the cap.
4. A piece of sheeting above the cap is cut out along the top line of holes.
5. Fore poles or 'spiles' consisting of planks 5.6" X 6" X 2" with wedge ends are entered one at
a time and driven through the cut into the ground for half their lengths with an upward
inclination of 2" per foot.
6. This inclination is essential to prevent fouling of spiles. A few spiles are also started on the
sides, flaring out with a slope of 1.5" per foot.
7. The roof and part of side spiles are driven to half their lengths, a timber is laid across the back
ends of the spiles, and by wedging this down, the front ends of spiles are cantilevered up.
8. The face sheeting is now cut across the lower line of holes, which removes the sheeting
between the two rows of holes, and the loose soil is allowed to run into the tunnel till the face
assumes a natural slope.
9. A 'horse head' is set as temporary support about 2 feet from the sheeting, and the spiles are
driven to their full length.
10. The earth beneath the forward end is scooped out for a depth of 18", and the face is supported
by a breast board, placed underneath the point of the spile.

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11. The next cap supported on a bridge is set and temporarily supported on a single post.
12. Meanwhile, the side spiles are also driven for their full-lengths.
13. A heavy horizontal beam 6" X 8" is pushed forward to support the forward cap.
14. This facilitates clearing the forward bench, setting the new bent for the bold cap, and relieving
the temporary supporting beam.

3. Needle beam method : This method is suitable for soils where the roof could be depended
upon to stand for some minutes without support. This method could be advanced by 10' to
12' length per day. The needle beam consists of a stout timber beam or a composite flitched
beam and forms the temporary primary support during the excavation.

The sequence of operations is as follows:

1. A monkey drift for a short distance of 3' is driven beyond the day's work, on the working
face.
2. The roof of the drift is supported by lagging carried on wooden segments, which are, in turn,
supported by two trench jacks set in hitches cut in the sides of the monkey drift.
3. After this drift is completed, the needle beam, which is about 16' long, is slowly skidded
forward into the monkey drift.
4. The front end of the needle beam rests on planks on the drifting floor, while the rear end is
carried on stout posts resting on the floor lining of the tunnel.
5. A trench jack is placed on the centerline of the needle beam to support the segment, thus
transferring the roof load to the needle beam.
6. The other trench jacks are removed, and the drift is widened side-ways and supported as
before by laggings, segments, and trench jacks supported on the sides of the needle beam.
7. If necessary, compressed air could be used initially for roof support, at a pressure of 12 lbs/sq.

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4. Army method: The United States Army devised this method for constructing small tunnels
at reasonably shallow depths. This was mainly used for laying underground sewers.

The advantage of this method lies in its simplicity and economy as only a few timber planks,
with 1-2 trench jacks, form the leading equipment.
The process is as follows:
1. To advance the work, the top breast board is removed and the ground excavated for a short
distance of 8" to 10" ahead; the breast board is reset in the new face and braced back.
2. The next cap board is set and held in position by a 'crutch' or trench jack.
3. The breast boards are removed one at a time and reset in a line below the top breast board
after removing the earth behind each breast board, thus forming a new advanced face.
4. The sill boards are now advanced after checking the grade level.
5. The side posts are now fixed between the sill board and top cap correctly.

5. American method: This method is suitable for large-sized railway or highway tunnels.

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The process involved is as follows:

1. A top drift shown by a dotted line in fig. 8 is first driven and supported by laggings, segments,
and two posts.
2. Sides of the drift are now widened and supported on shoulder segment timbers and struts
from the sill; widening is thus carried up to the springing.
3. Wall plates of 16 feet in length are introduced at the springing, supporting the arch set
composed of the segments connected suitably by dowels at their ends.
4. The wall plates are then pinned by introducing props or vertical posts at certain intervals.
5. The timber arch segment and roof load are thus transferred to the wall plate and posts for
support, relieving the timber support in the top drift, which are now removed.

6. English method:
1. A central top heading about 16 feet ahead of the existing arch lining is driven.
2. This is supported by crown bars, which are supported on posts in front and blocked
by the face of the completed arch ring in the rear.

3. Widening of the heading is then done as in the American method, and the sill piece
is extended right across the tunnel.

4. The extended sill is underpinned, and supports are introduced, the entire arch now
being carried on the longitudinal crown bars.

5. This method involves using a lot of timber, and the most significant disadvantage is
the frequent shifting of heavy timber logs back and forth.

7. Belgian method: This is a popular method and is suitable for all classes of moderately firm
or hard soils.

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The sequence of operations is as followed :

1. A top center heading for the whole arch's rise a b c d is driven and supported by crown bars,
posts, and laggings, similar to the English method. The posts are kept on sills.
2. The heading is widened sideways and supported by additional crown bars and posts supported
from the same sills.
3. The arch lining is built, and a horizontal brace is fixed between the ends of the arch at the
springing.
4. A trench M N O P is excavated to clear the benching down to grade level. Pockets are cut at
intervals in the trench sides to insert shores to underpin the arch.
5. The alternating spaces between shores are then cleared, and the supporting side masonry is
built. The shoring is now removed, and the space is filled with masonry. The invert is then
constructed.

The advantage of the Belgian method lies in lighter timber sections, as the timber is placed
closely. But the disadvantage is due to the system of the underpinning of the built arch, mainly
when the avoidable subsidence of the soil may occur, causing settlement and cracks in the arch
masonry.

https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/tunneling-in-soft-ground-and-hard-rock/124920247#14

Bedding of conduits in underground:

Bedding for underground conduits is a uniform material placed in the bottom of a trench to
support, protect, and stabilize the conduit. It should be at least 150 mm thick and made from
the same material as the initial backfill.
The different load factors listed above illustrate the significance of bedding, which functions
to spread the load over larger sectors of the pipe.

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Bedding is one of the most important important factors factors governing governing pipe
strength in field installations, as a lateral distribution of the bottom reaction decreases the
bending moment in the pipe walls
In the field a distribution of the bottom contact stress is achieved achieved by shaping shaping
a bedding bedding material material such as a layer of sand by use of a template cut to fit the
contour of the pipe.
Underground Conduits:
Underground conduits are commonly used as sewers, drains, water mains, gas lines, culverts
culverts etc.
Classification of Underground Conduits:
There are two basic types of buried conduits, classified according to their placement relative
to the original ground surface.
1. A ditch conduit is defined as one that is installed in a relatively narrow ditch and covered
with earth backfill.
Examples are sewers, drains, and water and gas mains.
2. A positive projecting conduit is installed in shallow bedding with its top projecting
above the surface of the natural ground and then is covered with an embankment.
Example are Railway and highway culverts generally are installed i in this manner.
Classification of Pipe Bedding:

• Several classes of pipe bedding have been defined to represent construction practices
used in the field. Both the distribution of the bottom pressure and the influence of
lateral pressure are taken into account in the bedding class.

• Bedding classes and corresponding load factors are shown in Fig. below; the better
the bedding, the higher the load factor and the larger the load that can be sustained by
the pipe.

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4. Class A – concrete cradle/arch:

This bedding involves setting the lower part of a conduit in plain or reinforced concrete of
suitable thickness and extending upward on each side of the conduit for a distance that is not
greater than one‐fourth of the outside diameter of the conduit.
Load factor
– Concrete Cradle 2.4 ‐ 3.4
– Concrete Arch 2 8. – 3 4
5. First‐Class or Class B Bedding: Load Factor=1.9
In this class a conduit is carefully laid on fine granular materials that have been carefully pre‐shaped
by means of a template to fit the lower part of the conduit exterior for a width of at least 60 percent
of the conduit breadth, and the remainder of the conduit is entirely surrounded to a height of at least
0.3m above its top by granular materials that must fill all spaces under and adjacent to the conduit,
and are thoroughly tamped on each side and under the conduit in layers not exceeding 0.15m in
thickness.
6. Ordinary or Class C Bedding: Load Factor=1.5
This class is used to indicate “ ordinary care” in pre-shaping the earth foundation to fit the lower
part of the conduit exterior for a width of at least 50 percent of the conduit breadth, and in which
the remainder of the conduit is surrounded to a height of at least 0.15m above its top by granular
materials that are shovel placed and shovel‐tamped to completely completely fill all spaces
under and adjacent to the conduit.

7. Impermissible, or Class D Bedding: Load Factor= 1.

This bedding class describes a situation where no effort has been made to shape the foundation to
fit the lower part of the conduit conduit and no attempt has been made to fill the spaces under and
around the conduit.
Structural design of underground conduits:
Design supporting strength= 3- edge bearing strength*load factor
FS
FS= Factor of safety: 1.0 for reinforced concrete pipe
1.2 to 1.5 non‐reinforced concrete concrete pipe

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Soil Excavation In Under Ground Construction:

Soil excavation in underground construction is the process of removing soil or rock to create a
void or cavity beneath the ground. It's a vital step in creating underground structures like
tunnels, trenches, basements, and pipelines.
Excavation of the ground within the tunnel bore may be either semicontinuous, as by handheld
power tools or mining machine, or cyclic, as by drilling and blasting methods for harder rock.
Here each cycle involves drilling, loading explosive, blasting, ventilating fumes, and excavation
of the blasted rock (called mucking). Commonly, the mucker is a type of front-end loader that
moves the broken rock onto a belt conveyor that dumps it into a hauling system of cars or trucks.
As all operations are concentrated at the heading, congestion is chronic, and much ingenuity
has gone into designing equipment able to work in a small space. Since progress depends on
the rate of heading advance, it is often facilitated by mining several headings simultaneously,
as opening up intermediate headings from shafts or from adits driven to provide extra points of
access for longer tunnels.
For smaller diameters and longer tunnels, a narrow-gauge railroad is commonly employed to
take out the muck and bring in workers and construction material. For larger-size bores of
short to moderate length, trucks are generally preferred. For underground use these require
diesel engines with scrubbers to eliminate dangerous gases from the exhaust. While existing
truck and rail systems are adequate for tunnels progressing in the range of 40–60 feet (12–18
metres) per day, their capacity is inadequate to keep up with fast-moving moles progressing
at the rate of several hundred feet per day. Hence, considerable attention is being devoted to
developing high-capacity transport systems—continuous-belt conveyors, pipelines, and
innovative rail systems (high-capacity cars on high-speed trains). Muck disposal and its
transport on the surface can also be a problem in congested urban areas. One solution
successfully applied in Japan is to convey it by pipeline to sites where it can be used for
reclamation by landfill.
Some types of excavation include:
• Topsoil excavation: Removing the top layer of soil before laying a foundation or installing
pipelines
• Rock excavation: Removing rocks or boulders from the soil
• Footing excavation: Creating footings to stabilize a foundation and prevent the building
from sinking or collapsing
• Earth excavation: Removing the soil layer directly below the topsoil
• Cut and fill excavation: Removing topsoil and spoil to use for embankments, raised sections
of land, and foundation filling
• Trench excavation: Similar to footing excavation, but with more applications
• Stripping: Removing a range of materials, including topsoil, sand, and gravel

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Safety precautions for tunneling and excavation include:

• Adequate ventilation to remove polluted air, gases, and smoke
• Regular testing of gases, temperature, and ventilation
• Preventing the accumulation of airborne dust
• Regular medical checkups for workers
• Using electric power, or providing diesel engines with suitable filters and scrubbers.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/tunnel/Future-trends-in-underground-
construction
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285057430_Underground_excavation_methods

Compaction Technology In Underground Construction:

Compaction is the single most important process in soil construction. Its job is to reduce the
volume of pores in the soil to be compacted, which are filled with water and air.
What are the Methods of Compaction?
In earlier times construction and embankment design were not given enough attention, resulting
in embankments being left for compaction naturally. Because the older versions do not support
heavier axle loads, it is necessary to now use a high degree of sub-grade support to create heavy
and fast compaction. This form of compaction must be performed by suitable compacting
equipment. Compaction or the densification of soil creates an all-around improvement of soil
properties and how it performs as a pavement support bed. This process increases the density
of the soil through mechanical means when packing the soil particles closer together and
reducing air voids. The reduction of air voids through packing obtains a homogeneous soil mass
that has much better properties
Methods of Compaction
There are different methods and machinery used in the process of compaction.
1. Smooth Wheeled Roller
The smooth-wheel roller typically has three wheels, with one small in the front and two large
in the rear part. This machine is operated with an internal combustion engine. Another version
of this machine is the smooth wheel roller, or tandem smooth wheel roller. This version has two
drums with one in the rear and the other at the front.
The smooth-wheeled rollers are suited for sealing surfaces of the fill at the end of the day and
give a smooth surface that can quickly drain rainwater. These machines are not suitable for deep

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layers of soil such as silty sands or uniform sands. They do not work well for deep layers
because their compaction pressures are low. They will also cause stratification in deep layers
because of the non-uniform compaction.
The smooth wheeled roller is best used to compact coarse, well-graded soils that are used in the
base course of highways and non-plastic fine-grained soils.
2. Vibratory Rollers
The vibratory rollers are mounted on a drum. The rollers come in both smooth wheel and
pneumatic tired types.
In the smooth wheel type, there is a separate motor that drives an assortment of eccentric
weights to create low amplitude, high frequency with up and down oscillations of the drum. The
smooth wheel vibratory roller is good for compacting granular soils where there are no layers
up to 1m in thickness. If the soil has appreciable fines, the thickness will have to be reduced.
With the pneumatic type of roller, there is a separate vibrating unit attached to the wheel axle.
The ballast box is suspended separately, away from the axle, so it will not vibrate. The
pneumatic tired vibratory roller is good for compacting granular soils where the thickness is
about 30cm. This form of roller can compact granular soil to an extremely high maximum dry
density.
3. Sheep Root Roller
The sheep root roller’s name is derived from ancient times when a flock of sheep was used to
compact new-formed fill. This roller type is much like the smooth wheel roller. The difference
between the two is the sheep root roller contains numerous projecting feet from 200mm to
250mm long and an end area from 40 to 65cm. The wheels on this roller have hollow drums
and can be filled with ballasts and water to make them heavier. The drums are installed on a
steel frame.
The pressure imposed by the sheep root roller is from 7 to 42kg/cm. The sheep root roller is
good for nonplastic and plastic, fine-grained soil, and coarse-grained soils that are more than
twenty percent fine.
4. Impact Rammers
The impact rammer compacts the ground through impact force to compress it. The rammer will
lift its foot off the ground and slam it back down. This force creates deeper compaction depths
which work ideal in tight spaces such as trenches.
Because of the impact runner’s design, these machines are most often used in hard-to-reach
places where other compactors might struggle. They are easily maneuvered and cover ground
without much difficulty.
5. Vibrating Plates
With vibrating plates, several small plates vibrate by a separate vibrating unit. There are hand-

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operated models available of vibrating plates and are good for compacting soils having a small
thickness.
The primary use for these units is to compact granular base course for runways and highways
where the thickness is small and contains up to twelve percent fines.

https://theconstructor.org/construction/tunnel-shafts-types-construction-
advantages/562823/

https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/methods-of-tunnelling-in-soft-hard-
groundpdf/251562325

:THE END:

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