Basic Concept of Electricity

Atomic Theory of Matter

The Atomic Theory of Matter states that all matter consists of extremely small
particles called atoms. Atoms consists of even smaller particle called electrons, protons and
neutrons. The nucleus consists of all of the atom’s protons and neutrons. The part of an
atom that gives an element it’s identify is the nucleus. Surrounding the nucleus of an atom
are particles having opposite electric charge from the protons. These are the electrons.
When atoms of elements join together to form a compound, the resulting particles are
molecules.

Physicists are arbitrary call electrons’ charge negative, and the protons’ charge
positive. An electron has exactly same charge quantity as a proton, but with opposite
polarity. The electron we’re seen as orbiting the nucleus, making the atom like a miniature
solar system with the electrons as the planets. See figure below Electrons were discovered in
1897 by Sir Joseph John Thomson, the protons in 1918 by Ernest Rutherford, and the
neutrons in 1932 by Sir James Chadwick.

Figure 1a Figure 1b

Electricity

Electricity is an energy from that results from the existence of charged particles
such as electrons or protons, either statically as an accumulation of change or dynamically
as a current.

Types of Electricity

 Static Electricity
 Static electricity is when electrical charges build up on the surface of a
material. It usually caused by friction or rubbing materials together.

 Current Electricity

Current electricity deals with electrical charges in motion.

Electric Charge

In physics, charge, also known as electric charge, electrical charge, or electrostatic

charge and symbolized Q or q, is a characteristic of a unit of matter that expresses the
extent to which it has more or fewer electrons than protons. In atoms, the electron carries a
negative elementary or unit charge; the proton carries a positive charge. The two types of
charge are equal and opposite. The unit of electrical charge in the International System of
Unit is the Coulomb ( C ), where 1 C is equal to approximately 6.24 x 1018 charges.

Materials are divided into three categories, depending on how easily they will allow
charge to flow along them. These are:

 Conductor – materials that are easily allows the flow of electrons (mostly metals)
 Insulator – materials that do not permit the flow of electrons.
 Semi-conductors – a material which has electrical conductivity to a degree between
that of a conductor and that of an insulator.

Metric Prefixes and Scientific Notation

In engineering some very large and very small values are used. To make writing of
these numbers easier use of a prefix is made. A prefix is an affix which is placed before the
root of a word. The prefix has a unique symbol that is write before a certain unit. Using
table below.

List of common prefixes

Prefix Symbol Value (multiplier)

Tera T ×1012

Giga G ×109

Mega M ×106
 kilo k ×103

milli m ×10-3

micro µ ×10-6

nano n ×10-9

pico p ×10-12

Introduction to DC Circuit and Its Parameters

We know that the electric current is of two types, Alternating Current (AC) and Direct
Current (DC). A circuit that deals with AC is referred to as AC circuit and a circuit with DC
source is termed as DC circuit.  As of now we only discuss about DC circuit and its theory. The
closed path in which the direct current flows is called the DC circuit. The current flows in only
one direction and it is mostly used in low voltage applications. The resistor is the main
component of the DC circuit. The DC source allows the electricity or current to flow with an
unvarying polarity that doesn’t change with time. A simple DC circuit is given in below figure to
make the reader get aware of DC circuit components and its parameters.

The above DC circuit consists of the voltage source and resistance with a specific current flow.
So let us know about these parameters in brief.

The six circuit parameters for a series circuit are;

•The same current flows through each part of a series circuit.

• The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.

• The total voltage across a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops.
• The voltage drop across a resistor in a series circuit is directly proportional to the size of the
resistor.

• The total power dissipated in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual power
dissipations.

• Ohm’s Law applies to each component and to the entire circuit.

Difference Between Conventional and Electron Current Flow

Electrons flow from negative terminal to positive terminal is referred as electron current flow,
whereas from positive terminal to the negative terminal is referred as conventional current flow
as shown in figure.

The electrons have always been repelled by the negative charge where the terminal is connected
to the negative terminal of the battery and are attracted at positive terminal due to the positive
charge. Hence the electrons flow from negative terminal to positive terminal is referred as
electron current flow. But conventional method of assuming current flow is from positive to
negative so this is referred as conventional current flow. Conventional current is indicated on
many circuit diagrams and actual electron flow current is indicated in the case of describing the
individual current flow. 

The conventional current flow is due to the positive charge carriers. The conventional current is
measured in the opposite direction of actual electron current flow, which is due to the negative
charge carriers (Electrons) therefore, conventional current is always positive. It is also measured
in Amps. 

The difference of conventional and actual electron flow does not effect on any computational
results and real time behavior. Most of the analyzing concepts of DC circuit results are
independent of the direction of current flow. However, the conventional current is the standard
and mostly follows.
Basic Electrical Quantities

Voltage

Voltage is the electrical pressure or force also known as electromotive force (EMF) that
pushes electrons. It is also known as potential difference. The unit use to measure the voltage is
volts (V or E) named after Alessandro Volta. The instrument used to measure the voltage is
voltmeter. Electromotive force is not truly a force; rather it is a measurement of joule of energy
per coulomb of charge.

V = W/Q

Current

Current is a measure of the amount of electrical charge transferred per unit time. It
represents the flow of electrons through a conductive material. The SI unit of electrical current is
the ampere (A), which is equal to a flow of one coulomb of charge per second. The ampere (A)
unit is named after Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836), a French mathematician and physicist.

I = Q/t

Resistance

Material Resistivity (ρ) Ω-m Resistance is a property of a

material that opposes or resists the flow of
charges Aluminum 2.65 x 10-8 through it. The ohm (Ω) is the
SI derived unit of electrical resistance,
named after German physicist Georg Simon
Copper 1.68 x 10-8
Ohm.

Silver 1.59 x 10-8

R = ρL/A
Gold 2.44 x 10-8

Lead 22 x 10-8

Iron 9.71 x 10-8

Conductance

Electrical conductance measures how they easily flow along a certain path through an
electrical element. The SI derived unit of conductance is the Siemens. Because it is the reciprocal
of electrical resistance, this unit was referred to as the mho.

Electric Circuit
Electric circuit is a complete, unbroken path along which an electric current exists or is
intended or able to flow.

Fig. a Fig. b

Resistors

Resistors are one of the most basic building blocks in electronics. Resistor is an electric
component that has a certain specified resistance to the current flow.

Types of Resistors

 Fixed resistors – have a single value of resistance which remains under normal
condition. Kinds of fixed resistors; Carbon-composition resistors, Wire-wound resistors
and Film-type resistors.
 Variable resistors – resistors whose values vary. These are the mostly used for voltage
division and setting the sensitivity of sensors. Ex. Potentiometer, Rheostat and Sliding
contact resistors
  Special resistor
 Thermistors – are special resistors whose resistance changes with the temperature.
 Light Dependent Resistors (LDR) – LDRs have cadmium sulfide zigzag tack
whose resistance decreases as the light intensity incident increases.

Resistor Color Coding

Components and wires are coded with colors to identify their value and function. Carbon
composition and carbon film resistors are too small to have the resistance value printed on their
housings. Therefore, bands of color are used to represent the resistance value.

The first and second band represent the numerical value of resistor, and the color of the
third band specify the power-of-ten multiplier. Th color bands are always read from left to right
starting with the side that has a band closer to the edge.

Color 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band (Multiplier) 4th Band (Tolerance)
Black 0 x1
Brown 1 1 x 10 1%
Red 2 2 x 100 2%
Orange 3 3 x 1k 3%
Yellow 4 4 x 10k 4%
Green 5 5 x 100k -
Blue 6 6 x 1M -
Violet 7 7 - -
Gray 8 8 - -
White 9 9 - -
Gold x 0.1 5%
Silver x 0.01 10%
None 20%
Example: Red, Black, Orange, Gold 20kΩ±5%

OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s Law states “the current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to its resistance”. To express Ohm’s law mathematically,

I = V/R ; V = IR ; R = V/I

Where: I – Current (A)

V – Voltage (V)
 R – Resistance (Ω)

Power and Electrical Energy

Power

Power is a measure of how much work can be performed in a given amount of time.
Work is generally defined in terms of the lifting of a weight against the pull of gravity. The
heavier the weight or the higher it is lifted, the more work has been done. Power is measure of
how rapidly a standard amount of work is done.

Power (P) is exactly equal to current (I) multiplied by voltage(V). when using this
formula, the unit of measurement for power is the watt, abbreviated with the letter “W”.

1HP = 746 Watts

1 watt = 1 Joule/second

P = V x I (watts or W)

Power Dissipation

When a current flows through a component, that component will heat up. This process is
called power dissipation and is measured in Watts. It is of the rate at which energy is dissipated
or lost from an electrical system. When an electric current does work on a conductor, the internal
energy of that conductor increases, causing its temperature to rise above the ambient
temperature. This causes energy to dissipate away from the conductor into the surroundings,
through the process of heat transfer. The rate of this heat transfer (joules per second) is termed
‘power dissipation’. The power dissipation of a device can be calculated very easily.

P = I2 R; P=VxI

Electrical Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where

1 Wh = 3600J

W = P x t (kilowatt-hour or kWh)

Kilowatt hours (kWh) represent the estimated amount of energy an electrical appliance consumes
in one hour, but can also be extended to estimate energy consumption over longer period of time.