Assignment 05

Subject: Electronics
Submitted to; ma’am Salma
Submitted by;
Abeera Azam (1825130001)
Aiman Asghar (1825130002)
Alina Jameel (1825130003)
Amina Amanat (1825130004)
Amna (1825130006)
Amna nazir (1825130007)
Areej sharik (1825130010)
Aresha ghazal (1825130011)
Arshiya waheed (1825130012)
From ;
BS-physics’18 (smester 5)
Topic:1

DC Load Line
Load line:
“Load line is a straight line joining the cut- off point and saturation
point.”
Where;
When a value for the maximum possible current is considered, that point
will be present on the Y-axis which is nothing but a saturation point. The point B
in the graph is saturation point.
When a value for the maximum possible collector emitter voltage is
considered, that point will be present on the X-axis, which is cut-off point. The
point A in the graph is cutoff point.
DC load line:
“If the load line is drawn when DC biasing is given to the transistor,
but no input signal is applied, then such a load line is called DC load line.”
Collector- emitter circuit:
Consider a CE NPN transistor circuit as shown in figure below where no
signal is applied to the input side. For this circuit, DC condition will obtain, and
the characteristics of such a circuit is shown in figure below.
The DC load line of above circuit is shown in figure below.

By applying Kirchoff `s voltage law:

By applying Kirchoff `s law to the collector circuit, we get,

VCC = VCE +ICRC

VCE = VCC – ICRC ……….. eq(1)

The above equation shows that VCC and RC are the constant value, and it is the first
degree equation which is represented by the straight line on the output
characteristics. This load line is known is DC load line. The input characteristics is
used to determine the locus of VCE and IC point to the given value of RC.

Two particular cases:

1. The collector emitter voltage VCE is maximum when the collector current IC =0
then from the equation (1) we get,

VCE =VCC - 0*RC

VCE =VCC

The first point A (OA=VCC) on the collector emitter voltage axis shown in the
figure above.

2. The collector current IC becomes maximum when the collector emitter voltage
VCC = 0 then from the equation (1) we get.

0= VCC - ICRC

IC =VCC/RC

This gives the second point on the collector current as shown in the figure above.
Slope of DC load line:

Slope of load line AB = -1/RC

The above equation can be written as

Ic =-VCE/RC +VCC/RC

It is a linear equation can be written similar to y= -mx+c. The graph of this

equation is straight line whose slope is given by

m = -1/RC

Active region:

All operating points lying between cutoff and saturation points forms the
active region of transistor. In the region, E/B is forward biased transistor and C/B
junction is reverse biased. These are the conditions necessary for the proper
operation of the transistor.
TOPIC 2:
WHAT IS A Q POINT OF A DIODE?
Q point or the operating point of a device, also known as a bias point, or quiescent point is the
steady-state DC voltage or current at a specified terminal of an active device such as a diode or
transistor with no input signal applied.

Also, the Q Point is the relationship between the diode forward voltage and current defined by the
device characteristic. Consequently, there is only one point on the dc load line where the diode
voltage and current are compatible with the circuit conditions.

In other words, this operating point (Q point) is the intersection where the optimum forward
voltage and forward current converge, and it is also the point where the diode operates at its
optimum.
Topic 3:
When a line is drawn joining the saturation and cut off points, such a line can be called
as Load line. This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact
at a point called as Operating point.

This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. There can be
many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way that
irrespective of AC signal swing, the transistor remains in the active region.

 Operating
The operating point should not get disturbed as it should remain stable to achieve
faithful amplification. Hence the quiescent point or Q-point is the value where the
Faithful Amplification is achieved.

 Faithful Amplification
The process of increasing the signal strength is called as Amplification. This
amplification when done without any loss in the components of the signal, is called as
Faithful amplification.
Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input signal by
increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at its input.
In the above graph, the input signal applied is completely amplified and reproduced
without any losses. This can be understood as Faithful Amplification.
The operating point is so chosen such that it lies in the active region and it helps in the
reproduction of complete signal without any loss.
If the operating point is considered near saturation point, then the amplification will be
as under.

 Near Saturation Point

If the operation point is considered near cut off point, then the amplification will be as
under.

 Cutoff Point
Hence the placement of operating point is an important factor to achieve faithful
amplification. But for the transistor to function properly as an amplifier, its input circuit
(i.e., the base-emitter junction) remains forward biased and its output circuit (i.e.,
collector-base junction) remains reverse biased.

The amplified signal thus contains the same information as in the input signal whereas
the strength of the signal is increased.

Key factors for Faithful Amplification

To ensure faithful amplification, the following basic conditions must be satisfied.

Proper zero signal collector current

Minimum proper base-emitter voltage (VBE) at any instant.
Minimum proper collector-emitter voltage (VCE) at any instant.
The fulfillment of these conditions ensures that the transistor works over the active
region having input forward biased and output reverse biased.

 Proper Zero Signal Collector Current

In order to understand this, let us consider a NPN transistor circuit as shown in the
figure below. The base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-emitter
junction is reverse biased. When a signal is applied at the input, the base-emitter
junction of the NPN transistor gets forward biased for positive half cycle of the input and
hence it appears at the output.

For negative half cycle, the same junction gets reverse biased and hence the circuit
doesn’t conduct. This leads to unfaithful amplification as shown in the figure below.

 Unfaithful Amplification
Let us now introduce a battery VBB in the base circuit. The magnitude of this voltage
should be such that the base-emitter junction of the transistor should remain in forward
biased, even for negative half cycle of input signal. When no input signal is applied, a
DC current flows in the circuit, due to VBB. This is known as zero signal collector
current IC.

During the positive half cycle of the input, the base-emitter junction is more forward
biased and hence the collector current increases. During the negative half cycle of the
input, the input junction is less forward biased and hence the collector current
decreases. Hence both the cycles of the input appear in the output and hence faithful
amplification results, as shown in the below figure.

 Faithful Result
Hence for faithful amplification, proper zero signal collector current must flow. The value
of zero signal collector current should be at least equal
The operating point of a device, also known as bias point, quiescent point, or Q-point, is
the steady-state voltage or current at a specified terminal of an active device (a
transistor or vacuum tube) with no input signal applied.
The Q point (short for Quiescent point), defines the voltage (and current) swing of the
input and output. When you get into derivations of various gains (voltage or current
gain, transconductance, transresistance), they all depend upon the dc characteristics of
the transistor (BJT or FET). Depending upon the Q point location (voltage and current
are DC quantities), you may get excellent amplification or clipping. Power amplifiers are
classified based on Q point location.
It's importance is that if q point is located in the active region then, the transistor will give
faithful amplification, otherwise not.
The DC load line is the load line of the DC equivalent circuit, defined by reducing the
reactive components to zero (replacing capacitors by open circuits and inductors by
short circuits). It is used to determine the correct DC operating point, often called the Q
point.

The Q point is essential to the overall component and circuit functionality. It ensures that
non-linear components like diodes operate at their optimal current and voltage
throughout the operating range. This also promotes increased functionality, reliability,
and life cycle of your electronic circuits.

In bipolar transistor circuits, the Q-point is represented by ( VCE, IC ) for the NPN
transistors or ( VEC, IC ) for PNP transistors. The stability of the base bias network and
therefore the Q-point is generally assessed by considering the collector current as a
function of both Beta (β) and temperature.