CHEMISTRY I

Notes for First Semester College Chemistry

Modern Atomic Theory by John Dalton: THE PERIODIC TABLE

1) All matter is composed of atoms. An Atom is the
smallest particle of an element that takes part in Vertical columns are called families or groups.
chemical reactions. Horizontal rows are called series or periods.
2) All atoms of a given element are alike, that is, all Alkali metals - group I - very reactive, soft, silvery
atoms of gold are the same. Atoms of different Alkaline Earth metals - group IIA -
elements are different. Halogens - group VIIA
3) Compounds are combinations of atoms of more than Noble Gases - group 0, virtually non-reactive
one element; in a given compound, the relative Transition elements - in short columns
number of each type of atom is always the same. For Inner transition elements - columns listed separately at
example, in water there are always two hydrogen the bottom
atoms for each oxygen atom. Main group or representative elements - elements other
4) Atoms cannot be created or destroyed. Atoms of one than transitions and inner transitions
element cannot be changed into atoms of another
element by chemical means. MOLECULES result when atoms of (usually) non-metals
Statement 1 has been revised since atoms can exchange combine to form compounds or molecular elements.
electrons. Statement 2 has been revised due to the These are covalent bonds and result from electron
existence of isotopes. Statement 3 is still accepted. sharing.
Statement 4 is true for chemical reactions. IONIC COMPOUNDS are formed by the transfer of
electrons. A positive ion (cation) combines with a
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that vary in the negative ion (anion) to form a neutrally charged
number of neutrons. compound.
The nucleus is the small, dense, positively charged
center of an atom and contains most of the atom's Chemistry is the science that deals with the composition,
mass. Electrons account for most of the size of an structure, and properties of matter and the changes
atom. Protons and neutrons are nearly equal in that matter undergoes.
mass. Atoms are electrically neutral. Matter is anything that occupies space.
Atomic Number is the number of protons, the whole In writing a formula, the element furthest to the left on
number on the periodic table, same as the number of the periodic table is usually written first. If in the
electrons in atoms. same column, the lowest is usually written first.
Mass Number is the sum of protons and neutrons. The Exceptions are: NH3 (ammonia), NH4+ (ammonium
hydrogen isotope having a mass number of 2 may be ion), CH4 (methane).
written as H-2 or 21H . 1 is the atomic number. IONS are formed by the transfer of electrons from one
The atomic weight shown on the periodic table is the atom to another. Metals have a tendency to lose
number of grams in 1 mole of the element; units of electrons, becoming positive. Non-metals tend to
g mol. gain electrons.
Gram formula mass has the units g. Empirical Formula is a chemical formula indicating the
A nuclide is an entity, atom, isotope, molecule, etc. variety and relative proportions of the atoms in an
An atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12 of C-12 and is ionic compound but not showing the manner in which
abbreviated as u or amu. they are linked together. It is possible to calculate
Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of a empirical formulas from percent composition.
compound. Formula units are ionic compounds.
1 mole is equal to 6.022 × 1023 particles. This value is Molecular Formula is a better representation for a
known as Avogadro's number. It is an approximate covalent substance because it represents the actual
value. composition. Sometimes empirical and molecular
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that differ in the formulas are the same thing. H2O is an example.
number of neutrons. Isomers have the same molecular formula but different
connectivities, different properties and characteristics.
Hydrogen Isotopes Carbon Isotopes The Scientific Method:
H-1 H-2 H-3 C-12 C-13 C-14 1. Observation
Protons 1 1 1 6 6 6 2. Formulation of a theory
Neutrons 0 1 2 6 7 8 3. Testing the theory
Electrons 1 1 1 6 6 6 A coefficient distributes to all subscripts in a formula–not
Mass # 1 2 3 12 13 14 just the ones in parenthesis.
Naming covalent compounds: If a compound is made up STOICHIOMETRY
of only 2 elements and is not water, then we name it
as though it was an ionic compound. If it is 2 non- Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative
metals, the 1st is hydrogen. Some binary (means 2 relationships between substances undergoing
non-metals) covalent compounds can be named chemical changes.
using the Greek prefixes (they correspond to the Law of Conservation of Matter In chemical reactions, the
subscripts). If the subscript of the first element is 1, quantity of matter does not change. Total mass
then the first word of the name is the name of that remains the same.
element. i.e. CO2 is carbon ... If the first subscript is 1 mole of oxygen means 1 mole of O2.
other than 1, then start the first word with a prefix. Limiting reactant is the substance in short supply or the
The second word in the name always starts with a substances that will react totally.
prefix as defined by its subscript. The suffix of the Excess reactant is what is left over or does not react in a
second word is ide. CO2 (carbon dioxide), CO mixture.
(carbon monoxide), N2O5 (dinitrogen pentoxide) Electrolytes are substances or compounds that conduct
The following subscripts that may appear after elements electricity when dissolved or melted. The conduction
or compounds describe its state: of electricity is due to ions. Putting an ionic
(g) - gas compound in solution allows ions to separate from the
(l) - liquid compound. With a strong electrolyte, most of the
(s) - solid particles separate into ions in solution. Barium
(aq) - aqueous (in water solution) Sulfate BaSO4 is a strong electrolyte but is insoluable
Hydrogen chloride, HCl, is normally a gas. When in in water, therefore conductivity is weak even though
water (HCl(aq)) it is hydrochloric acid. the electrolyte is considered strong. Water and
qualitative term: longer (an example) ammonia are weak electrolytes. There are 6 acids
quantitative term: a number and a unit label that are strong electrolytes. All other may be
SI Units: International System of Units, derived from the considered weak.
metric system. HCl(aq) - hydrochloric acid
derived units are units created from the base units of HBr(aq) - hydrobromic acid
meter, kilogram, liter, second, ampere, Kelvin,
HI(aq) - hydriodic acid
candela, mole.
HClO4(aq) - perchloric acid (unstable unless
English System: ounces, pounds, inches, quarts, etc.
dissolved)
Kelvin temperature is denoted with a capital K, not °K.
HNO3(aq) - nitric acid
K = (°C + 273.15)
°F = 9/5 × °C + 32 H2SO4(aq) - sulfuric acid
Bromine is a liquid. The hydroxides of all IA metals and the bottom 4 of
Iodine is a solid. the IIA metals are strong electrolytes. Salts are
Precision is the repeatability of a measurement. It also strong electrolytes. Metallic hydroxides may be
involves significant figures. assumed to be strong electrolytes. Non-electrolytes
Accuracy is how close a measured value is to a known do not conduct electricity. A reaction between
value. It also involves significant figures. electrolyte solutions will take place if either of the
Significant Figures. When multiplying or dividing, round possible products is insoluble or a weak or
the answer to the number of significant digits in the nonelectrolyte.
given value which has the least significant digits. Acids increase the concentration of hydrogen ions when
When adding or subtracting, round the answer to the dissolved in water. If the formula starts with H, it
rightmost decimal place precision of the given value might be an acid. If the compound can be broken into
which is carried the fewest number of places to the H+ and a common negative ion then it's an acid when
right. combined with water. Acids form ions in water.
Extensive properties depend on the quantity or amount Binary acids are hydrogen plus one element.
of substance, for example: mass, volume, length. Bases are compounds that increase the concentration of
Intensive properties are independent of the quantity or hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Sodium
amount of substance, for example: density, melting hydroxide NaOH, barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2, and
point, boiling point, color, conductivity, whether or not ammonia NH3 are common bases.
the substance is magnetic. Salts are ionic compounds of metals (or polyatomic
Density usually decreases with increasing temperature. cations) and nonmetals (or polyatomic anions), except
density = mass ÷ volume for oxides and hydroxides which are usually classified
solids - g/cm3 as bases. Salts are formed when aqueous acids react
liquids - g/mL with metallic hydroxide bases.
gases - g/L A single replacement reaction is a reaction between an
element and an ionic compound.
In a double replacement reaction two ionic compounds
exchange ions.
Ionizable hydrogens are written at the beginning of the Pressure is force per unit area.
formula. HC7H5O7 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg = 1.013 25 × 105 Pa
Insoluable means that less than 1/10 gram dissolves in (Pascals) 1 Pa = 1 kg/m·s2
100 mL of water. A manometer measures the pressure of a collected gas.
Slightly soluable means that 1/10 gram to less than 1 Ideal Gases: The identity of the gas has no effect on its
gram dissolves in 100 mL of water. pressure to volume relationship.
Soluable means that 1 gram or more will dissolve in 100 Real Gases: Possess the characteristics of ideal gases
mL water. at high temperatures and low pressures.
A compound that is insoluble in water will dissolve in Boyle's Law: Pressure is inversely proportional to
another substance if a weak electrolyte is formed. volume, assuming constant temperature.
In a complete ionic equation, the (aq) is left off and ions P × V = k, a constant
are shown separated except where they have formed Charles's Law: The volume of a gas is directly
solids or gases. Ions that appear on both sides of this proportional the Kelvin temperature, assuming
equation are called spectator ions. In a net ionic constant pressure.
equation ions that are free on both sides of the V/T = k, a constant V1/T1 = V2/T2
equation are removed. Different complete ionic Combined Gas Law:
equations could result in the same net ionic equation. V2 = V1 × P1/P2 × T2/T1
In a molecular equation, ions are not shown Gay-Lussac's Law: The volumes of gases involved in
separated. chemical reactions are the ratios of small whole
Very reactive metals react with water to produce a numbers, assuming constant temperature and
metallic hydroxide and hydrogen gas. These are the pressure.
metals of group IA and Ca and below in group IIA. T1/P1 = k T1/P1 = T2/P2
Less reactive metals, if they react with water, will Avogadro's Law: The volume of a gas is directly
produce metallic oxide and hydrogen gas. proportional to the number of molecules.
Non-metal reactivity decreases down the chart. Metal V=k×n
reactivity increases down the chart. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures: The total pressure of
Concentration may be expressed as percent mass or a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial
percent volume and should be stated. pressures of the individual gases. Partial pressure of
There can be intermingling and packing between a gas is the pressure that the individual gas exerts in
molecules so that sometimes the total volume of a mixture. One gas pressure does not affect the
mixtures will be less than expected: 70 mL alcohol + pressure of another gas in a mixture of gases. When
30 mL water = 97.4 mL liquid. making calculations, assume each gas occupies the
Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute per liter of entire volume.
solution. In calculating dilutions, M1 × V1 = M2 × V2, Graham's Law: (where MM is molecular mass)
where M is molarity and V is volume. Rate of diffusion of gas 1 MM gas 2
Titration is a method of determining the amount of =
Rate of diffusion of gas 2 MM gas 1
substance in a solution by testing with a primary
solution. The endpoint of titration is when the amount Lighter gases spread out (diffuse) more quickly.
of the required reactant has been added, which is Effusion is the flow of gas through a very small opening.
evidenced by an indicator, such as a change in color Ideal Gas Equation: PV = nRT
of the solution or litmus paper. R = 62.36 when P is expressed in mmHg
A primary standard is a solution of known molarity made R = 0.082 06 when P is expressed in atm
from a relatively nonhygroscopic (doesn't tend to V is in liters, n is moles, T is in Kelvin
absorb water from the atmosphere) solute in pure Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): 0°C or
form (>99.9%). 273.15 K and 760 mmHg or 1 atm.
A standard solution is a solution of known concentration. STP molar volume of a gas: 22.4 L (1 mole = 22.4 L)
Litmus paper: blue paper turns red - acid GASES:
red paper turns blue - basic 1) Gases consist of very small particles compared to the
phenolphthalein: colorless in acid space occupied. Molecules of Ideal Gases are
pink in base considered points having no volume.
pale pink in a neutral solution 2) Gas molecules move at high speeds, in thousands of
miles per hour.
3) Molecules of Ideal Gases cannot hit each other since
GASES they have no volume, but do hit the sides of the
container, resulting in pressure on the container.
Vapors are substances which are in the gaseous state 4) There are no attractive or repulsive forces between
that do not normally exist as gases. Mixtures of Ideal Gas molecules. When one molecule hits
gases are homegenous. Homogenous mixtures are another, energy can be transfered but total energy
solutions. remains unchanged.
5) Kinetic Energy is energy of motion. The average kJ/mol. The standard enthalpy of a reaction ∆H°rxn
kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the is equal to the sum of the product enthalpies minus
Kelvin temperature. avg. kinetic energy = k × T the sum of the reactant enthalpies. Remember that
KE = 21 mv 2 the standard enthalpy of an element in its standard
Density = mass / volume form is zero.

ENTHALPY ATOMIC THEORY

Thermodynamics is the relationship between heat and The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle helps to describe
power. the locations of electrons in terms of probability. It
Thermochemistry is the part of thermodynamics that indicates that we cannot describe the exact location of
deals with chemical reactions and heat. an electron.
System is the part of the universe a scientist is interested The quantum mechanical or the wave mechanical model
in. of the atom is a theory for the description of the
Surroundings is the remainder of the universe. makeup of the atom. It is highly Calculus based and
Universe is the system plus the surroundings. is based on the Schrödinger Equation.
Exothermic describes a change that produces heat, An orbital is the volume in space where an electron of
usually spontaneous. particular energy is likely to be found. An electron in
Endothermic describes a change that cools the one orgital will have a different energy than an
surroundings, usually nonspontaneous. electron in another orbital.
1 calorie = 4.184 Joules (exactly) Electron energies are said to be quantized, that is, they
Thermal energy is an energy of motion of molecules. have different sets of energies. If an electron loses or
Heat is thermal energy transfer. gains energy, it will do so only in regular or set
Thermal Energy Change [joules] = mass [grams] × quantities. When all of the electrons in an atom are
specific heat [joules/(gram·°C)] × ∆T [°C] in their lowest possible levels or positions, the atom is
Heat Capacity = (mass × specific heat) [joules/°C] It is said to be in the ground state. When one or more of
an extensive property because it depends on the the electrons are in higher energy levels, the atom is
amount of mass. said to be in the excited state.
Specific Heat is the amount of thermal energy needed to The first shell, which is indicated by n=1, contains one s
raise 1 gram by 1 °C. [joules/(gram·°C)] It is an sublevel. The s sublevel is spherical in shape and is
intensive property because it doesn't depend on the indicated by l=0 (that's an el).
amount of sample. The second shell, which is indicated by n=2, contains an
An exothermic change is indicated by a negative sign. s and a p sublevel. There are three orbitals in a p
Heat is released or lost to the surroundings. sublevel. They are shaped like ∞. l=1 indicates a p
An enthalpy change (∆H) [kilojoules (kJ)] is a change in sublevel.
thermal energy when a change takes place under The third shell, which is indicated by n=3, contains an s
constant pressure. In a thermochemical equation, the sublevel, a p sublevel, and a d sublevel. A d sublevel
coefficients stand for the number of moles. The is indicated by l=2 and contains 5 orbitals. Don't
reaction: H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + 184.62 kJ means worry about the shapes of these orbitals.
that the material gets hot, is exothermic. It could also This pattern of shell construction continues with an f
be expressed: H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) ∆Hrxn = sublevel, indicated by l=3, containing 7 orbitals, a g
-184.62 kJ Note the change in sign of the two sublevel, indicated by l=4, containing 9 orbitals, and
statements. an h sublevel, indicated by l=5, containing 11 orbitals.
Hess's Law The thermal energy transfer in a given A particular orbital is indicated by its magnetic quantum
change is the same whether it occurs in a single step number, ml. The value of ml may be from -l to +l. An
or several steps. orbital may have zero, one, or two electrons. The
State Function a property that depends only on the initial particular electron is indicated by a spin quantum
and final states of the system. such as enthalpy, number, ms, which may be equal to -½ or +½.
pressure. A system is said to be in a certain state By the Aufbau Principle, electrons are put into lowest
when its properties have certain values. orbitals first.
In a formation reaction, one compound is formed from its By Hund's Rule, when electrons are put into orbitals
elements. having the same energy (degenerate orbitals), one
In a combustion reaction, a (usually one) substance electron is put into each orbital before putting a
reacts with oxygen. Usually CO2 is a/the product. It second electron into an orbital. For example, a given
is always exothermic. p sublevel contains 3 degenerate orbitals. One
Standard Enthalpy of Formulation ∆H°f [kJ/mol] is the electron will be placed in each of these orbitals before
amount of energy involved when one mole of the a second electron is placed in any of them.
substance is formed @ 25 °C. The standard form of
an element has a standard enthalpy of formation of 0
Atoms with unpaired electrons are paramagnetic. electron affinity: The measure of an atom's tendency to
Paramagnetic materials are weakly magnetized when gain an electron. Thermal energy is released from
brought into proximity to a magnet. most atoms when they gain an electron. Exothermic.
Atoms with no unpaired electrons are diamagnetic. The higher the electron affinity number, the more
An octet has all orbitals in the first two shells filled. likely to gain an electron.
By the Pauli Exclusion Principal, no 2 electrons in a atomic radii: Main group radii generally increase to the
given atom can have all 4 quantum numbers alike. lower left. Two factors influence the size of the radii:
Orbital Notation example: 1) The attraction of the positively charged nucleus to
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ the negatively charged electrons
2) The negatively charged electrons tend to repel
1s 2 s 2p 3s 3p 4 s 3d
each other.
Additional shells tend to resist the effect of 1) due to
electron shielding. The pull of the nucleus on the
outer electrons is partially blocked by the inner
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
electrons.
Lanthanide Contraction: Groups of transition elements
tend to be about the same size.
Electron Configuration Notation example; note the order Isoelectronic: having the same electron configuration,
by shell number: such as:
Na1+ 1s2 2s2 2p6
Ti Titanium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
F1- 1s2 2s2 2p6
Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6
Abbreviated Orbital Notation example; the symbol for the
noble gas preceeding the element is written in O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6
brackets (this is called the core), then additional Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6
electrons are shown following: Al3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6
↑↓ ↑ ↑
Ti Titanium [Ar] Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 1/26/98
4s 3d

Abbreviated Electron Configuration Notation example:

Ti Titanium [Ar] 3d2 4s2

Ionization energies generally decrease to the lower left.

This is because those elements tend to have more
shells so that the outer electrons are less tightly held.
When an atom loses electrons this happens in the
reverse order of electron configuration notation.
Outermost electrons leave the atom first, even though
a lower shell might not be filled. In the case of our
Titanium example, electrons would leave the 4s shell
first although the 3d shell is not filled. Returning
electrons fill the previously vacated spots first, then
additional filling is according to Hund's Rule.
Exceptions to Hund's Rule:
Cr [Ar] 3d5 4s1
Mo [Kr] 4d5 5s1
Cu [Ar] 3d10 4s1
Ag [Kr] 4d10 5s1
Au [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
Pd [Kr] 4d10
Pt [Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s1
Valence Electrons are the electrons in the outer shell.
first ionization energy: The amount of energy needed to
remove one electron each from one mole of gaseous
atoms. In general, the highest first ionization
energies belong to atoms in the upper right corner of
the periodic chart. Endothermic.
second ionization energy: Stronger than first ionization
energy.