EEE 243

Electrical Machnes II
Alternator
AC Generator
Synchronous Generator

Prof. Dr. MahmudMahmud,

Abdul Matin Bhuiyan
EEE, CUET 1
 References

1. I. L. Kosow “Electrical Machines and

Transformer” Prentic-Hall, ISBN 087692-
775-4

2. BL Theraja & AK Theraja “Electrical

Technology” Vol. II, 2010, ISBN 81-219-
1142-7

3. Internet based sources: If required

Mahmud, EEE, CUET 2
Synchronous Generators

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 Synchronous Generators
AC system has a number of advantages over DC system

These days 3-phase AC system is being exclusively used for

generation, transmission and distribution of power.

The machine which produces 3-phase power from mechanical

power is called an alternator or synchronous generator.

Alternators are the primary source of all the electrical energy

we consume.

These machines are the largest energy converters in the world.

They convert Mechanical energy into Electrical energy (AC)

Mahmud, EEE, CUET 4
 Synchronous Generator
An alternator operates on the same
fundamental principle of electromagnetic
induction as a d.c. generator i.e., when the
flux linking a conductor changes, an e.m.f.
is induced in the conductor.
Like a d.c. generator, an alternator also
has an armature winding and a field
winding. But in a d.c. generator, the
armature winding is placed on the… but in
SG the field winding on the rotating part
(i.e., rotor) and armature winding on the
stationary part (i.e., stator) as shown in Fig.
 Synchronous speed: The speed at which
the rotating field moves around the stator is
called synchronous speed, Ns = 120f/P, usually
Mahmud, EEE, CUET 5
measured in rpm.
 Synchronous Generator Construction
An alternator has 3,-phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field
winding on the rotor.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6GSju8fZhSw
1. Stator
It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet-steel
laminations having slots on its inner periphery. A 3-phase winding
is placed in these slots and serves as the armature winding of the
alternator. The armature winding is always connected in star and
the neutral is connected to ground.
2. Rotor
The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct
current through two slip rings by a separate d.c. source. This d.c.
source (called exciter) is generally a small d.c. shunt or compound
generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator. Rotor construction
is of two types, namely;
(i) Salient (or projecting) pole type
(ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical)
Mahmud,pole type
EEE, CUET 6
Synchronous Generator’s Rotor

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Mahmud, EEE, CUET 8
 Operation of Alternators
The rotor winding is energized from the d.c. exciter and alternate N
and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated by
a prime mover, the stator or armature conductors are cut by the
magnetic flux of rotor poles. Consequently, e.m.f. is induced in the
armature conductors due to electromagnetic induction. The induced
e.m.f. is alternating since N and S poles of rotor alternately pass
the armature conductors. The direction of induced e.m.f. can be
found by Fleming’s right hand rule and frequency is given by: f =
NP/120 OR N=120f/p. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH48EMgKE

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 Generation of 3-phase Voltage
Three-phase voltages are often produced with a three-phase ac generator (or
alternator) whose cross-sectional view is shown in Fig. The generator basically
consists of a rotating magnet (called the rotor) surrounded by a stationary winding
(called the stator). Three separate windings or coils with terminals a-a, b-b, and c-
c are physically placed 120° apart around the stator. Terminals a and a’, for
example, stand for one of the ends of coils going into and the other end coming out
of the page. As the rotor rotates, its magnetic field “cuts” the flux from the three coils
and induces voltages in the coils. Because the coils are placed 120◦ apart, the
induced voltages in the coils are equal in magnitude but out of phase by 120° (Fig.).
Since each coil can be regarded as a single-phase generator by itself, the three-
phase generator can supply power to both single-phase and three-phase loads.

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The phase sequence is the time order in which the
voltages pass through their respective max. values
The phase sequence is determined by the order in which the phasors pass
through a fixed point in the phase diagram. In Fig. (a), as the phasors rotate
in the counterclockwise direction with frequency ω, they pass through the
horizontal axis in a sequence abcabca . . . . Thus, the sequence is abc or
bca or cab. Similarly, for the phasors in Fig. (b), as they rotate in the
counterclockwise direction, they pass the horizontal axis in a sequence
acbacba . . . . This describes the acb sequence. The phase sequence is
important in three-phase power distribution. It determines the direction of the
rotation of a motor connected to the power source

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12
3-Phase Power System

13
 Field Excitation of Alternators
Low voltage (<600V) DC is used to excite Alternators.
With revolving field construction the Alternators are
separately excited. But for rotating armature construction
(gasoline-driven Alternators) generated DC is used as self-
excited connection).
A DC Shunt generator is direct connected with the shaft or
geared or bolted to it, rating is < 0.5% of the Alternators.
Motor driven Generators are connected in parallel to DC bus-
bars to supply the excitation for all Alternators of the plant.
For emergency service, storage batteries are employed and
maintained in charge state by available DC.
A combination of the above two methods are employed for
reliable services.
In modern Alternators rectifiers are used to produce DC.
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 Equivalent Circuit of SG
Eo = No-load e.m.f.,
E = Induced e.m.f.,
V = Load terminal voltage,
E = V + Ia (Ra + j(Xl))
Eo = E + Ia(jXar ) = V + Ia
(Ra + j(Xs))
Synchronous reactance
Xs= Xl + Xar & Zs = Ra + Xs

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Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator
Consider a Y-connected alternator supplying inductive load, the load p.f. angle
being ϕ Fig. (i) shows the equivalent circuit of the alternator per phase.
All quantities are per phase.

Fig. (ii)) shows the phasor diagram of an alternator for the usual case of inductive
load. The armature current Ia lags the terminal voltage V by p.f. angle ϕ. The phasor
sum of V and drops IaRa and IaXL gives the load induced voltage E. It is the induced
e.m.f. after allowing for armature reaction. The phasor sum of E and IaXAR gives the
no-load e.m.f. E0. The phasor diagram for unity and
leading p.f. is left as an exercise for you…
Note that in drawing the phasor diagram either the
terminal voltage (V) or armature current (Ia) may be
taken as the reference phasor. Eo=(Vp+IaRe)+jXsIa ,PF1
Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ + IaXs) For lagging load
Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ - IaXs) ForEEE,
Mahmud, leading
CUET load 16
 Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is very important for generators: We know
that change in terminal voltage due to generator parameters,
armature reaction depends upon the armature current and
power-factor of the connected load

The factors affecting the voltage

regulation of an alternator are:

(i) IaRa drop in armature winding

(ii) IaXl drop in armature winding
(iii) IaXar Voltage change due to
armature reaction
(iv) Load power factor (PF)
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 Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the
change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-load (the speed
and field excitation being constant) divided by full-load voltage
% Voltage regulation = (No load voltage – Full load voltage)/
Full load voltage X100

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 Determination of Voltage Regulation
Direct Method: It is neither convenient nor practicable to
determine the voltage regulation by direct loading for large
Alternators such as > 100MVA, In CPP it is 210 MW

There are several indirect methods of determining the voltage

regulation of an alternator. Such methods are:

1) Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F. Method

2) Old AIEE Method

3) Magnetomotive Force (mmf) Method

4) American Standard Association (ASA) Method

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 Synchronous Impedance Method
In this method of finding the voltage regulation of an
alternator, we find the synchronous impedance Zs (and hence
synchronous reactance Xs) of the alternator from the O.C.C.
and S.S.C. For this reason, it is called synchronous
impedance method.

For this method, the following data are:

(i) Armature resistance (Re)
(ii) Open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.)
(iii) Short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.)

As VR is in % it will be same for Vp or VL is used

The same procedure will be followed for 1Φ, 2Φ, 3ΦΔ or 3ΦY
m/c as the vector diagram are constructed in phase quantities
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Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
Required Test data:
(i) Effective Armature resistance (Re)
The effective armature resistance Re per phase is determined
by using direct current and the voltmeter-ammeter method as it
is normally <0.5Ω. Thus is the d.c. value Rdc. The effective
armature resistance Re(a.c. resistance) is greater than this
value due to skin effect. It is a usual practice to take the
effective resistance k times the d.c. value (Re =kRdc, Re
=1.5Rdc for 50Hz, Re=1.58Rdc for 60Hz….)
3Φ Alternator Re= 1.5 of Rt (for Δ) & 0.5 of Rt (for Y-connected)

Experimental method:
Re= P/I2
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But Re will be higher due to iron losses….
Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
(i) Synchronous Reactance (Zs, Xs):Two test are necessary:
(a) Open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C):
(b) Short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.)

Like the magnetization curve for a d.c. machine, is running at

rated speed, this gives OCC curve

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Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
(b) Short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.): V=0, Eo=IaZs
The graph between short-circuit armature current (Isc) and
field current gives the short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.) as
shown in Fig.

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Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
Plot the O.C.C.
and S.S.C. on the
same field current
base gives:
Zs=E1/I1≈ Xs

Once we know Re
and Xs, the phasor
diagram can be
drawn for any load
and at any p.f.
What value of Xs &
If should be used??? Mahmud, EEE, CUET 24
Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
Problem: A 100 kVA, 1100V, 3φ, 50Hz, Y-connected AC
generator has the test data as bellow:

i) DC resistance test value: V=6V & I=10A

ii) OCC test value: If = 12.5 A & VL= 420 V
iii) SC test data: If=12.5 A & IL= rated value, Find (a) Re, Zs &
Xs per phase (b) Voltage regulation at pf= 0.8 lag & 0.8 lead
Sol: (a) Vp=VL/√3=1100/√3 =635V, Ia=kVAx1000/√3VL=52.5 A
Rdc= 6/2x10= 0.3Ω, Rac=1.5Rdc=0.45Ω, Zs= Eg/Ia=420/
√ 3x52.5= 4.62 Ω/phase, , Xs =4.61Ω
IaRe=23.6V, IaXs=242V
(b) pf= 0.8 lag Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ+IaXs)=532+j623
= 819 V/phase, So, % Reg=819-635/635x100 = 29% Ans
(c) pf= 0.8 lead
Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ-IaXs) =550 V/phase, So, %
Reg=550-635/635xx100Mahmud, EEE, CUET
= -13.4% Ans 25
Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
Problem: A 1000 kVA, 4600V, 3φ, Y-connected AC generator
has Re=2Ω/phase and Xs=20Ω/phase. Calculate voltage reg.
at: (a) pf=1.0, (b) pf=0.75 lag and (c) pf=0.75 & 0.4 lead.
Sol: Vp=VL/√3=4600/√3=2660V, Ip=kVAx1000/3Vp=125A
(a) Pf=1.0: Eo=(Vp+IaRe)+jXsIa=(2660+250)+j2500=3836
V/phase So, %Reg=3836-2660/2660x100 = 44.21% Ans
(b) pf= 0.75 lag
Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ+IaXs)=2245+j4259=4814V/p
hase, So, %Reg=4814-2660/2660x100 = 80.98% Ans
(c) pf= 0.75 lead
Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ-IaXs) =2245-j742 =2364
V/phase, So, %Reg=2364-2660/2660x100 = -11.13% Ans
pf= 0.4 lead
Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ-IaXs) =1314-j62 = 1315
V/phase, So, %Reg=1315-2660/2660x100
Mahmud, EEE, CUET = - 50.56% Ans
26
Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
Problem:

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Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
Problem: A 164 kVA, 2200V, 3φ, 2-pole, 60Hz, Y-connected
AC generator has Re=0.6Ω/phase and Zs=26.37Ω/phase (from
graph). Calculate voltage reg. at: (a) pf=1.0, (b) pf=0.8 lag and
(c) pf = 0.8 & 0.5 lead.
Sol: Vp=VL/√3=2200/√3 = 1270V, Ip=kVAx1000/3Vp = 43A
Xs ≈26.37
(a) Pf=1.0: Eo=(Vp+IaRe)+jXsIa=(1270+25.8)+j1133 = 1721
V/phase So, %Reg=1721-1270/1270x100 = 35.5% Ans
(b) pf= 0.8 lag
Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ+IaXs)=1969+j892.5 = 2160
V/phase, So, % Reg=2160-1270/1270x100 = 70.1% Ans
(c) pf= 0.8 lead
Eo=(VpCosӨ+IaRe)+j(VpSinӨ-IaXs) =1969-j372 =1800
V/phase, So, % Reg=1800-1270/1270x100 = 42% Ans
pf= 0.5 lead …. % Reg.???
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Synchronous Impedance Method (Cont.)
Drawback: This method if easy but it gives approximate
results. Regulation obtained by this method is a bit higher (on
the safe side…) than actual test vale. The reason are:
(i) The degree of saturation at which Xs is determined: Xs is
different at different field excitation…..
(ii) The combined effect of Xl (armature leakage reactance)
and Xa (reactance of armature reaction) is measured on
short-circuit. Since the current in this condition is much
grater that rated current and almost lagging 90°, the
armature reaction will provide its worst demagnetizing
effect. It follows that under any normal operation at, say 0.8
or 0.9 lagging power factors will produce error in
calculations. Thus, this method gives a value higher than
the value obtained from an actual load test. For this reason,
it is called pessimistic method.
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