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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
You Be The Chemist Challenge Study Materials

I. SCIENCE—A WAY OF THINKING

What Is Science? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Scientific Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Designing an Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Theories and Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

II. MEASUREMENT
Certainty in Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Types of Physical Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Converting Metric Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

III. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Types of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Physical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chemical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Energy Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Types of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Physical and Chemical Separations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

IV. ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Elements and Chemical Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

V. THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTION

Arrangement of Elements on the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Elemental Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Periodic Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Electron Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
You Be The Chemist Challenge Study Materials

VI. CHEMICAL BONDING AND FORMULAS

Lewis Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Writing Chemical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chemical Formulas of Common Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Naming Chemical Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Intramolecular Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Types of Chemical Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Lewis Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

VII. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Visualizing Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Energy of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Rates of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Types of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Acids, Bases, and pHs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

VIII. RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 8
Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 1
Human-made Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 3

IX. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

Basic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Measuring Liquid Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Measuring Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Measuring Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Measuring Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Transferring Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Heating Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

X. LABORATORY & CHEMICAL SAFETY

Where to Find Chemical Safety Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 0
Warning Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Protective Equipment Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
General Safety Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 2 Study Materials

 SECTION I:
SCIENCE—A WAY OF THINKING
OBJECTIVES
• Identify key components of scientific inquiry and the scientific method.
• Distinguish between different types of variables in a scientific experiment.
• Distinguish between theories and laws.

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Science is a systematic way of learning about the world by collecting information. It is a way of thinking that helps people understand
and gain knowledge about the world around them. You have probably thought like a scientist to solve problems and answer questions.
You probably began with a thought like “I wonder why this happens.” People are curious by nature, and science helps people find answers
to questions or further understand their surroundings.

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
Scientific inquiry refers to the different ways that scientists explore the world. It is the way scientists have come to understand so
much and how they can continue to learn. The scientific method is a way to conduct scientific inquiry. Keep in mind, the scientific
method is a simplified introduction to the real-world scientific process. All of these steps are used by scientists but in many
combinations along with other important scientific practices. There are many ways to explore science, so different books, websites,
and documents describe the scientific method and scientific inquiry in different ways. The scientific method includes the following
basic practices, which are all a part of scientific inquiry:

• Observation
• Research
• Hypothesis Quick Fact
• Experiment Scientist Carl Sagan once said,
“Science is a way of thinking
• Data collection & analysis
much more than it is a
• Conclusion body of facts.”
• Communication of ideas and results

OBSERVATION 
Scientific inquiry usually begins with an observation. Scientists explore and collect information with their senses using wafting (smell,
sight, sound, and touch) and ask questions that they would like to answer. The sense of taste should NOT be used in scientific inquiry
involving unknown substances. Scientific questions guide scientists in their research and can usually be answered by collecting
evidence. A scientific question must have a specific correct answer that is provable through direct observation or scientific
experimentation.

EXAMPLE:
Observation: You pour hot water into an ice cube tray and place the tray in the freezer. When you check
the freezer a bit later, you notice that the hot water seemed to form ice cubes faster than you expected.
Question: I wonder if hot water and cold water freeze at different rates. Will one take longer to freeze
than the other?

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 SECTION I: SCIENCE—A WAY OF THINKING

RESEARCH 
After asking a question based on their observations, scientists do background research on the Quick Fact
topic they’re investigating. Many scientists and students spend time reading papers and books Not all questions are scientific
on past research before beginning their own experiments. Often they will find that other questions. If you ask someone what the
scientists have conducted experiments that try to answer a similar question. Scientists will best meal is on a menu, the answer you
research the methods used in past research to help inform their own experimental design and get will be an opinion. It is not based
to learn from the experiences of other scientists. on evidence. A scientific question is
answered using evidence.
Scientists do research on the topic they’re investigating throughout the entire scientific inquiry
process. After they have completed their own experiment, they may conduct research to compare their
results to the results from other, similar experiments.

When doing research, scientists have to make sure the information they use is from credible (trustworthy) sources.

EXAMPLE:
Your friend writes a paper on why they think dinosaurs went extinct without doing any research. On
the other hand, a team of 10 scientists studied the earth and the bones of dinosaurs for years and
wrote a paper on their findings, which was reviewed critically by another team of scientists. The paper
written by the team of scientists is considered to be more credible.

When conducting research, it is also important to look for gaps or errors in prior findings and research. There are often several
explanations for why something happens. If only one factor is tested in an experiment or only one factor is included in an explanation,
the results will only reflect part of the answer.

EXAMPLE:
A group of scientists conducts an experiment to determine whether 5th grade students learn better
when they work in groups or when they work individually, and find that the students learn better
when working individually. When you review their research, you notice that they conducted their
experiment at an all-boys school. Would the answer be different if girls were included in the
experiment?

Even so, the experiment gives useful information. It may also lead other scientists to conduct new
experiments. For example, another scientist might ask: do young boys and young girls learn
differently?

HYPOTHESIS 
With a question in mind, scientists state clearly what they plan to test during their experiment. This statement is called a hypothesis, which
is a predicted answer to a scientific question or an educated guess that may explain an observation. A hypothesis guides the experiment.

EXAMPLE:
Hypothesis: If containers of hot and cold liquid water are put in a freezer, the hot water will freeze
(form ice cubes) faster than the cold water.

A scientific hypothesis must be testable. For example, the hypothesis above can be tested by conducting an experiment that measures
the time it takes for ice cubes to form from water starting at different temperatures.

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 SECTION I: SCIENCE—A WAY OF THINKING

EXPERIMENT 
After making a hypothesis, scientists design and conduct an experiment. Scientists must be sure to design the experiment so that only
one factor is tested at a time (you will see this in the next section on Designing an Experiment - page 6). This way, scientists will know that
their results are directly related to the one factor that was changed. If the experiment is not designed carefully, the results may be confusing
and will not help to assess the hypothesis. Designing an experiment can be tricky and it may take several tries to get it right. Scientists
frequently design and conduct an experiment and then go back and conduct additional research before changing their experimental
design.

EXAMPLE:
To test your hypothesis about the effect of temperature on the rate at which
ice cubes form, there are a few factors you must first consider: Quick Fact
• How soon after you measure the temperature should the water go into The example provides possible
the freezer? problems to consider for the
experiment. These problems can
• Should the amount of water you use each time be consistent?
help identify variables that
• Should you get water from the same source (such as a kitchen sink or a should be controlled.
bottle of water) each time?

DATA COLLECTION & ANALYSIS 

Data are pieces of information collected before, during, and after an experiment. It is important to keep detailed notes and to record all
data collected throughout the scientific inquiry process so that it can be analyzed to determine results and referenced to support
conclusions. Sometimes data make more sense in a graph or as a picture. Scientists may choose to record data on a table and then put
the information into a graph.

Scientists make sure that they collect accurate data so their results will be trustworthy. In addition to carefully collecting data in a controlled
experiment, scientists must repeat an experiment multiple times to ensure they can obtain the same results each time before those results
are considered reliable by the scientific community.

EXAMPLE:
To conduct your experiment, you set up 2 cups of water at different temperatures. You measure the
temperature of the first cup of water and record a measurement of 25 °C in your notebook. Likewise,
you determine that the temperature of the second cup is 55 °C and record this measurement. You also
make a note that you should compare the results to water at other temperatures, such as 35 °C and
45 °C. As you conduct your experiment, you write down the amount of time it takes for each cup of
water to freeze and any other observations that you make. Then, you organize the data in a graph that
illustrates the freezing time in relation to the starting temperature. You also repeat the experiment
to make sure that your results can be reproduced, which indicates that others can trust your data.

CONCLUSION 
If the hypothesis was testable and the experiment gives clear data, a conclusion can be made based on data. A conclusion is a statement
that tells whether or not the hypothesis was correct and explains how the data and observations support or disprove the hypothesis.

• If the data support the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is considered to have been verified.
• If the data do not support the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is considered to have been refuted.
Scientists learn something from both valid and invalid hypotheses. A new hypothesis can be made or adjusted if they want to continue
investigating the scientific question. Both valid and invalid hypotheses lead to scientific learning.

EXAMPLE:
Based on your data, you can say whether or not hot water freezes faster than cold water. If your data
show that hot water freezes faster than cold water, your hypothesis is valid. If your data show that cold
water freezes faster than hot water, your hypothesis is invalid. Even if your hypothesis is invalid, you
can still form a conclusion based on your data.

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 SECTION I: SCIENCE—A WAY OF THINKING

COMMUNICATION 
Scientists will often report their findings in journals or speeches to tell others what they have Quick Fact
learned. They may create diagrams or other images to show their results. Communication is very Although people have begun to
important! It gives other people a chance to learn more. It also allows scientists to improve their use data as a singular noun
own experiments when other people comment on the results. meaning “information,” data is
actually a collective term. It is
EXAMPLE: the plural form of
You make a poster for the school science fair that explains your experiment “datum.”
and shows your results. People will look at it, ask questions, and possibly make
suggestions. They will be able to learn from what you did. They may also want to
know what you plan to do with this information. Will this information change the way you
make ice?

DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT
Scientists need to figure out a plan for testing a hypothesis. To do this, they design an experiment. Scientists have to be careful to change
only one factor of their experiment at a time so that they know that the results are related to the one factor that was altered. If an
experiment tests more than one factor at the same time, scientists may not be able to determine which factor actually impacted the
results. When designing an experiment, scientists must identify the variables and controls.

EXAMPLE:
A student wants to test the hypothesis about water temperature and freezing rates. To do this, the
student must keep everything in the experiment the same while changing only the initial temperature
of the water. If the student places the water cups in different areas of the freezer, one may freeze faster
simply because its spot in the freezer is colder. Without keeping other aspects of the experiment the
same, the student will not be able collect reliable data.

VARIABLES 
Factors that can be changed and controlled in an experiment are known as variables. In an experiment, scientists can see how changes
they make to the independent variable affect the dependent variable.

• Independent variable: the variable scientists change in the experiment. This is also known as the manipulated variable.
• Dependent variable: the variable scientists observe or measure to see if it is affected by a change in the independent
variable. This is also known as the responding variable.

EXAMPLE:
A student wants to test the hypothesis about water temperature and freezing rates. The independent
variable is the initial water temperature, because the student will vary the starting temperatures of the
water samples. The dependent variable is time, because the student will observe how the amount of
time it takes for ice to form changes based on the starting temperature of the water.

EXAMPLE:
A student wants to explore how changing the temperature of a gas affects how much space it
occupies. The student will measure the new volume of the gas each time the temperature is changed.
The temperature is the independent variable. The volume is the dependent variable.

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 SECTION I: SCIENCE—A WAY OF THINKING

Data collected during an experiment can often be plotted on a graph. The independent variable is plotted on the x-axis (horizontal
axis). The dependent variable is plotted on the y-axis (vertical axis). This graph shows the relationship between the temperature and
volume of a gas.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TEMPERATURE & VOLUME OF A GAS

1.2 -
1.0 - •
0.8 -
•
Volume (L) •
0.6 -
•
0.4 -
•
0.2 -
0.0 -0 100 200 300 400 500

Temperature (K)

Graphing data can help to explain the results of an experiment. You can see in the graph above that as the student increased the
temperature of the gas (independent variable), the volume of the gas (dependent variable) also increased.

CONTROLS 
A controlled experiment is an experiment in which all conditions except one are held constant. Controlled experiments eliminate confusion
about the outcome because only one factor is changed at a time.

Often an experiment may have two or more different setups. An experimental setup is one arrangement of materials in the overall
experimental design. If nothing is changed in one of those setups, it is called the control group (also known as the control). The control
group helps you understand what happens when you don’t make any changes (when the setup is left alone). In the other setups, or
experimental groups, the independent variable is changed. Control groups and experimental groups are set up exactly the same except
for one variable. After an experiment, scientists can compare the data from the different setups.

EXAMPLE:
Different types of paint are used on the outside of three identical boxes. A student wants to know what
type of paint will cause the inside of the box to heat up the fastest when placed in the sun.

One setup is a box with a water-based paint on the outside. Another setup is a box with an
oil-based paint. A third setup is a box with no paint. The control group in this experiment is the box with
no paint on the outside. After the experiment, the student compares the results from the unpainted
box (control group) to the results of the painted boxes (experimental group)

Controlled variables, also sometimes known as constants, are things that should not change during an experiment in the experimental
groups. Experiments often have many controlled variables to make sure that the comparisons being made are meaningful.

EXAMPLE:
In the previous example, a controlled variable would be the type of box used in the experiment. All the
boxes should be made of the same material. What if one box was made of wood and another box was
made of metal? The type of box would not be controlled and as a result, any differences in temperature
observed could be a result of the paint but could also be a result of the box material. The student would
not be able to make any reliable conclusions about which factor affected the temperature.

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 SECTION I: SCIENCE—A WAY OF THINKING

SCIENTIFIC THEORIES AND LAWS

Even after scientists make a conclusion and communicate it to others, their work is still not done. Scientists can conduct similar
experiments to collect more data. Experimenting helps scientists understand their original observations. However, answering one
question usually leads to more questions. At this point, scientists can design new experiments to explain why something happened
or to answer another related question. They will collect new data with each experiment. They can then combine and compare all of
that data. Sometimes the information can be used to develop a theory or a law.

SCIENTIFIC THEORY: an explanation of an event or phenomenon that is well supported by data. Theories
have the following things in common:
• Scientific theories have been accepted as true by the global scientific community. They are well supported by observations,
experimentation, and data. They are not facts and may change if new information becomes available, but are treated
as fact until contradicting evidence is found.
• To become a scientific theory, an idea must be tested over and over, producing the same results.
• Theories are scientifically accepted explanations of why something occurs. They can be used to predict the results of future
observations.
• Examples of scientific theories include the Theory of Relativity, the Kinetic Molecular Theory, and the Theory of Evolution.

SCIENTIFIC LAW: a description of a natural event or phenomenon shown to occur again and again under
the same conditions. Scientific laws describe the observed pattern without trying to explain it.
• Laws are usually accepted as true and universal. They are well supported by observations, experimentation, and data.
• Still, scientific laws can be challenged and possibly disproven. However, disproving a scientific law is very rare. It is more
likely that a law will become part of a broader theory or another law.
• Laws generally state that a particular event or thing will always occur if certain conditions are met.
• Many scientific laws can predict events and phenomena so well that they are expressed as mathematical equations.
• Examples of laws include the Law of Conservation of Energy, Newton’s Laws of Motion, and the Ideal Gas Law.

NOTES

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 8 Study Materials

 SECTION II:
MEASUREMENT
OBJECTIVES
• Demonstrate the difference between accuracy and precision.
• Identify common physical properties.
• Explain the difference between mass and weight.
• Work with metric prefixes.
• Perform simple conversions between metric units.
• Write large and small numbers in scientific notation.

Scientists use many skills as they investigate the world around them. They make observations by gathering information with their senses.
Some observations are simple, like figuring out the color or texture of an object. However, if scientists want to know more about a substance,
they may need to take measurements. Measurements provide scientists with a quantity. A quantity describes how much of something there
is or how many of something there are. For example, if scientists want to know how long an object is, they will take a measurement and
get a specific quantity that describes the length of the object. Measurements require tools. In this case, a ruler is required to figure out
an object’s length.

CERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
Scientists can use accuracy and precision to describe the quality of their measurements.

• Accuracy: refers to how close a measured value is to the true measurement (true value) of something.
• Precision: refers to the ability to take the same measurement and get the same result over
and over.

EXAMPLE:
A team of scientists from the National Institute for Standards and
Quick Fact
Technology (NIST) measures a baseball that was used to set a major
Precision is easier to
league home run record. They determine that its mass is 146 grams. determine. You can see how close
They measure the ball multiple times, getting the same result each one measurement is to another.
time (demonstrating their equipment is precise). The NIST scientists Accuracy is more difficult
write a report stating they think 146 grams is an accurate value. The because scientists might want
NIST team uses reliable equipment. The value of 146 grams is accepted to measure things that are
by the scientific (and baseball!) community as accurate. not already known.

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 SECTION II: MEASUREMENT

EXAMPLE: Think
The famous baseball is part of a Major League Baseball exhibit. About It...
The exhibit across the country. While in Arizona, a professor at The university professor may not have the
a university is given permission to measure the ball’s mass. She reputation that NIST does. However, the
measures its mass three times. She records the following— difference between the measurements (144 g and
141.02 grams, 141.99 grams, and 141.01 grams. All her 146 g) is large. What could be the reason? Have they
measurements were within a 0.03 g range each time. Therefore, checked their measurement equipment? Could the
her measurements have high precision. However, the accepted atmosphere or humidity in the different locations
mass is 146 grams so her measurements of the mass of the make a difference? These questions could
baseball are not considered accurate. lead to a hypothesis and a new
experiment!

TYPES OF PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS

Scientists take many different types of measurements depending on what they wish to learn.

MASS: a measure of the quantity (or amount) of material in a substance. The mass of an object
affects how difficult it is to change the object’s speed or direction of motion.

• Mass is usually measured with a balance or balance scale (see the Laboratory Equipment
section - page 104).
• To determine the mass of an object, the object is compared to another object with a
mass that is known.
• Scientists measure mass in kilograms (kg) or grams (g).
Quick Fact
Mass vs. Weight:
WEIGHT: a measure of the pull of gravity between an object and the earth
Most of us know how much our body weighs.
(or the planets, sun, etc.). Therefore, weight is actually a measure of force.
Now, we have learned that this measurement is
• Weight is usually measured on a weighing scale or spring scale. different from our body’s mass. The gravity on Earth
• Scientists measure weight in Newtons (N). This is the same unit gives us a certain weight. Other places, like the surface of
that is used to measure force. the moon, have a different gravitational force. A person’s
weight on the moon is much lower (one-sixth of his/her
• In the U.S. customary units system, people often measure weight
weight on the earth) because the moon has a lower
in pounds (lbs).
gravitational force. However, a person’s mass does
• Weight is not the same as mass but the two measurements are not depend on gravity. Therefore, mass doesn’t
related. Two pennies have twice as much mass as one penny and change with location. It is the same on
twice as much weight, too! the earth as it is on the moon.
• The strength of gravity’s pull on an object depends on distance and mass.
As mass changes, weight changes. As the distance between the objects
changes, weight changes.
– Mass is proportional to weight. Proportional means that they change at a constant rate. Weight is related to mass by
the equation W = m x g, where m is mass and g is acceleration due to gravity. The value of g on Earth when
determining weight in Newtons (the SI unity of force) is a constant value of 9.8 m/s2.

WEIGHT ON OTHER PLANETS

The table below shows approximately what a person who weighs 100 pounds on Earth
(and has a mass of 45.4 kg) would weigh on other planets:
Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Weight (in pounds) 38 88 100 38 235 105 89 120

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LENGTH: a measure of how long an object is or the distance an object spans.

• Length may be measured using a meter stick, ruler, or tape measure. Depending on the object, scientists may need to
use other more complicated instruments.
• Scientists use the meter (m) as the standard unit for measuring length.

VOLUME: the amount of space that matter occupies or takes up.

• Scientists measure volume in units of liters (L) or cubic centimeters (cm3 or cc). One cubic centimeter is equal to
one milliliter (mL).
• Volume can be measured in different ways (see the Laboratory Equipment section - page 104).
– To find the volume of a liquid, you can simply pour the liquid into a graduated cylinder.

– To determine the volume of a rectangular solid, follow the steps below:

1. Measure the length, width, and height of the solid. Write down your results for each of these measurements.
2. Multiply your three measurements together. This product is the volume of the solid.
Volume (V) = length (l) × width (w) × height (h)
V=l×w×h

EXAMPLE:
The length, width, and height of the box below are each 1 cm.
Quick Fact
If you multiply these numbers (1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm), you get a One thousand cubic
volume measurement of 1 cm3. centimeters (cm3)
equals one liter (L).
1,000 cm3 = 1 L
1 cm

1 cm

1 cm Quick Fact
When you multiply measurements
together, their units are also multiplied.
Likewise, if you have a box that has a length of 2 cm, a width Volume has the units of cm3 because the
of 1 cm, and a height of 4 cm, what is its volume? length, width, and height use
centimeters:
V=l×w×h
cm × cm × cm = cm3
V = 2 cm × 1 cm × 4 cm
V = 8 cm3

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TEMPERATURE: a measure of the average kinetic energy (energy of motion) of Quick Fact
particles of matter. A simple way to think of temperature is as a measure of how fast the Most people think of temperature as
particles are moving around in a substance. A higher temperature means that there is more a measurement of hot and cold. To
energy, so particles are able to move faster. scientists, temperature measures the kinetic
• A device that measures temperature is called a thermometer. energy of molecules in a material. Molecules
with high kinetic energy have high
• Scientists generally measure temperature in degrees
temperatures. They are said to be hot.
Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K).
Molecules with low kinetic energy have
• The Kelvin temperature scale is actually a shifted low temperatures and are said to
Celsius scale that includes absolute zero (0 K). If you be cold.
want to convert a Celsius temperature into Kelvin, Think
you just add the number 273.15 to the Celsius About It...
temperature. In degrees Celsius, the freezing
– Normal room temperature is considered to be point of water is 0 °C, while the
about 25 °C. That temperature in Kelvin is boiling point is 100 °C. What are
about 298 K. The answer is derived using the the freezing and boiling points
calculation: 25 °C + 273.15 = 298.15 K = 278 K of water in Kelvin?
adjusting for significant figures.

• Fahrenheit is the temperature scale commonly used in the

United States. Degrees Fahrenheit can be calculated from Celsius
using a conversion formula.

FORMULAS:
[K] = [°C] + 273.15 K = Kelvin: the metric scale for absolute
temperature

[°F] = (1.8 x [°C]) + 32 °F = degrees Fahrenheit: scale generally

used in the United States
[°F] – 32
1.8
[°C] = °C = degrees Celsius: the metric scale for
temperature

DENSITY: the amount of matter per unit of volume. Density measures how much Think
matter occupies a given amount of space. An object that is very dense is very
compact, so it has a large number of particles in a confined amount of space.
About It...
Are 100 grams of potatoes and 100
• Density gives the relationship between two measurements: grams of marshmallows the same size?
mass and volume. A higher density means that there is more mass per They have the same mass, but the potatoes
unit of space. will take up much less space than the
mass (m) m marshmallows. So, do they have
volume (v) v different densities? If so, which
Density (D) = or D =
has the greater density?
• To calculate density, you must find the mass and volume of the substance.
Scientists usually use kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3), grams per milliliter
(g/mL), or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3 or g/cc) to measure density depending on
the substance.

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EXAMPLE: Quick Fact

Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3 at 20 °C. Therefore, 19.3 grams Density changes with temperature and is
of gold take up 1 cubic centimeter. Likewise, 1 cubic often reported with the temperature at which it
centimeter of gold has a mass of 19.3 grams. was measured. For example pure water has a density
of 1.0 g/mL at 4 °C.
On the other hand, water has a density of only about 1 g/cm3
at 4 °C. Therefore, 1 cubic centimeter of water has a mass of In general, when temperature increases, the atoms in a
1 gram. At 20 °C, the density of water is 0.998 g/cm3. substance move farther apart, and the substance
becomes less dense. When temperature decreases,
Air has an even lower density. The density of air at 20 °C is the substance becomes denser. Water, however,
only 0.0013 g/cm3. is an exception. The density of an ice
cube at 0 °C is 0.917 g/mL.

• How you measure density will depend on the type of substance you are measuring.
To measure the density of a liquid, you can follow the steps below:
1. Place an empty graduated cylinder on a balance (see the Laboratory Equipment section - page 104).
Write down your measurement. Then, remove the graduated cylinder from the balance.
2. Pour some of your liquid into the graduated cylinder. Write down the volume of the liquid.
3. Place the graduated cylinder with the liquid inside on the balance. Write down your new
measurement. You don’t want to spill any liquid on your balance.
4. Determine the mass of the liquid. You can do this by subtracting the mass of the empty
graduated cylinder from the mass of the graduated cylinder and liquid together.
5. Plug your measurements of mass and volume into the density equation to calculate the
liquid’s density.

• To measure the density of a solid, you can do the following:

1. Place your solid on a balance. Write down its mass.
Quick Fact
2. Measure the volume of the solid. If it is a rectangular solid, you A substance with a density greater than
can use the calculation on page 11. If the solid has an irregular
pure water will usually sink in pure water.
shape, you will need to use a displacement method (see the
A substance with a density less than pure water
Laboratory Equipment section - page 104). Write down your
will float.
measurement.
3. Plug your measurements of mass and volume into the density Likewise, liquids that are immiscible (do not mix)
equation on page 12 to calculate the density. can be layered based on their densities. If oil is
poured into a cup with vinegar, the oil will
rest on the top because it is less dense
than vinegar.

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PRESSURE: the amount of force exerted per unit area. Force is the Quick Fact
amount of push or pull on an object. Area is a measure of the size of a

p= =
Force F
surface, the amount of space inside the
boundary of a flat (2-dimensional)
Area A
object. You can find the area of a
• Many forces affect people and objects on the earth. rectangle by multiplying its length
These forces include gravity and magnetism. by its width.
• Force and pressure are related, but they are not the same Area = length × width
thing.
• Air pressure is usually measured with a barometer or a
Quick Fact
manometer. Atmospheric or air
pressure is exerted on a surface
• Scientists commonly use the following units to measure
by the weight of the air above
pressure: Pascals (Pa), atmospheres (atm), torrs (torr),
that surface.
millimeters of mercury (mmHg). The US customary unit
for pressure is pounds per square inch (psi). Quick Fact
Air pressure on the earth changes with
altitude. At sea level, the air pressure is
ENERGY: a measure of the ability to do work or generate heat. about 1 atm or 14.7 pounds per square inch.
• There are many different forms of energy. Some of these forms This means that every square inch of our bodies
are mechanical energy, chemical energy, and thermal energy. has almost fifteen pounds (the weight of a
heavy bowling ball) pushing on it. At higher
• Just like there are many forms of energy, there are also many
altitudes, air pressure drops, so people
different ways of measuring energy changes.
living in high places have less
• Some common units that scientists use to measure energy pressure on them.
changes are Joules (J), calories (cal), and electron volts (eV).

Quick Fact
A calorie is not a physical object;
it is a unit of energy. Most people are familiar with
nutritional calories (food calories). A food with a lot of
calories is able to supply a lot of energy, while a low-
calorie food cannot. The more physical work people do
(like running marathons), the more calories they need in
their food.
Food calories and scientific calories are measured
differently. Each calorie listed on a Nutrition Facts
food label is actually a kilocalorie (kcal) or
1,000 scientific calories. That’s a lot
of energy!

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MEASUREMENT
The table below summarizes the measurements and corresponding units described on the previous pages.

U.S Customary Units

Measure What It Measures Scientific Units (Old English Units)

Mass The amount of matter in an object Kilograms (kg), grams (g) Pounds, stones

Length How long an object is or Meters (m) Inches, feet, miles

the distance an object spans

Volume The amount of space an object Liters (L), cubic meters (m3), Pints, quarts, gallons
occupies cubic centimeters (cm3 or cc)

Temperature The average kinetic energy of particles Degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K) Degrees Fahrenheit (°F)

Density Ratio of mass to volume for an object Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3), Pounds per cubic inch
grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3),
grams per milliliter (g/mL)

Pressure The amount of force per unit area Pascals (Pa), atmospheres (atm), Pounds per square inch (psi)
torrs (torr), millimeters of mercury (mmHg)

Energy The ability to do work or generate heat Joules (J), calories (cal), electron volts (eV) British Thermal Units (BTU)

Physical measurements can typically be classified in two different groups:

Quick Fact
• Extrinsic (extensive) properties: properties that change based on the amount The data that scientists gather from all
of substance present. Mass is an example of an extrinsic property. The larger of these measurements are quantitative.
an object, the more mass it has. Quantitative data give you amounts. They
• Intrinsic (intensive) properties: properties that do not change based on the deal with numbers and tell you how much or
amount present. Density is an example of an intrinsic property. Pure water how many. On the other hand, qualitative
in a bucket and pure water in a large pool have the same density. data give you descriptions. For example,
they tell you what smell something
has or what color it is.

NOTES

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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Scientists often use a system of measurement known as the metric system. The metric system was developed in France in the 1790s and
was the first standardized system of measurement. Before that time, people used many different systems of measurement.

In 1960, the metric system was revised, simplified, and renamed. The updated system was called the Système International d’Unites
(International System of Units) or SI system. However, the SI system is still commonly called the metric system. This system is widely
used in almost every country around the world, except for the United States. The United States uses the U.S. customary units system
(inches, quarts, etc.).

When scientists take measurements, they use the SI system. The system allows scientists to easily convert between large and small
numbers.

In the SI system, each unit of measure has a base unit. The seven base units of the SI system are:

Measure Base Unit

Length Meter (m)
Mass Kilogram (kg)
Time Second (s)
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Amount of a substance Mole (mol)
Electric current Ampere (A)
Luminous intensity Candela (cd)

Of these base units, the first three (meter, kilogram, second) are called the primary units.

Some things scientists want to measure may be very large. Other things may be very small. To work with either extremely large or
small numbers, scientists use metric prefixes. The table below lists some common prefixes and the quantities they represent:

Prefix Symbol Numerical Value

tera– T 1012 (1,000,000,000,000)
giga– G 109 (1,000,000,000)
mega– M 106 (1,000,000)
kilo– k 103 (1,000) Quick Fact
The prefix “deca–” may also be
hecto– h 102 (100)
written as “deka–.” The SI spelling is
deca– da 101 (10) deca–, but the U.S. National Institute of
(no prefix) -- 100 (1) Standards and Technology (NIST) uses deka–.
deci– d 10-1 (0.1) While spellings of the prefixes may be
centi– c 10-2 (0.01) different in different countries, the
symbols stay the same. Therefore,
milli– m 10-3 (0.001)
a decaliter or dekaliter is
micro– µ 10-6 (0.000001) always daL.
nano– n 10-9 (0.000000001)
pico– p 10-12 (0.000000000001)

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Prefixes can be added to base units. Prefixes make the value of the unit larger or smaller. For example, one kilometer is 1,000
meters. One millimeter is 0.001 meters.

• Multipliers: prefixes greater than one, such as deca–, kilo–, and giga–.

• Fractions: prefixes less than one, such as deci–, milli–, and nano–.

New scientific instruments have allowed scientists to measure even smaller and larger amounts. Additional prefixes have been
added over the years, such as zepto– (10-21) and yotta– (1024).

EXAMPLE:
If you lined up 1,000 meter sticks from end to end, the full measurement would be 1,000 meters
(or 1 kilometer). The kilometer unit is useful for describing long measurements. For example, the
distance between Chicago and New York City is approximately 1,300 kilometers.

On the other hand, the average diameter of a human hair is only about 110 millionths of a meter.
A micrometer is 1 millionth of a meter. Therefore, the diameter of a human hair is about 110
micrometers (or 110 microns). Micrometers are also commonly referred to as microns.

Other SI units have been developed using the seven base units. The table below lists some common derived units:

Measurement Derived Unit Base Units Derived Unit Symbol

Volume Liter 10-3 × m3 L
Force Newton kg × m/s2 N
Energy, work Joule N× m J
Pressure Pascal N/m2 Pa
Power Watt J/s W
Electric potential Volt W/A V
Resistance Ohm V/A
Frequency Hertz 1/s Hz

EXAMPLE:
You would like to figure out the force needed to move a toy car. Force is
derived from measures of mass and acceleration. The equation is F = m x a. Quick Fact
You know the car’s mass is 200 grams (0.2 kg). You also know that you want A large electric eel can
it to accelerate at 3 m/s2. You then insert those numbers into the equation: produce an electric shock
F = 0.2 kg × 3 m/s2. You get an answer of 0.6 Newtons, so 0.6 Newtons are of up to 650 volts at one
needed to move the car. ampere.

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CONVERTING METRIC UNITS

Scientists need to be able to quickly convert measurements between large and small values. The metric system makes conversion
simple because prefixes are based on groups of ten.

EXAMPLE:
A person with a headache looks at two bottles of aspirin. One bottle says it has 100 mg of aspirin in
each tablet. The other says it has 0.01 g of aspirin in each tablet. Which tablet contains more aspirin?
To figure this out, you can covert the amounts into the same units. "Start by converting the mass of
aspirin in the second bottle of tablets to mg as follows:

1,000 mg
0.01 g × = 10 mg
1g

Thus each tablet in the second bottle contains 10 mg of aspirin. Now we know that the first bottle
contains tablets with 100 mg of aspirin, and the second bottle contains tablets with only 10 mg of
aspirin. Therefore, the 100 mg tablet contains more aspirin than the 0.01 g tablet.

Quick Fact
Here’s a trick to converting metric units:
To change from one prefix to another, look at the exponents for those
prefixes. Subtract the exponent for the first prefix from the exponent for the second
prefix. Then, move the decimal point that number of places to the right or left, as
appropriate. Move right to go from larger to smaller units. Move left to go from smaller to
larger units. Finally, fill in with zeros if necessary.

For example, to change centimeters (10-2) to millimeters (10-3), the difference between the
exponents is one. Therefore, you would move the decimal one place. You’ll move right to go from
the larger centimeter to the smaller millimeter.
1.0 cm = 10.0 mm

To change micrograms (10-6) to milligrams (10-3), the difference between the exponents
is three. Therefore, you would move the decimal three places. This time, you’ll move
left to go from smaller to larger units.
1.0 μg = 0.001 mg
1 microgram = 0.001 milligrams
(or one thousandth of a milligram)

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SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Scientific notation is the method scientists use to quickly write very large or very small numbers.

STEPS FOR LARGE NUMBERS

The speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000,000 m/s. Instead of writing all those zeros, scientists use scientific notation.

1. Write the number as a simple multiplication problem with the first number being
≥ 1 and <10 and the second number being a multiple of the base 10.

300,000,000 m/s = 3 × 100,000,000 m/s Quick Fact

Halley’s Comet is visible from the earth
2. Write the last number above (the one followed by eight zeros) every 75–76 years. Scientists estimate that
as an exponent using the number 10 as your base number. the mass of the comet is approximately
For example, 102 = 100 or 103 = 1,000. 220,000,000,000,000 kilograms. In scientific
notation, the mass is written as 2.2 × 1014 kg.
3. Rewrite the number using steps 1 and 2. As you can tell, it is much quicker
300,000,000 m/s = 3 × 100,000,000 m/s = 3 × 10 m/s 8 to write the mass in scientific notation.
It’s much easier to read that
Thus the speed of light in a vacuum is 3 x 108 m/s in scientific notation. Other numbers can be way too!
written in scientific notation. For example, the number of feet in a mile (5,280) would be:

5,280 ft = 5.28 × 1,000 ft = 5.28 × 103 ft

When using scientific notation, scientists write one number before the decimal point and all other numbers after the decimal point.

QUICK STEPS FOR LARGE AND SMALL NUMBERS

Scientific notation can be as easy as counting. First, move the decimal in the appropriate direction to give a number ≥1 and <10.
Move the decimal to the left for large numbers and to the right for small numbers. Then, count the number of places the decimal
moved to figure out the correct exponent.

QUICK STEPS EXAMPLE FOR LARGE NUMBERS

Using the feet per mile example—5,280 feet:

1. Move the decimal to the left, so it appears immediately after the first number—5.28.

2. Since you moved the decimal three places to the left, write the exponent as 103.

3. Therefore, 5,280 feet is written in scientific notation as 5.28 × 103 ft.

NOTES

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STEPS FOR SMALL NUMBERS

Small numbers can be written in scientific notation using a similar process. For example, the average size of grass pollen is 0.000025
meters.

1. Write the number as a simple division problem with the numerator being ≥ 1 and <10
and the deniminator being a multiple of the base 10.
2.5
0.000025 m = m
100,000 Quick Fact
A normal red blood cell has an
2. Write the number in the denominator (bottom) as an exponent.
6 μm and 8 μm. These numbers can
average width (diameter) between
Again, you’ll use the number 10 as the base for the exponent.
For example: 102 = 100 or 103 = 1,000.
be written as 6 × 10-6 m and 8 × 10-6 m.
If the size of a person’s red blood
3. Change the division problem to a multiplication problem by
cells falls outside of this range
making the exponent negative. For example: 1/100 = 1/102 = 10-2.
(either larger or smaller), he or she
4. Rewrite the number using steps 1, 2, and 3.
may have an illness.
2.5 2.5
0.000025 m = m = m = 2.5 × 10-5 m
100,000 105

Therefore, we find that grass pollen has a size of 2.5 × 10-5 m.

QUICK STEPS EXAMPLE FOR SMALL NUMBERS

Using the grass pollen example—0.000025 meters:
1. Move the decimal to the right, so it appears immediately after the first number (2.5).
2. Since you moved the decimal five places to the right, write the exponent as 10-5.
3. Therefore, 0.000025 meters is written in scientific notation as 2.5 × 10-5 m.

We also know that this is the same as 25 micrometers. How do we know this? Move the decimal one more place to the right and
adjust your exponent. Now you have 25 × 10-6 meters or 25 micrometers.

NOTES

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 SECTION III:
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
OBJECTIVES
• Classify matter as either a pure substance or a mixture.
• Classify matter into types of mixtures, compounds, and elements.
• Identify the common states of matter and their characteristics.
• Identify and distinguish between physical and chemical properties of matter.
• Differentiate between physical and chemical changes.
• Distinguish between the different phase changes.
• Explain energy as it relates to physical and chemical changes.
• Define the law of conservation of energy.
• Identify and describe types of energy.
• Define and identify several physical and chemical separation processes.

In general terms, chemistry is the study of matter and changes in matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Matter is all around you!

TYPES OF MATTER
Matter can be divided into two main categories:
1. PURE SUBSTANCE: a uniform substance made up of only one type of particle, which can be an element or a compound.
• Pure substances have the same composition and chemical structure throughout.
– Every sample of a certain element generally has the same intrinsic properties as every other sample of that
element, with some exceptions. For example, on a nanoscale, gold may appear purple, black, or red.
– Likewise, every sample of a certain compound generally has the same intrinsic properties as every other
sample of that compound.
• Pure water and carbon dioxide gas are examples of compounds that are pure substances.
2. MIXTURE: two or more pure substances that are combined physically but not chemically.
• A mixture can be classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous.
• The different parts that make up a mixture have different properties. A tossed salad is a Quick Fact
mixture because it is made of different parts—lettuce, carrots, cucumbers, tomatoes, Water that comes out of a kitchen
croutons and dressing. A tossed salad is a heterogeneous mixture because it is not sink is not a pure substance. Tap water
uniform throughout. Salt water is a mixture, too. It is made of salt and water. However, usually contains minerals or other
salt water is a homogeneous mixture, so it looks the same throughout. substances, so tap water is actually a
• The chemical structure (composition) of each part of a mixture stays the same. mixture. Only distilled water contains
Therefore, scientists can separate mixtures into their original parts (see the only water molecules and is
subsection on Physical and Chemical Separations - page 39). considered a pure
substance.
• The different parts of a mixture are arranged randomly.

EXAMPLE:
Salt and water can be combined to form salt water. The properties of the mixture may be different than
the properties of each part. Pure water looks clear, but salt water may look cloudy. However, the chemical
structure of each part in the mixture stays the same. The mixture still contains water (H2O) and salt (NaCl).
Therefore, you can heat the salt water to make the H2O change from a liquid to a gas (see the subsection
on Physical Changes - page 32). The salt in the mixture makes the salt water take longer to boil than pure
water. Still, the pure water will eventually vaporize, leaving the salt behind.

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PURE SUBSTANCES
ELEMENT: a pure substance that cannot be broken down by normal chemical or physical means. Elements are considered the
simplest substances. An element is made of only one type of atom. It is identified by its atomic number (see the Atomic Structure
section - page 41). An element’s atomic number sets it apart from other elements.

• All matter is made up of elements or combinations of elements.

• Allotropes: different forms of the same element in the same physical state of matter.

– Allotropes contain only one type of atom. However, the way that the atoms are arranged is different. Therefore,
the different arrangements of atoms give the allotropes different properties.

– Each allotrope is a pure form of that element.

EXAMPLE:
Two solid allotropes of carbon are graphite (pencil lead) and diamond. They are both solid forms
of carbon. However, graphite is a dark gray, waxy substance. Diamond is a hard, clear substance.
Why are two solid forms of the same element so different? The answer is that the carbon atoms
are arranged in a different pattern.

O
– Only certain elements have allotropes. Some of those elements are carbon, oxygen, tin, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Oxygen has two gaseous allotropes. They are O2 (diatomic oxygen) and O3 (ozone). Two solid allotropes of tin are
gray tin and white tin.

Oxygen was discovered by Swedish chemist Karl Scheele and English chemist
Joseph Priestley. Both discovered oxygen separately and are given credit for the
discovery.

CHARACTERISTICS:

• Makes up two-thirds of the human body by weight, mostly in the form of

water

OXYGEN • Is the most common element in the earth’s crust

Atomic #8 • Is essential for oxidation processes such as respiration, combustion, and
rusting

• Has two gaseous allotropes:

1. Diatomic oxygen (O2): a colorless and odorless gas that makes up 21%
of air by volume. It is often called simply oxygen gas.
2. Ozone (O3): formed by electrical discharges (lightning) or ultraviolet (UV)
radiation that acts on diatomic oxygen in the atmosphere. Ozone forms
a thin protective layer in the upper atmosphere. That layer helps block UV
radiation from reaching the earth’s surface. Therefore, high amounts of
Think ozone in the upper atmosphere are very helpful. In the lower atmosphere
About It... (ground level), high amounts of ozone can be unhealthy.
Look at the element box for
oxygen. Can you identify some Oxygen is a very active element. Most elements combine with oxygen to form
physical properties? What color compounds. Many of those compounds have names ending in “–ite” or “–ate,”
is diatomic oxygen? What about such as nitrites (–NO2) and sulfates (–SO4). Oxygen is the second most
chemical properties? electronegative element. (See the subsection on Periodic Trends - page 59).
Is oxygen reactive?

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SECTION III: CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

According to archaeological findings, tin is one of the first metals used by

humans. Tin has been found in utensils and weapons (in the form of brass) dating
back to 3,500 B.C. The atomic symbol for tin comes from the Latin name
“stannum,” which means tin.

CHARACTERISTICS:

• Is a silvery-white metal with a highly crystalline structure

TIN • Found mainly in the mineral cassiterite (SnO2)

Atomic #50 • Is very malleable and ductile (see the subsection on Types of Chemical
Bonds - page 76)

• Has 10 stable isotopes—the largest number of stable isotopes of any

element (see the subsection on Isotopes - page 44)

• Has two solid allotropes:

1. White tin (beta tin): the familiar silvery-white metallic form. White tin
is stable at and above a normal room temperature.

2. Gray tin (alpha tin): a brittle gray powder. Gray tin is a nonmetal. It
Quick Fact is stable at about 13.2 °C (56 °F).
When a tin bar is bent, the
crystal structure is disrupted. As a Tin resists corrosion from water and air but not from acids or alkalis.
result, a soft crackling sound can Therefore, it is used as a protective coating on other metals. “Tin cans” are
be heard. This sound is known actually made of steel that is coated with tin.
as the tin cry.

COMPOUND: a pure substance made up of two or more elements joined in a defined ratio.
• In nature, most elements are found in combination with other elements. They are found
as compounds.

• Pure water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen atoms bound together in a 2:1 Quick Fact
ratio. The ratio means that 2 hydrogen atoms are joined to 1 oxygen atom. Stannous fluoride (SnF2) is
Therefore, the chemical formula for water is H2O. Other familiar compounds used in some types of toothpaste.
include table salt (NaCl), glucose (C6H12O6), and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). It helps make tooth enamel more resistant
to attacks from acids, such as the citric
• There are millions of different known compounds. Scientists develop and study
new compounds every day.
acid in orange juice.

• A binary compound is made up of two different elements, such as sodium chloride

(NaCl) and carbon dioxide (CO2). A ternary compound is made up of three different
elements, such as glucose (C6H12O6) or silver carbonate (Ag2CO3).

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HISTORY: JOHN DALTON (1766–1844)

John Dalton developed the atomic theory of matter. This theory became the basis for all future models of the atom. Dalton’s four-part
atomic theory states that:

• All matter is made up of indivisible particles called atoms.

• All atoms of a certain element are identical. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
• Chemical reactions involve the combination or rearrangement of atoms, not the destruction of them.
• When elements react to form compounds, they react in defined, whole-number ratios.
In addition to his theory on matter, Dalton conducted studies on gases. Dalton’s studies on gases led him to develop the law
of partial pressures, known as Dalton's Law.

• Dalton’s Law: the total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures of the gases in the
mixture, with each gas acting independently.

Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ...

MIXTURES
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE: a type of mixture that appears uniform throughout. The components are mixed evenly,
so that the composition is consistent throughout. Differences in components of the mixtures are seen at the scale of atoms and
molecules (see Atomic Structure section - page 41).

EXAMPLE:
Apple juice is a homogeneous mixture. The juice at the top of your glass is the
same as in the middle, at the bottom, and in every other part of the glass. Any
sip of the juice should taste the same.

• Brass and bronze are examples of homogeneous mixtures made of metals. They are metal
alloys.
• In liquid or gas form, homogeneous mixtures are usually called solutions).

– Solution: a homogeneous mixture in which one or more substances (solutes) are dissolved in another
substance (solvent). Solutions are made up of elements or compounds mixed together at the molecular level.

– Solute: the substance that is dissolved in the solution. The solute is mixed into the solution completely so that it
seems to almost disappear. The solute is usually the substance that is present in a smaller quantity.

– Solvent: the substance that the solute is dissolved in. The solvent is usually the substance that is present in a
greater quantity.

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EXAMPLE:
Dissolving salt in water creates a saltwater solution. In salt water, the Quick Fact
solvent is water. The solute is salt. Some solutions may have more than If both the solute and solvent exist in equal
one solute dissolved in the solvent. Soda pops are homogeneous quantities, the substance that is more often
mixtures made up of many different solutes. These solutes include used as a solvent is designated as the solvent. For
sugar and carbon dioxide gas. These solutes are all dissolved in example, in a 50% ethanol and 50% water solution,
water (the solvent). water is considered the solvent.
Water is often referred to as a “universal
• Some substances will dissolve more easily than other substances.
solvent” because it dissolves more
– A substance that dissolves in another substance is soluble in that substance. substances than any other liquid.
Salt and ethanol are soluble in water.

– If a substance does not dissolve, it is insoluble. Butter and other lipids are insoluble in
water.

– Just because a substance is soluble in one solvent does not mean it is soluble in all substances. While salt is
soluble in water, it is insoluble in oil.

HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE: a type of mixture in which the components are not mixed evenly or uniformly
distributed throughout. Different samples from the mixture may have different properties and look distinct.

EXAMPLE:
Raisin bran cereal is an example of a heterogeneous mixture. Raisins are
more dense than bran flakes and will tend to settle to the bottom.
Another example of a heterogeneous mixture is beach sand. Surprised?
If you look closely, you’ll be able to tell. You can see different colors from
the different substances (shells, pebbles, etc.) in the beach sand. No two
handfuls of the sand are exactly the same.

Some mixtures are not classified simply as homogeneous or heterogeneous.

COLLOID: a mixture in which minute particles are spread evenly throughout another substance. The particles in a colloid tend to
measure about one micrometer to one nanometer. Because of the tiny size of those particles, some colloids look like solutions, but the
particles in a solution are even smaller than the particles in a colloid. Particles in a solution are more like the size of molecules — think
nano and smaller. You can’t see the difference in size between colloid particles and particles in a solution without a powerful microscope.

• Colloids consist of fine particles of one substance mixed into

another. The fine particles in a colloid are suspended and
dispersed throughout the substance. Quick Fact
• Colloids are classified according to the state of the dispersed A bubble is a single ball of gas in a
particles and the substance in which they are dispersed. liquid. In carbonated drinks, like
soda pop, you can see bubbles of
• Sols: colloids made of fine solid particles in a liquid or CO2 gas in the liquid.
another solid. Quick Fact
– Paints, muddy river water, and sewage are liquid sols. The Tyndall effect is the scattering of
light by colloid particles. It occurs when the
– Pearls, colored glass, and pigmented plastics are solid sols.
particles spread throughout liquid and gas
colloids are large enough to scatter light but
small enough that they do not settle.
It is the reason you can see car
headlight beams from the side on
a foggy night.

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• Gels: consist of liquids spread throughout a solid, such as jelly, butter, and cheese.

• Foams: consist of gases finely spread throughout liquids or solids.

– Whipped cream and soda pop foam are liquid foams.

– Marshmallows and StyrofoamTM are solid foams.

• Aerosols: colloidal suspensions of liquid or fine solid particles in a gas.

– Fog, mists, clouds, and sprays are aerosols with liquid particles.

– Smoke is an aerosol with solid particles.

• Emulsions: consist of liquids spread throughout other liquids. Examples

include oil and vinegar salad dressing, hand cream, and mayonnaise.

– Emulsions often have a cloudy appearance. The boundary between

Quick Fact
the different parts of the emulsion scatters the light that passes Sometimes, it is hard to tell if a mixture is
through it. If you pour vinegar and then oil in a glass, the oil will heterogeneous, homogeneous, or a colloid.
rest on top of the vinegar because it has a lower density. If you For example, the amount of salt in ocean water may be
look at the boundary between the oil and vinegar, it will look different in different places. Scientists would not say the
cloudy. ocean is completely homogeneous. Water samples taken from
50 feet below the surface and from 200 feet below the surface
– Emulsions are often unstable. Homemade oil and vinegar will not be exactly the same. Can you think of other
salad dressing is an unstable emulsion. It will quickly separate substances that are hard to classify as one or the other?
unless you shake it continuously. Shaking the emulsion keeps the
parts mixed. However, the oil and vinegar do not want to be What about milk — is it homogeneous,
mixed together. Droplets of oil will try to find and combine with heterogeneous, or something else?
other oil droplets. The oil droplets will continue to combine with each
other until they are completely separated from the vinegar forming a
layer on top of the vinegar. When small droplets recombine to form bigger
ones, the process is called coalescence.

The following flow chart displays a summary of the different types of matter:

MATTER

Pure Substance Mixture

Compounds Elements Homogeneous Heterogeneous

(NaCl, CO2) (H, Fe, C) (soda pop, brass) (pizza, salad)

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PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Scientists sort matter by its physical and chemical properties. These properties also help scientists identify unknown substances. Scientists
use their senses or take measurements to identify physical properties. They make observations and perform experiments to identify
chemical properties. Specifically, scientists look at how a substance reacts with other substances.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
A physical property is a property of matter that can be observed without changing the substance into another substance. Some
examples of physical properties are density, color, boiling point, and melting point.
• At a constant temperature and pressure, the density of a substance does not
change. One gram of lead at 20 °C has the same density as 500 grams of lead
at 20 °C. As a result, density is often used to identify unknown substances. It is Quick Fact
also a property that can be identified easily by taking measurements. Standard temperature and pressure
(STP) are the conditions often used to
• Color is another property used to determine an unknown substance. Most study or test a substance. STP is 0 °C and 1
substances are known to be a specific color. For example, an emerald is a atm (101.335 kPa or 14.7 psi). These
type of mineral with a green color.
values are the approximate freezing
• The melting and boiling point of a substance stay the same at standard pressure. point of water and atmospheric
For example, the melting point of mercury is approximately -38.8 °C. The boiling pressure at sea level.
point of mercury is approximately 356.7 °C.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
A chemical property is determined by the ability of a substance to react with or change into another substance. A chemical reaction may
take place when substances interact. During a chemical reaction, the structure or chemical makeup of a substance changes (see the
subsection on Chemical Changes - page 36). Therefore, chemical properties are often identified after a chemical reaction takes place.
Some examples of chemical properties are toxicity, flammability, and reactivity with other substances.
• Toxicity is the potential of a substance to have a harmful effect on an
organism. The only way to determine toxicity is by observing how a Quick Fact
substance reacts with other substances, so it is a chemical property. Inflammable actually means the
same thing as flammable! Inflammable is
• Flammability describes the ability of a substance to catch fire (ignite)
an older term used to describe substances that
or burn. Solids, liquids, and gases can all be flammable.
ignite or burn easily. Unfortunately, many people
– Ethanol is a highly flammable liquid. It can catch fire easily. On the mistake inflammable to mean not flammable.
other hand, water is a nonflammable liquid. Today, warning symbols generally use the term
– In general, certain conditions are needed for a fire to occur. flammable to avoid that confusion.
These conditions make up the “fire triangle.” Nonflammable is the term used to
describe substances that are
• The first is fuel. Flammable chemicals are a type of fuel. not flammable.
• The second is oxygen. The chemical reaction for burning Quick Fact
requires oxygen to occur. Air can provide oxygen, as can Toxicity is dependent on the
chemical oxidizers or oxygen tanks. amount of a substance. Vitamins Quick Fact
are generally important for keeping Some substances are EXTREMELY
• The third is energy. Enough energy must be present to
us healthy. However, they can be flammable. White or yellow
start the reaction.
toxic in extremely large phosphorous can spontaneously
• The reactivity of a substance is its ability to interact or change quantities. ignite in air without any
when it comes in contact with other substances. energy change or
spark!
EXAMPLE:
An iron object will rust when left outside for a long time because it reacts with the oxygen in the air.
The surface forms a reddish brown coating through this chemical change. The chemical equation for

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)

this reaction is:

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STATES OF MATTER
Matter can also be classified based on its state or phase. The most familiar states of matter are solids, liquids, and gases. For example,
ice, water, and water vapor are all H2O in different physical states. As heat is added or removed, the matter may undergo a change of
state or a phase change (see the section on Physical Changes - page 32).

SOLIDS: have a definite volume and a definite shape. For example, if you put a brick or pencil in different size
containers, they will stay the same size and shape in each container.
• The particles that make up a solid are usually locked into place. They are packed more tightly together than liquid
or gas particles. However, the particles are still moving slightly. They vibrate or move back and forth in their place.
• The solid state of a substance tends to be denser than its liquid and gaseous states.
– Solid gold has a density of approximately 19.3 g/cm3 at 20 °C.
Liquid gold has a density of approximately 17.3 g/cm3 at its
melting point.
– One exception is water. Ice floats when it is placed in liquid water.
Liquid water has a density of 1 g/mL at 4 °C. When it freezes at
0 °C, its density actually drops to about 0.9 g/cm3.
• Crystalline solids are made up of atoms or molecules that are organized in specific repeating patterns. These regular,
repeating patterns form crystals.
– Crystalline solids have a definite melting point. Therefore, they
change more quickly from a solid to a liquid when heated above
their melting point than an amorphous solid does. This physical
property can be used to determine the purity of the crystalline solid.
– Diamonds, ice, and table salt are crystalline solids.
• Amorphous solids are also made up of atoms or molecules that are locked into place. However, those atoms or
molecules do not organize into a specific form or a neat, repeating structure.
– Most amorphous solids do not have a definite melting point.
Instead, they generally soften and become more flexible when
heated. Quick Fact
Silicon dioxide can have a crystalline
– Glass is an example of an amorphous solid that consists mainly
structure, such as in quartz. However, when it
of silicon dioxide (SiO2). Glass’ randomly arranged structure is
the reason that glass is transparent. Its structure is easier
is cooled quickly, it does not completely
for light to penetrate than the repeating pattern of
crystalize. Instead, it forms glass or glassy silica.
a crystalline solid.
Studies have shown that the SiO2 in glass has
some type of structure but not a specific,
– Wax, rubber, and many polymers, repeating one. Therefore, glass is still
including polystyrene, are amorphous Quick Fact considered an amorphous solid.
solids. Table sugar (sucrose) can be an amorphous
solid, such as cotton candy. It can also be a
crystalline solid, such as the small crystals that are
often found in kitchen sugar bowls. Why? It mainly
depends on how the sugar is treated. If sugar is melted
and then cooled quickly, the molecules do not have
enough time to organize into a definite crystalline
structure. Instead, they stop moving (except for
slight vibrations) and become an
amorphous solid.

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LIQUIDS: have a definite volume but no definite shape.

• A liquid will take the shape of its container or the part of the container it fills.

• A liquid cannot change its overall volume.

• The particles that make up liquids are in constant random motion and move more than vibrating solid particles. They
actually slide past one another and can move over larger distances.

• Even though liquid particles move around more freely compared to particles in solids, the particles in liquids tend
to remain closer together than gas particles.

• Viscosity is a property of liquids that describes the “thickness” of the material. It is a measure of the liquid’s resistance
to flow. The less viscous a liquid is (the lower its viscosity), the more easily it flows.

– Water has a lower viscosity than honey. When you pour water
from one container to another, it flows more quickly than
honey does.

– The ability of a material to flow is related to the strength of the

interactions between the liquid molecules. The stronger the
interactions, the more difficult it is for the liquid to flow (see
the subsection on Intramolecular Forces - page 75).

• Surface tension is a property of liquids that describes the attraction of liquid molecules at the surface. The strong
attraction of molecules at the surface of the liquid brings the molecules closer together and creates a surface “film.”
This film makes moving an object through the surface of a liquid more difficult than moving the object when it is
completely submerged in the liquid.

– Surface tension causes liquids to keep a low surface area. For

example, soap bubbles and rain droplets form the shape of a
sphere rather than spreading out flat to minimize surface
Quick Fact
area.
A sewing needle is denser than water.
– Water has a very high surface tension because of strong However, when the needle is placed
hydrogen bonding. Its surface tension is about 0.073 N/m. Oil carefully on its side on a
has a much lower surface tension than water. Its molecules are water surface, it will remain on the water’s
only weakly attracted to each other. If you pour a spoonful of surface because of surface tension.
vegetable oil on one plate and a spoonful of water on another Try this yourself. Also see if you can
plate, the water does not spread as far as the oil. This happens make a paper clip float on water.
because the water molecules are strongly bound together.

Quick Fact
Many people believe that the water
strider bug can “walk” on water purely
because of surface tension. However, new
research shows there is more to it. The water
strider's legs are covered with microscopic
hairs that trap tiny air bubbles. The
trapped air allows the bug to “float”
across the water’s surface.

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GASES: have no definite volume and no definite shape. For example, the air around you is a mixture of gases.

EXAMPLE:
The air around us is mainly made up of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). Approximately 78% of the air
around us is N2. About 21% of the air is O2. The remaining 1% includes argon, CO2, water vapor, and
other gases.

• If a gas is put into a container, it will take the shape of the entire
container. Unlike a liquid, the gas will not just stay in the bottom. Quick Fact
A gas will fill the container completely. A fluid is any substance made up of
• Gas particles have weaker attractions between them than do liquid molecules that flow or move freely.
or solid particles, which allows them to move about quickly in A fluid easily changes shape when a
random directions and over larger distances. They are also more force is applied.
spread out than liquid particles and can travel farther without Liquids and gases are fluids.
hitting one another. Plasmas are fluids as well
• Because of the extra space between the particles, gases are easily (see page 31).
compressed.

• Effusion is the movement of gas particles through a small hole in

Quick Fact
a container from an area of high pressure to an area of low
A balloon filled with helium gas
pressure.
will deflate over time as a result of effusion.
– Molecular mass is the mass of one molecule of a substance. This process can be slowed down by coating
the balloon with a thin layer of metal. This is
– According to Graham’s Law, gases with a lower molecular
why special birthday or get well balloons
mass effuse more quickly than gases with a higher molecular
usually have a silvery color. The metal
mass. You can think of it in terms of people. It is easier for a
coating is made with aluminum.
smaller person to squeeze through a tight space than it is for
a larger person.

EXAMPLE:
Two balloons are filled to the same size with different gases. One is filled with oxygen gas. The other
is filled with hydrogen gas. Without being disturbed, the hydrogen balloon deflates faster because
hydrogen gas molecules have a smaller molecular mass. The hydrogen molecules can escape (effuse)
more quickly than the oxygen molecules.

• Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration. Particles are always
in random motion because of their kinetic energy, and are more Quick Fact
likely to stay in an area with fewer particles once they are there. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a
– During diffusion, particles leave highly concentrated areas and semi-permeable membrane (a membrane that
enter less concentrated areas until the particles are spread allows some ions or molecules to pass through,
evenly throughout the area. Particles will continue to move, but but not others).
overall they will be evenly spread throughout the container.
Osmosis is an important biological process
– Diffusion of particles depends on the concentration of like because it allows water to pass in and
particles, not the overall concentration of particles in a out of cells.
container.

– The particles of fluid substances can undergo diffusion.

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EXAMPLE:
If you add a drop of red food coloring to a glass of water, the food coloring will diffuse. It will spread
through the water until the water is evenly colored red.

The process of diffusion is illustrated below:

The particles of two miscible fluids

are separated by a barrier.

With the barrier removed, the

particles begin to diffuse to the
other side. The arrow shows the
random motion of a particle from a
higher concentration to a lower
concentration.

The two fluids have reached

equilibrium—each is evenly spread
throughout the container.

– Concentration, temperature, and the size of particles can also affect the rate of diffusion.

• In general, particles diffuse more quickly at higher temperatures because, at higher temperatures, particles
have more kinetic energy. Therefore, a drop of food coloring will diffuse more quickly in a cup of hot water
than in a cup of cold water.

• Smaller particles diffuse more quickly than larger particles.

• Particles will diffuse faster when there is a bigger difference in the concentration of two areas. For example,
in the diffusion image above the particles diffuse quickly when the barrier is first removed. As the particles
spread out evenly, the particles diffuse more slowly.

PLASMA: an ionized gas. Some electrons in plasma atoms are free. This means they are not bound to an atom
or a molecule (see the Atomic Structure section - page 41).
• Plasma is the most abundant phase of matter in the universe. In this phase, electrons have been stripped from the
nucleus and float around freely within the plasma.
• Because the positive and negative charges in plasmas move somewhat freely, plasmas are able to conduct
electricity and respond strongly to electric or magnetic fields.
• Plasma is created in high-energy situations. For example, the extreme heat associated with lightning
and the interiors of stars such as our sun produce plasma.
• Plasma usually takes the form of neutral, gas-like clouds.
• Until about 2007, plasma displays were commonly used in large televisions. The technology uses
small cells that contain electrically-charged ionized gases.

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PHYSICAL CHANGES
Matter often changes, and these changes can be either physical or chemical.

PHYSICAL CHANGE: any change in a substance’s form that does not change its chemical
makeup. The chemical formula of the substance stays the same before and after the change.
• Tearing or cutting a piece of paper is an example of a physical change. The paper is in smaller
pieces, but the chemical makeup of the paper has not changed.

CHANGES OF STATE—TEMPERATURE
Another example of a physical change is when matter changes from one state to another. These changes are often called phase changes.
They are a result of changes in temperature or pressure.

MELTING: a change in state from a solid to a liquid.

• Melting point: the temperature at which a substance begins to change from a solid to a Think
liquid. As a substance is heated, the particles in that substance move faster. When the About It...
particles speed up enough to break the attraction between molecules holding them Have you ever left a glass of ice
together as a solid, the particles move freely past each other as a liquid.
water sitting out on a warm day and
• Once a solid begins to melt, its temperature will remain the same until all of the solid noticed that the ice got smaller or
changes to a liquid. completely disappeared? The ice
didn’t actually disappear, so
EXAMPLE: what happened?
At low temperatures (O °C or below), water molecules have low energy, so
the water becomes a solid. The most common solid form of water is ice.

As the temperature increases, energy enters the solid ice. The energy
releases the molecules from the solid ice. This allows the molecules to
move around freely, while still remaining in contact. When this occurs, ice
melts to become liquid water.

• At one atmosphere (1 atm) of pressure, the melting point of ice is 0 °C or 32 °F. The melting
point of silver is approximately 961 °C.
– The term "atmosphere" means the air pressure at sea level. It is used as a unit of measurement for pressure.

FREEZING: a change in state from a liquid to a solid.

• Freezing point: the temperature at which a liquid begins to form a solid. The substance
will remain at that temperature until freezing is complete.
Quick Fact
• At 1 atm of pressure, the freezing point of water is 0 °C. As you can see, the The freezing point of a liquid can be
melting point and the freezing point of a substance are generally the same. lowered by adding a nonvolatile solute. For
example, the freezing point of water can be
EXAMPLE: lowered by adding salt. The salt disrupts the bonds
A bottle of juice at room temperature can be cooled by placing it between water molecules, making it more difficult
in the refrigerator. Since the refrigerator is lower in temperature, (requires more energy to be removed) for water
energy will leave the juice. This makes the juice cooler. To cool the to form the crystalline structure of ice. Roads
juice very quickly, it could also be placed in the freezer. However, if are salted or sanded in cold weather to
too much energy leaves the juice, it will become a solid. prevent ice from forming.

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VAPORIZATION: a change in state from a liquid to a gas. The two main types of vaporization are evaporation
and boiling.
• Evaporation: a vaporization process that occurs at the surface of a liquid.

EXAMPLE:
A puddle forms on the ground after it rains. The water molecules in the puddle gain energy from the
ground and the sun. As the water molecules gain energy, some of the molecules at the surface of the
puddle change into a gaseous state and escape (evaporate!) into the air. As a result, the puddle gets
smaller as time passes.

• Boiling: a vaporization process in which a liquid changes to a gas

both below the surface and at the surface of the liquid. During
this process, bubbles of gas form and escape the liquid.
Quick Fact
Water vapor is a colorless gas.
• Boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid begins to form a It is invisible. The white “cloud” or “mist”
gas. Once a liquid begins to boil, its temperature will remain the that you see rising from a tea kettle or steam
same until all of the liquid changes to a gas. engine is actually liquid water droplets
– At 1 atm of pressure, the boiling point of water is 100 °C or suspended in the air. It appears to be white
212 °F. The boiling point of ethanol is approximately 78.3 °C. because the light scatters off of the water
droplets like clouds in the atmosphere.
EXAMPLE: This “mist” is commonly called
When liquid water is heated on a stove, the water
steam.
molecules throughout the liquid gain energy, which allows
them to change to a gaseous state and escape into the air.
Vaporized water molecules below the surface form
bubbles within the liquid and rise. The gaseous state of
water is known as water vapor.

• Boiling point varies with atmospheric pressure.

Quick Fact
• Boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the
The boiling point of a liquid can be
surrounding air pressure.
increased by adding a nonvolatile solute,
– When the atmospheric pressure is lower, less energy is needed such as pouring salt into water. As more salt is
for the particles of liquid to change into a gas and escape into added, the boiling point becomes higher.
the air. People living high on a mountain sometimes
put salt in their water. This causes the water
– Therefore, at high altitudes (such as on top of a mountain)
to boil at a high enough temperature
where atmospheric pressure is lower, a material will boil at a
for proper cooking.
lower temperature.

– The “normal boiling point” (nbp) is the temperature at which the

vapor pressure of a liquid equals 1 atm, or the boiling point at sea
level.

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CONDENSATION: a change of state from a gas to a liquid.

• Dew point: the temperature at which a gas begins to condense
into a liquid. The dew point of water indicates the temperature at Quick Fact
which air is saturated with water vapor and condensation begins Condensation is the reason the windows
to form. inside your house get foggy on a cold day. Tiny
water particles in the air come in contact with the cold
EXAMPLE: window. When this occurs, water droplets form on the
When energy is removed from water vapor, the vapor cools and inside surface of the window. Condensation can also
condenses into liquid water. occur on the outside of your windows on a hot
summer day. If the air inside your house is cooled
If the temperature drops in the evening after a hot summer day,
by air-conditioning, the water droplets will
the water vapor in the air cools. As the cooler air gets closer to
form outside when they touch the
the surface of the earth, it will likely come in contact with a surface.
cold surface.
As the water vapor touches the surface, it cools even more and
condenses. When this happens, droplets of liquid water are left on the
surface, such as on grass. If it is cold enough, you may see frost on the grass
instead of dew — read on to learn about deposition.

SUBLIMATION: a change of state directly from a solid to a gas. During sublimation, the substance does not
pass through the liquid state.
• The sublimation of water is difficult to see because it happens so slowly. However, you may have noticed that ice
cubes in the freezer get smaller over time, even though the temperature stays below the freezing point of water. The
water molecules from the ice cube (solid phase) eventually escape to the gas phase.

• The sublimation of solid carbon dioxide (known as dry ice) or iodine crystals can be seen more easily.

DEPOSITION: a change of state directly from a gas to a solid.

EXAMPLE:
When frost forms on car windows at low temperatures, deposition has occurred. As water vapor in
the air comes in contact with the freezing cold window, it turns directly to ice crystals.

Quick Fact
A comet is a small, icy mass that orbits the
sun. Comets have a solid nucleus made of ice and
dust. The nucleus is surrounded by a cloudy atmosphere
(the coma) and one or two “tails.”

Some comets become visible from the earth for several weeks as
they pass close to the sun. As a comet gets closer to the inner solar
system, heat from the sun causes some of the ice on the surface
of the nucleus to sublime. This sublimation forms the coma.
Radiation from the sun also pushes dust particles away
from the coma. These particles form a tail called the
dust tail. We can see comets because the gas
and dust in their comas and tails
reflect sunlight.

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The following image illustrates the relationship between each of the phase changes:

Melting
Solid Freezing Liquid

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bl

io
im

at
at

n
en
io

io
nd
n

at
riz
Co
D
ep

po
os

Va
iti
on

Gas

CHANGES OF STATE—PRESSURE
Phase changes occur because a substance has been given energy or energy has been taken away. One way to give a substance
energy is through temperature. Another way is through pressure.

EXAMPLE:
Scientists today are still debating why ice is slippery. A Quick Fact
common explanation is that the pressure exerted by a Volatility is a measure of how quickly a
person on ice skates creates enough energy to melt substance vaporizes at a certain temperature.
the ice, enabling ice skaters to glide along on a thin It can refer to BOTH solids and liquids
layer of water that immediately freezes behind them (sublimation and vaporization). For example, dry
after the pressure is removed. Friction between the ice (solid CO2) is highly volatile. It sublimes into
skates and the ice also produces heat that contributes a gas at room temperature. Likewise, gasoline
to melting the ice. Some scientists argue that there is has a much higher volatility than water. It
a layer of unfrozen water on the surface of ice even at will vaporize more quickly than
temperatures below water’s freezing point. water.

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CHEMICAL CHANGES
Chemical change: a change that takes place when atoms of a substance are rearranged. Bonds between atoms in the substance
are broken or formed. When a chemical change takes place, the ending substance or substances are different from the starting
substance or substances.
• Chemical changes involve more than just a change in form. A chemical change involves a reaction in which the
structure or composition (makeup) of the material changes.
• Chemical changes almost always involve changes in energy.
• Chemical changes also involve the restructuring of how electrons hold the various atoms together.
• In some cases, chemical changes can be seen by a color change. In other cases, it can be hard to tell if a chemical
change has taken place.

EXAMPLE:
A chemical change occurs when iron rusts. The iron
reacts with oxygen (in the presence of water) in the air.
The reaction forms iron oxide, a reddish-brown
substance commonly called rust which has different
properties than the iron.
Other examples of chemical changes are the burning of
fuel and the baking of a cake.

ENERGY CHANGES
Many physical and chemical changes involve energy.

Energy: the ability to do work or produce heat.

Think
About It...
• Energy is usually measured in calories or Joules.
What other forms of energy
• Energy may take a variety of forms. The most common form is are there? What kind of energy
thermal energy. Thermal energy is the total energy of the particles is used when winding a clock?
in an object that responds to changes in temperature. The transfer What kind of energy is produced
of thermal energy is known as heat flow or heat transfer. in power plants?
• Energy is present in light, sound, electricity, chemical bonds, and
much more.
• Matter changes whenever energy is added or taken away.
Although the energy is added or taken away, the overall amount
of energy remains the same. It simply changes form. Quick Fact
Light is an example of
EXAMPLE: electromagnetic energy.
If you put a ball on a shelf it contains potential energy, or Electromagnetic energy is a form
stored energy. If the ball rolls off the shelf it may bounce a of energy that can travel
few times and stop. During that time, the potential energy through a vacuum.
was converted into a few other types of energy. The energy
changed from potential to kinetic, or energy of motion, as
the ball fell. The energy also changed to sound energy,
which is what you hear when the ball bounces.

In every physical and chemical change, the total amount of energy stays the same. This principle is called the law of conservation
of energy. It is also known as the first law of thermodynamics.

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Law of conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics): energy can change from one Quick Fact
form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
Albert Einstein figured out the
relationship between matter and energy.
EXAMPLE: He concluded that matter can be changed
The energy stored in the tip of a match is in the form of stored chemical into energy and vice versa. However, the total
energy. When you light the match, the chemical energy becomes light
amount of matter and energy in the
energy and thermal energy.
universe doesn’t change. He put his idea
into the equation: E = mc2 where c is
the speed of light.
PHYSICAL ENERGY CHANGES
During phase changes, energy may be added to or removed from a substance. This means the
energy is transferred between a substance and its surroundings.

Mechanical energy is another form of energy. It is determined by the motion or position of an object. The total mechanical energy
of an object is the sum of its kinetic and potential energy.
Kinetic energy (KE): energy of motion.

• If you know the mass and velocity (speed) of an object, you can determine its kinetic energy. To do so, use the
equation below:
(mass) × (velocity)2 1
KE = or KE = mv2
2 2
• The faster an object is moving, the more kinetic energy it has. Notice the important role of velocity. If you double
the mass of an object, you double its kinetic energy. However, if you double the velocity of the object, you quadruple
its kinetic energy.
Potential energy (PE): stored energy.

• A ball at the top of a hill has potential energy. If it began to roll down the hill from the force of gravity, it would gain
kinetic energy but lose potential energy.
• If you know an object’s mass, the gravity affecting it, and it's height, you can determine its gravitational potential
energy. To do so, use the equation below:
PE = mgh or PE = (mass) x (gravity affecting it) x (height)

CHEMICAL ENERGY CHANGES

Like physical changes, chemical reactions involve the gain or loss of energy. Chemicals have energy, like a ball on a shelf. When a chemical
substance undergoes a reaction it may lose some energy, like a ball losing potential energy as it falls from the shelf. In other reactions,
the chemical may gain some energy, like a ball would gain potential energy if someone put it back on the shelf.

Many chemical reactions involve the absorption or release of thermal energy.

• Exothermic change: a change that gives off energy, releasing energy to its surroundings.
Quick Fact
– Any burning reaction is an exothermic reaction because it releases thermal
While temperature and thermal
energy or heat. These reactions include lighting a match and burning coal or
energy are related, they are not the same
other fuels.
thing. Temperature is a measure of the
• Endothermic change: a change that takes in energy from its surroundings. average kinetic energy of particles in a
– Nitrogen gas will not combine with oxygen gas in the atmosphere at substance. Thermal energy is the total kinetic
standard temperature and pressure. However, nitrogen gas and oxygen gas energy of all particles in a substance.
will combine to form nitrous oxide when energy is added or when heat is Thermal energy focuses on the internal
applied. Therefore, the formation of nitrous oxide is an example of an energy of the substance related
endothermic chemical reaction. to temperature.
• Thermal energy is transferred from warmer areas to cooler areas.

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TYPES OF ENERGY
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work or produce heat. All forms of energy are classified as either potential energy (stored energy
or the potential for movement) or kinetic energy (the energy of motion). The most commonly referenced forms of energy include:

• Chemical energy is associated with the energy stored in the bonds between atoms in molecules

• Electrical energy is associated with the energy delivered by tiny charged particles called electrons, typically moving
through conductive metals

• Mechanical energy is associated with the movement or position of objects. It includes both kinetic energy and
gravitational potential energy of an object.

• Nuclear energy is associated with the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and holds a nucleus together.

• Radiant energy is associated with the electromagnetic energy that travels in waves. Radiant energy includes light
and sound energy as well as x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves.

• Thermal energy is associated with the random motion of particles and amounts to the total internal energy of a
substance. This energy is most often measured as heat or temperature.

Energy can be converted from one form to another.

• Law of conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics): while energy can change from one form to another, it
can be neither created nor destroyed.

EXAMPLE:
Coal is a good source of chemical potential energy, which can be released by burning the coal. Heat
from burning coal can be used to boil water, which creates steam. The energy of steam can then be
used to turn a rotary engine and produce mechanical energy. The engine may give power to a
generator which produces electricity (electrical energy). The electricity may be turned into light
(radiant energy) in a lamp or thermal energy in an electric toaster.

HISTORY: WILLIAM THOMSON (1824-1907)

William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) was a Scottish physicist and mathematician known for his work on energy. He proposed that heat
was based on the energy of the motion of molecules. Thomson first defined the absolute temperature scale in 1847. It was later
named after him. In 1851, he published ideas leading to the second law of thermodynamics which states that when energy
changes from one form to another form, or matter moves freely, the entropy (disorder) in a closed system increases.

Thomson also contributed to the first successful trans-Atlantic telegraph cables. He served as a scientific advisor
during the project. In 1866, he was knighted by Queen Victoria for this work. In 1892, he received the title of First
Baron Kelvin of Largs. He is now commonly referred to as Lord Kelvin.

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HEAT
Heat is the transfer or flow of energy from one substance to another because of a difference in temperature.
Heat will flow from a material at a higher temperature to one that is at a lower temperature.
Heat is commonly transferred (moved from one substance to another) in one of three ways:
• Conduction: the transfer of energy by collisions between nearby atoms.
– Conduction is the dominant form of heat transfer in solid matter.
– Conduction causes the metal handle of a pot on a stove to become warm. Heat moves through the metal atoms that
make up the pot and excites the atoms in the handle. (Many pot handles have some type of insulating cover so they
don’t get too hot.)
• Convection: the transfer of energy by the bulk molecular motion within a liquid or gas.
– Convection occurs because of temperature differences within a fluid or between a fluid and its container.
– When water in a pot on the stove is heated to boiling, convection assists in circulating the heat from the bottom of
the pot toward the top for faster heating.
• Radiation: the transfer of heat (as electromagnetic waves) through an empty space or clear material without heating the
space or material.
– The most commonly encountered form of radiation is solar radiation. In solar radiation, the rays from the sun
heat up the earth (see the section on Types of Electromagnetic Radiation).

HISTORY: KARL SCHEELE (1742-1786)

Karl Scheele was a Swedish chemist who published a book called Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire. In this book, he distinguished heat
transfer by thermal radiation from heat transfer by convection or conduction.

He discovered many chemical substances, such as barium, chlorine, manganese, molybdenum, and tungsten. Most notably, he
discovered oxygen independently of and earlier than Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier. However, he published his
findings after they published theirs.

Scheele is also credited with recognizing the effect of light on silver compounds, which laid the groundwork for
photography.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SEPARATIONS

Matter can be classified as either a pure substance or a mixture. It is important for scientists to be able to separate mixtures into
their original parts. To do this, they use separation processes.
Separation process: a process that divides a mixture into two or more different parts.

• A separation process uses the different properties of the mixture’s parts to get the parts to separate.

EXAMPLE:
A mixture of rocks and pebbles could be separated by using a screen. The screen would allow the tiny
pebbles to fall through, but not the large rocks. The property used for separation in this example is size.

Pieces of iron could be separated from plastic in a recycling center using a magnet. The property used
for separation is magnetism.

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PHYSICAL SEPARATIONS
Physical separations use physical properties to separate the parts of a mixture. This is
Quick Fact
done without changing the chemical properties of the parts. There are many physical Different-sized solids can be separated
separation processes. from one another by screening or sieving. A
sieve is a useful tool for separating rocks from
Filtration is a way of separating a mixture based on differences in size between the sand. It traps the rocks and lets the sand go
particles that make up different parts of the mixture. through. Filtration can be used to separate
• In a laboratory, scientists often use filter paper to separate particles in a liquid. mixtures on a molecular level, too. In your
The filter paper comes in many grades. These grades represent the size of the body, your kidneys use filtration. They
tiny holes (pores) in the paper. Different pore sizes are available. A big pore size separate big molecules, like
allows larger particles to pass through, but traps the very biggest particles. A small proteins, from your blood.
pore size allows small particles to pass through, but captures the larger particles.
– The filter paper is folded into a cone and placed in a funnel.
– A liquid that contains solid particles is poured through the filter paper into a
container (usually a flask). The particles may be resting at the bottom of the
liquid. They may also be floating on top or suspended throughout the liquid.
– The solid particles in the solution are trapped by the paper.
The liquid flows through the paper and collects in the flask below.
– The collected liquid is called the filtrate. The filtrate is free of the solid particles.

EXAMPLE:
One example of filtration (without the use of filter paper) occurs commonly in people's
kitchens. Pasta is cooked in a pot of water on a stove. Once it is cooked, the mixture is poured
through a colander. The colander traps the pasta but lets the water pass through.

CHEMICAL SEPARATIONS
Chemical separations use chemical properties to separate parts of the mixture and require some type of chemical reaction to take place.
Precipitation: a means of separating a component in a solution by reacting it with another substance to form a solid.
• After the chemical reaction occurs, the solid that forms from the solution is called a
precipitate.
• If the solid particles are very small, they may remain in suspension. These particles can Quick Fact
then be separated by filtration. The water that moves through the
pipes of your home often contains
• Precipitation can also occur when a substance which is soluble in one liquid (e.g. minerals and other substances. These
water) passes into another liquid in which it is insoluble (e.g. alcohol). For example substances may react to form solid
DNA dissolved in an aqueous solution will precipitate out when cold isopropyl alcohol precipitates. Those precipitates can
is layered on top of the aqueous solution. settle in the pipes and clog
them.

EXAMPLE:
One example of a chemical separation through precipitation involves wastewater treatment.
As lead (Pb2+) is hazardous to human health, the lead must be removed from wastewater before the
wastewater can be released. Chemists can accomplish this by adding sulfides (S2-) or sulfates (SO42-) to
the wastewater. These substances will combine with the lead to make new solid compounds.
Pb2+ + S2- g PbS
Pb2+ + SO42- g PbSO4
Once the solid compound is formed, the lead, which is part of the solid compound, can be removed
from the water by filtration. Chemical separations can be quite helpful.

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 SECTION IV:
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
OBJECTIVES
• Define atoms and describe the parts of an atom.
• Distinguish between elements, compounds, and molecules.
• Identify and describe ions and isotopes.

ATOMS
All matter is made up of atoms of elements. Elements are known as the building blocks of matter and cannot be broken down
chemically into simpler substances. The elemental form of any substance is made up of only one type of atom.

An atom is the fundamental unit of an element. It is the smallest particle of an element that retains the element’s chemical properties. For
example, if a scientist cuts a piece of aluminum down until it can’t be divided anymore, it is still aluminum. The smallest particle that still
maintains that identity is classified as an atom of aluminum.

Scientists did not always know about atoms. Today, scientists know that atoms are not the smallest units of matter and that they are
comprised of even smaller parts—protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Protons and neutrons are located in the center of the atom. Together they make up the nucleus.
• Electrons are located in the space outside the nucleus. Some images show electrons as small particles that follow a
well-defined path, or orbit, around the nucleus, but this is misleading. Electrons actually move around the nucleus
in cloud-like regions called electron clouds (see the subsection on Electron Configuration - page 63).
– Electrons have a mass that is 1,836 times lighter than protons and neutrons. This difference in mass would
be similar to comparing the mass of a house cat to the mass of a school bus. It’s
It’s Like Like This...
This...
Protons, neutrons, and electrons each have a different electric charge and their accepted
abbreviations include these charges: electron
electron (-)
(-)
• A proton has a positive (+) charge. The common abbreviation for protons is p+. proton
proton (+)
(+)
• A neutron does not have electric charge (0). The common abbreviation for neutrons is n .
• An electron has a negative (-) charge. The common abbreviation for electrons is e . -
0
+
Atoms are electrically neutral when they have the same number of protons and electrons. If
atoms do not have the same number of protons and electrons, they are called ions. neutron
neutron (0)
(0)

EXAMPLE:
The atom in the image above is electrically neutral because it has
1 proton (+) and 1 electron (-). You can see this by adding up all the
charges:
1 proton (+) + 1 neutron (0) + 1 electron (-) = +1 + 0 + -1 = 0

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 SECTION IV: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

HISTORY: ELEMENTS AND ATOMS

In the 5th century B.C., scientists presented different views of what makes up matter.

Leucippus was an ancient Greek philosopher. He is given credit for helping develop the theory of atoms. We know very little about
his life and work, but we do know more about one of his students, Democritus. Democritus presented the theory that all matter
was made up of smaller, indivisible building blocks. He called these fundamental units of matter "atomos,” meaning “cannot
be divided.”

Around the same time, another view of matter existed. The Greek philosopher Empedocles taught that all matter was made of
four basic substances: earth, air, water, and fire. He said these four substances are mixed together in different combinations to
make up all other things.

About 100 years later (4th century B.C.), the famous ancient Greek philosopher Hot n Air n Wet
Aristotle gave his views. He related Empedocles’ four basic substances to

n
“blendings” of properties: coldness, hotness, dryness, and moistness. This belief is
an example of a theory later proven to be incorrect, but people believed Aristotle’s Fire Water
views at the time.

n
Aristotle did not accept the theory of atoms. Because of his fame, the atomic concept
Dry n Earth n Cold
was not explored any more until about 2,000 years after it was first presented.

Then in 1661 A.D., modern chemistry began to emerge. At that time, Robert Boyle wrote what may be considered the first
chemistry textbook, The Sceptical Chymist. His book rejected Aristotle’s views and gave the first modern definition of elements.

HISTORY: ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1871–1937)

Ernest Rutherford developed a nuclear theory of the atom. His theory is known as the Rutherford atomic model.

• Rutherford atomic model: an atomic model that describes the atom as having a tiny, dense, positively-charged
core known as the nucleus. The nucleus was believed to contain nearly all of the atom’s mass. The light negative
parts of the atom were called electrons, which were believed to travel around the nucleus. The electrons’
movement was thought to be similar to planets revolving around the sun.

The Rutherford atomic model is also called the nuclear atom or the planetary model of the atom.

Like other scientists of his time, Rutherford conducted studies on radioactivity. He was the first to use the
terms alpha, beta, and gamma to talk about radioactivity (see the Radioactivity & Nuclear Reactions section
- page 98).

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 SECTION IV: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

HISTORY: NIELS BOHR (1885–1962)

Niels Bohr, a Danish scientist, was a student of Ernest Rutherford. In 1913, Bohr expanded on Rutherford’s atomic theory.
He proposed that electrons have only a specific amount of energy and travel in certain orbits based on that energy level.
Therefore, electrons with higher energy traveled in the larger, outer orbits. He also suggested that the outer orbits
determined the atom's chemical properties. Bohr’s model is often still used to help illustrate electron energy levels
(see the subsection on Electron Configuration - page 63).

In 1922, Bohr was awarded a Nobel Prize for physics for his work on atomic structure.

MOLECULES
When two or more atoms interact with one another, they may form a larger unit called a molecule.

Molecule: a neutral particle composed of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. A molecule can be made up of similar
or different types of atoms.

EXAMPLE:
A water molecule is made up of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. This combination
gives a water molecule the chemical formula H2O.

ELEMENTS AND CHEMICAL SYMBOLS

Each chemical element has a different atomic number. Atomic numbers are used to identify elements.
Atomic number: the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus.

EXAMPLE: Quick Fact

Hydrogen has the lowest atomic number. Its atomic number is one, Scientists use an instrument called a mass
which means it only has one proton in its nucleus. spectrometer to figure out what elements are in
a sample. First, the mass spectrometer ionizes
Mass number (atomic mass number): the number of protons plus the number of (charges) the atoms in the sample. Then, once the
neutrons in an atom’s nucleus. atoms have a charge, scientists can use electric and
magnetic fields to separate the atoms. This process
Chemical symbols are used to represent elements on the periodic table. Each element allows the “mass spec” to determine the mass of
has its own symbol that is different from all other chemical symbols. These symbols the atoms, which allows scientists to
are made up of either one or two letters (except for new elements that have not yet been determine what atoms are in the
officially named). The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized. If a chemical sample.
symbol has a second letter, it is always written in lowercase. For example, the chemical symbol
for oxygen is O. The symbol for calcium is Ca. Chemical symbols are included on the periodic
table as shown below using carbon (C) as an example.

KEY
Atomic Number ––––––--–– 6

Chemical Symbol –––––

Element Name –--–––-- Carbon

C
Average Atomic Weight –--––––-- 12.011

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IONS
The total number of protons in an atom of an element never changes, but atoms can gain or lose electrons.

• Protons have a positive charge and electrons have a negative charge, so when the number of protons in an atom
equals the number of electrons, the atom has a neutral charge. Atoms with no positive or negative charge are
electrically neutral.
• Ion: an atom or molecule that has lost or gained one or more of its outer electrons. As a result, ions have a positive
or negative electric charge.
– Anions are negatively charged ions. When an atom gains electrons, the number of negatively charged
electrons is greater than the number of positively charged protons. Therefore, the atom becomes negatively
charged.

– Cations are positively charged ions. When an atom loses electrons, the atom becomes positively charged.

• Ionization (formation of ions) happens when electrons are gained or lost. The number of protons and neutrons does
not change when an ion is formed from an atom. The atomic number and atomic mass number of each ion stays
the same.
The image below shows three forms of hydrogen: the electrically neutral atom and two ions.*

- -
-
+ + +
The hydrogen atom (H) A hydrogen anion (H–) A hydrogen cation (H+)+

*In the atom images above, the electron cloud, as shown in the image on page 41, has been removed for easier visualization.

ISOTOPES
The number of protons of an element is the same for all atoms of that element, but the number of neutrons
in those atoms can vary.
Quick Fact
Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. The word “isotopes” comes from
• Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons (atomic number) but a different
the Greek words “iso” (same) and
number of neutrons in the nucleus. The mass number for each isotope of an element is “topos” (place). Any isotope of a certain
different. element can take the same place in a
chemical reaction. The chemistry of an
atom does not normally depend on
EXAMPLE:
The most common isotope of hydrogen has no neutrons and is also called
how many neutrons it has.
called protium. A hydrogen isotope with one neutron is called deuterium. A
hydrogen isotope with two neutrons is called tritium. The image below illustrates
these isotopes of hydrogen:*

- - -
+ + +
Hydrogen (Protium) Deuterium Tritium
Atomic number = 1 Atomic number = 1 Atomic number = 1
Atomic mass number = 1 Atomic mass number = 2 Atomic mass number = 3

*In the atom images above, the electron cloud, as shown in the image on page 41, has been removed for easier visualization.

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 H
SECTION IV: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Hydrogen gets its name from the Greek words “hydro” (water) and “genus”
(forming). It was given this name because hydrogen is a component of water.
When hydrogen burns in air, it combines with oxygen to form water.

CHARACTERISTICS:

• Is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe

– Is estimated to make up more than 90% of all atoms (approximately
HYDROGEN 75% of the mass of the universe)
Atomic #1 – Is the primary component of Jupiter and the other giant gas planets

• Hydrogen gas (H2) is colorless, odorless, and also highly flammable.

Hydrogen gas combines with oxygen to form water very easily. As a result,
the reaction releases large amounts of energy.

• Has three common isotopes:

1. Protium is the most common isotope of hydrogen. It has one proton
Quick Fact and no neutrons.
Our sun uses protium as the fuel for 2. Deuterium has one proton and one neutron.
fusion reactions. On the earth, scientists 3. Tritium has one proton and two neutrons and is radioactive. Tritium is
are trying to build fusion reactors. These produced in nuclear reactors and was used in the hydrogen bomb.
reactors would use deuterium and tritium Hydrogen is also a fuel for the stars such as our sun because it is part of a
as their fuel. The isotopes of deuterium nuclear process called fusion. This process releases much, much more energy
and tritium are easier to fuse, which than combustion, which allows stars to shine for billions of years.
would make the fusion reactors
easier to build.

HISTORY: HENRY CAVENDISH (1731–1810)

Henry Cavendish was an English chemist and physicist. He realized that hydrogen gas is a distinct substance. Other
scientists had produced hydrogen before, but Cavendish realized that hydrogen gas is different from air. He also showed
that burning hydrogen produced water.

The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier built on Cavendish’s research and gave hydrogen its name. Lavoisier also
suggested that when hydrogen was burned, it was actually combining with something. He soon figured out
that hydrogen was combining with oxygen to make water.

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 SECTION IV: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Relative atomic mass (average atomic weight): the “weighted” average mass of all of an element’s isotopes.

• The word “weighted” is important because the relative atomic mass of an element takes into account how abundant
each isotope of an element is on the earth. This weighted calculation explains why an element’s relative atomic mass
is not a whole number.

EXAMPLE:
Chlorine has two primary and stable isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. The number after the
element’s name is the atomic mass number. Chlorine-35 has a mass number of 35, and a combined total
of 35 protons and neutrons. Chlorine is found in nature as chlorine-35 about 75 percent of the time. This
means that 75 out of every 100 chlorine atoms are chlorine-35. Reducing the fraction, three out of every
four chlorine atoms is chlorine-35. Chlorine is found in nature as chlorine-37 about 25 percent of the
time. This means that one out of every four chlorine atoms is chlorine-37. Therefore, the relative atomic
mass of chlorine is:

( 75%
100% ) × 35 +
( 25%
100% ) × 37 = 35.5 amu (atomic mass units)

or

( 3
4 ) × 35 + ( 1
4
) × 37 = 35.5 amu (atomic mass units)

HISTORY: SCALE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS

John Dalton was the first scientist to propose that atoms had weight. He created a scale of atomic weights for elements.
He chose the lightest element, hydrogen, as his reference and gave it a value of one. He gave all other elements higher
values depending on how much heavier their atoms were compared to hydrogen.

Soon after, Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius suggested that oxygen should be the standard reference instead of
hydrogen. Hydrogen is so light that it was difficult to analyze. Berzelius believed that it made more sense to compare
atoms of other elements to a heavier standard. His resulting table of atomic weights was very similar to the one used
today.

Until 1960, atomic weights were expressed on a scale with oxygen as the reference. On this scale, oxygen was assumed to
have 16 mass units. In 1961, a new unified scale was developed. It was based on a value of 12 atomic mass units (amu)
for the carbon-12 isotope.

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 SECTION V:
THE PERIODIC TABLE & FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS
OBJECTIVES
• Locate elements on the periodic table.
• Distinguish between the different elemental groups on the periodic table.
• Describe the periodic trends for electronegativity, ionization energy, and atomic radii.
• Utilize the periodic table to describe properties of elements and electron configuration.

In the early 1800s, Jons Jakob Berzelius created a new system for writing elements. He began using just one or two letters to represent
an element. The shortened versions are called chemical symbols and are still used today.

The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized. If a chemical symbol has a second letter, it is always written in lowercase.
For example, the chemical symbol for hydrogen is H. The chemical symbol for helium is He.

In the 1860s, Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Mendeleev collected information about each of the known elements for his book,
Principles of Chemistry. He used this information to organize the elements in order of their atomic weights and noticed certain patterns
of chemical reactivity and physical properties. Based on these patterns, he grouped the elements into rows and columns and created what
we now call the periodic table (review the Periodic Table handout).*

HISTORY: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

The periodic table Mendeleev created in 1869 is very similar to the one we use today. However, Mendeleev’s table had
some problems and gaps because of missing elements that were not known at that time.

When Mendeleev created his table, he did not know what atoms were made of or why they acted in certain ways. He
created his periodic table before anyone knew about the structure of atoms.
What makes his work even more amazing is that he was able to predict the presence and properties of several new
elements. He made these predictions based on the gaps in his table.

The big difference between Mendeleev’s table and today’s is that today’s table is organized by increasing atomic
number, while Mendeleev’s used increasing atomic weight.

• At first, atomic numbers were based on an element’s position on Mendeleev’s periodic table and therefore on
increasing atomic weight. Because hydrogen has the lowest atomic weight, it was given the first atomic number
(1). Arranging the atoms according to their weight was not quite right, which caused discrepancies in patterns.
As a result, Mendeleev’s periodic table had some problems.

• In 1914, Henry Moseley conducted experiments on elements using X-rays. As a result of these experiments, Moseley
was able to relate an element’s atomic number to the charge of its nucleus. This charge represented the number
of protons in the nucleus.

• Moseley showed that atomic numbers were significant. Atomic numbers could be measured through
experiments. Two atoms having slightly different atomic weights but the same atomic number behaved alike.

• After Moseley’s discovery, the periodic table was reorganized. It is now organized by atomic number.

Dmitri Mendeleev
*The Periodic Table handout is available on CEF's website at www.chemed.org. Ask your teacher or Local Challenge Organizer for more details.
You Be The Chemist Challenge® 47 Study Materials
 SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS ON THE PERIODIC TABLE

Chemical elements are arranged into rows and columns, creating the periodic table. These columns and rows
are called groups and periods respectively.
Groups (families): the vertical columns on the periodic table. There are 18 groups on the periodic table.
• Members of each group have the same number of electrons in their outer electron energy Quick Fact
level or “shell” (see the subsection on Electron Configuration - page 63). Some chemical symbols are
based on the Latin name of the
• Most reactions involve only the outer electrons, so members of the same group generally
element. For example, the Latin
participate in the same types of reactions.
name for gold is “aurum.” The
• Members of the same group usually have very similar chemical properties. Latin name for lead is
“plumbum.”
Periods: the horizontal rows on the periodic table. There are 7 periods on the periodic table.

• Members of the same period do not have similar properties. Moving across the periodic table, from left to
right, the properties of the elements change greatly.
• Members of the same period have the same number of electron energy levels, but they differ in how they are filled.
As explained on page 60, the energy levels of electrons are represented by “shells.”
• Some periods on the table are much longer than others. Look at the sixth and seventh periods and notice that these
periods are very long. As a result, some elements from these periods were removed from the main table. They were
placed below the table in separate rows. The elements from atomic number 57 to 71 (the lanthanide series) and the
elements from atomic number 89 to 103 (the actinide series) make up these rows.
Scientists often classify elements as metals, nonmetals, or semi-metals. The Periodic Table of Elements
1 METALS 18

1 H He
• Metals are found mainly on the left side of the periodic table. 2 Li
2

Be
13

B
14

C
15

N
16

O
17

F Ne

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

– Metals tend to be solid at a normal room temperature of about 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

75 °F and have a shiny appearance. (For information on other 6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
metal properties, see the subsection on Types of Chemical 7

La
(267)

Ce
(268)

Pr
(271)

Nd
(272)

Pm Sm Eu
(270) (276)

Gd Tb
Copernicium

Dy
(285)
Nihonium

Ho
(284)
Flerovium

Er
(289)
Moscovium
(288)

Tm Yb
Livermorium
(293)
Tennessine

Lu
(294)
Oganesson
(294)

Bonds - page 76). These properties include luster, conductivity, Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

malleability, and ductility.)

– Metals normally give up electrons in a chemical reaction.

The Periodic Table of Elements
NONMETALS
• Nonmetals are usually on the right side of the periodic table.
1 18

1 H He
2 13 14 15 16 17

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg
– They are generally gases or solids at a normal room temperature. 3

4 K Ca
3

Sc
4

Ti
5

V
6

Cr
7

Mn
8

Fe
9

Co
10

Ni
11

Cu Zn
12
Al

Ga
Si

Ge
P

As Se
S Cl

Br
Ar

Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

– Most solid nonmetals are dull and brittle. They can be broken 6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

apart easily.
Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
(267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

– Nonmetals normally take electrons in a chemical reaction.

• Semi-metals (metalloids) are located between metals and

nonmetals on the periodic table. They fall along a zigzag line that The Periodic Table of Elements
1 METALLOIDS 18

divides metals and nonmetals. 1 H

2 13 14 15 16 17
He

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
– Semi-metals have some properties of both metals and nonmetals. 4 K Ca
3

Sc
4

Ti
5

V
6

Cr
7

Mn
8

Fe
9

Co
10

Ni
11

Cu Zn
12

Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

– All semi-metals on the periodic table are solids at a normal room 6

7
Cs

Fr
Ba

Ra
Hf

Rf
Ta

Db
W

Sg
Re

Bh
Os

Hs
Ir

Mt
Pt

Ds
Au

Rg
Hg

Cn
Tl

Nh
Pb

Fl
Bi

Mc
Po

Lv
At

Ts
Rn

Og
Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
(267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

temperature. La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

– They include boron, silicon, arsenic, and germanium.

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 48 Study Materials

 SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

ELEMENTAL GROUPS Quick Fact

GROUP 1 – ALKALI METALS (except hydrogen) Only hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, and
Alkali metals, including lithium, sodium, and potassium, are soft low-density the noble gases are gases at
metals room temperature as
with the following characteristics: elemental substances.
• Have low melting points and oxidize (become dull when Quick Fact
exposed to air) easily
There are two elements that are
• Are extremely reactive and are rarely found in liquid at standard room
elemental form (as pure elements) in nature temperature. One is a metal and
Quick Fact
• Are known to react strongly with water one is a nonmetal. Those
Even though hydrogen is at the
elements are mercury and
• Have only one electron in their outer energy level or top of group 1, it is not considered
bromine.
“shell” an alkali metal. Instead, hydrogen
is found naturally as a diatomic gas
• Are likely to give one electron away to form a bond to reach the
(H2). Therefore, hydrogen can have
very stable, “filled outer shell” state
characteristics of two groups—
The Periodic Table of Elements one and seventeen.
1 ALKALI METALS 18

1 H He
2 13 14 15 16 17

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Na
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
Copernicium
Nh
Nihonium
Fl
Flerovium
Mc
Moscovium
Lv
Livermorium
Ts
Tennessine
Og
Oganesson
(267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Sodium is found abundantly on the earth in many minerals. It is found most

commonly in the mineral halite (rock salt or NaCl, sodium chloride).

• Every gallon of sea water contains about 0.25 pounds of NaCl.

• Everyday table salt is mainly made up of the compound NaCl. Most table
salts are made of about 97% to 99% NaCl with the rest being small
amounts of iodine and other ingredients.

SODIUM CHARACTERISTICS:
Atomic #11 • Is a silvery metal that tarnishes quickly in air
• Is soft and malleable
• Is not found in nature in its pure elemental form because it is highly reactive
• Is an essential element for living things, including humans
Quick Fact
Alkali metals and alkaline earth – Helps to regulate the balance of water in the body
metals get their names because
– Prolonged sweating results in sodium loss from the body
they often form solutions with a pH
greater than 7. Solutions with a pH The most important sodium compound since ancient days has been table salt.
level greater than 7 are defined as Table salt is typically used to preserve food.
“basic” or “alkaline” solutions.
Another common sodium compound is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). It is
(See Acids, Bases
commonly called baking soda because it is used in baking. It is also used in
and pH - page 94)
antacids to neutralize excess stomach acid and in fire extinguishers.

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 49 Study Materials

 K
SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

Potassium gets its name from the word “potash.” Potash originally referred to
wood ashes. Today, potash refers to various compounds of potassium, such as
potassium carbonate (K2CO3). In the fertilizer industry, potassium oxide (K2O) is
called potash. Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is often called caustic potash.

CHARACTERISTICS:

• Is a soft silvery metal in elemental form

POTASSIUM • Has a lower density than water

Atomic #19 • Reacts with water to produce KOH, hydrogen gas, and heat, which
usually ignites the hydrogen

Potassium is an essential element for human health. Like sodium, it helps to keep
a normal water balance between the cells and body fluids. Potassium can be
obtained by eating vegetables and fruits. Foods high in potassium include
bananas, cantaloupes, and oranges.

Potassium is also required for plant growth. It is found in most soils and is
Quick Fact commonly used in fertilizers.
Potassium salts are electrolytes,
Just as the carbon-14 isotope is used to “carbon date” organic materials,
substances that conduct electricity in the
potassium-40 is used to date rocks (see the Radioactivity & Nuclear Reactions
human body. Electrolytes easily separate
section - page 98).
into ions in a solution, which enables them
to conduct electricity. Other electrolyte
ions in the body include sodium,
chloride, calcium, and
magnesium.

ELEMENTAL GROUPS
GROUP 2 – ALKALINE EARTH METALS
Alkaline earth metals, including beryllium, calcium and magnesium, have the following characteristics:

• Are harder and denser than alkali metals

The Periodic Table of Elements
ALKALINE EARTH METALS
• Are gray- or silver-colored metals with high melting points 1
1

H
2 13 14 15 16 17
He
18

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

• Are very reactive metals (although less reactive than alkali metals) 3 Na Mg
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Al Si P S Cl Ar

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
• Have two electrons in their outer energy level, which they tend to 5

6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

give away 7 Fr Ra Rf
(267)
Db
(268)
Sg
(271)
Bh
(272)
Hs
(270)
Mt
(276)
Ds Rg Cn
Copernicium
(285)
Nh
Nihonium
(284)
Fl
Flerovium
(289)
Mc
Moscovium
(288)
Lv
Livermorium
(293)
Ts
Tennessine
(294)
Og
Oganesson
(294)

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es
• Are found in the earth’s crust but not in elemental form because of Ac Th Pa U Fm Md No Lr

their reactivity
• Are found in many rocks on the earth

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 50 Study Materials

Mg
SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

The name magnesium comes from the Latin word “magnesia.” It was named
after an ore found in the area of Magnesia in Thessaly, Greece.

CHARACTERISTICS:

• Is a grayish-white metal
• Is essential for human health
– Helps to transmit nerve impulses and to cause muscles to contract
MAGNESIUM
Atomic #12 – Is found in bones (about 50% of the magnesium in the human body is
found in bones)

• Is the lightest industrial metal, with a density that is about the same as
human-made plastics

When magnesium metal is placed in a flame, it produces a bright white light as

it combines with oxygen in the air to form magnesium oxide (MgO). Because of
this property, magnesium is commonly used in flares.

Magnesium is a component of Epsom salts (hydrated MgSO4). Epsom salts are

Ca
used to soothe aches and pains.

The name calcium comes from the Latin word “calx,” meaning lime. It is found
naturally in limestone as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The most common natural
forms of calcium carbonate are limestone, chalk, and marble. Calcium carbonate
also makes up eggshells and the shells of marine animals like clams.

CHARACTERISTICS:

• Is the 5th most abundant element in the earth’s crust

CALCIUM • Is not found naturally in its elemental form

Atomic #20 • Is an essential component of leaves, bones, teeth, and shells
About 99% of the calcium in the human body is stored in our bones and teeth.
It helps to support bone and teeth structure. This is why people say calcium keeps
your bones strong.

Calcium is a component of mortar, plaster, and cement. The Romans used it for
construction. Even writings from 975 A.D. mention that plaster of paris (CaSO4)
is useful for making casts to set broken bones.

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 51 Study Materials

 SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

ELEMENTAL GROUPS
GROUPS 3–12 – TRANSITION METALS The Periodic Table of Elements
1 TRANSITION METALS 18

Transition metals cannot be divided neatly into individual groups because 1 H

2 13 14 15 16 17
He

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

they have similar properties and characteristics, including: 3 Na Mg

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Al Si P S Cl Ar

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
• Have good thermal and electrical conductivity 6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
Copernicium
Nh
Nihonium
Fl
Flerovium
Mc
Moscovium
Lv
Livermorium
Ts
Tennessine
Og
Oganesson
(267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

• Are hard metals and have very high melting points La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

• Have low to moderate reactivity

Most elements can only use electrons from their outermost orbital to bond with other
elements (see the subsection on Electron Configuration - page 63 in this portion
of the Passport and the subsection on Periodic Trends - page 59). Transition
metals, however, can use the two outermost orbitals. This chemical trait
allows them to bond with many different elements. It also means that Quick Fact
transition metals do not always use the same number of outer electrons Oxidation was originally defined
during chemical reactions. For example, during some reactions, iron as the combination of oxygen with
may give away two electrons. In other reactions, iron may give away other elements or compounds. Today,
three electrons. the use of the term has grown.
Oxidation is now often defined as the
Transition metals often form colorful compounds. They also often form loss of at least one electron
compounds in more than one oxidation state. when substances react.
• Oxidation state: the charge that develops on an atom as a result
of a loss or gain of electrons. (For more information on oxidation Quick Fact
states and numbers, see the Chemical Formulas and Bonding
The transition metals iron,
section - page 66).
cobalt, and nickel are the only
Groups 10 and 11 contain the precious metals—silver, gold, palladium, and platinum. elements known to produce

Fe
a magnetic field.
Group 12 metals have lower melting points than the other transition metals. Mercury has the lowest
melting point of all the transition metals. Its melting point is so low that it is a liquid under normal conditions.
Mercury was previously used as a liquid in thermometers because its low melting point allowed it to measure
temperatures below the freezing point of water.

Iron is one of the most abundant metals on Earth. It forms about 5.6% of the
earth’s crust. The core of the earth is believed to be mostly made up of molten iron.
Iron’s chemical symbol comes from the Latin word for iron, “ferrum.”

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is believed to exist in small amounts in many types of stars, including our sun
• Is mainly obtained from the minerals hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4)
IRON • Is a strongly magnetic element
Atomic #26 • Is an essential element for many living things, including humans

Pure iron metal oxidizes in moist air to form rust. The chemical name for rust is iron
oxide. When iron combines with oxygen in the air, iron oxide is formed. The chemical
Quick Fact formula for iron oxide is Fe2O3. Notice that in mineral form it is called hematite.
Iron ores are rocks and minerals Alloying iron with carbon creates steel. Adding other metals, such as nickel and
that contain iron compounds. They chromium, changes the properties of the steel. Doing that gives the steel greater
vary in color from dark gray to strength, resistance to corrosion, less brittleness, and other favorable characteristics.
rusty red. Pure metal iron can
be extracted from these
ores.
You Be The Chemist Challenge® 52 Study Materials
Zn
SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

Pure metal zinc is thought to have been produced in India around the 1400s. In
1746, it was rediscovered in Europe by Andreas Marggraf. Zinc compounds were
used long before that time. Zinc was used in the production of brass by the
ancient Romans as early as 500 B.C.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is a bluish-white shiny metal

ZINC • Is used in dry cell batteries

Atomic #30 • Is used to form alloys with copper, nickel, aluminum, and lead

Today, zinc is mainly used in a process called galvanization. In this process, a layer
of zinc is deposited on iron. In the presence of air, the zinc oxidizes. When this
happens, a coat of zinc dihydroxide-carbonate (Zn2(OH)2CO3) forms. This coating
protects the iron and prevents further corrosion.

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is used as a pigment in paints and is found in some cosmetics
and ointments. In addition, zinc is often found as a sulfide compound. Zinc sulfide

Ag
(ZnS) is used in fluorescent lights, x-ray screens and had been used in cathode ray
tubes in early TV's.

The chemical symbol for silver comes from the Latin word for silver, “argentum.”
Silver has been used since ancient times. Today, it is used in many countries to
make coins.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Has a bright white luster
• Is a very ductile and malleable metal
SILVER • Has the highest thermal and electrical conductivity of all metals
Atomic #47
Silver is stable in pure air and water. However, it undergoes a chemical reaction
when exposed to air containing sulfur compounds. The reaction produces silver
sulfide (Ag2S), a black substance known as tarnish.

Silver can be used to make high-quality mirrors. Silver has the ability to reflect almost
100% of the light that hits it. However, silver loses much of this ability when it
becomes tarnished.

Sterling silver is an alloy of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. It is harder than pure
silver and has a lower melting point. For these reasons, it is often used in jewelry and
silverware.

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 53 Study Materials

Au
SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

Gold is an attractive and valuable metal. It is used as a money standard in many

countries. Gold is formed into bars and ingots for accounting and storage
purposes. Its chemical symbol comes from the Latin word for gold, “aurum.”

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is a very ductile and malleable metal. Gold and silver are more ductile and
malleable than almost all other metals

• Is normally yellow in color but may look black, purple, or red when finely
GOLD divided
Atomic #79
• Is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity
• Reflects infrared radiation well
– May be formed into a foil to help shield spacecrafts and skyscrapers
from the sun’s heat

Pure gold is very soft, so it generally needs to be alloyed with other metals to
make it stronger. The purity of gold is measured by a unit called a carat. Gold that

Hg
is 100% pure is called “24-carat” gold. Gold that is 14 carat is 14 parts gold and
10 parts alloyed metal.

Mercury is commonly known as “quicksilver.” It gets its chemical symbol from the
Latinized Greek name “hydragyrum,” meaning liquid silver.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is the only metal element that is liquid at room temperature, which is about
75 °F

• Has very high surface tension

MERCURY • Is a very good conductor of electricity but not of heat
Atomic #80
• Is found in the red mineral mercury (II) sulfide (HgS), commonly called
cinnabar

In the past, mercury was commonly used in thermometers, barometers, and

laboratory vacuum pumps. Today, its use is limited because mercury and many
of its compounds are toxic to humans. Mercury exposure can cause damage to
the central nervous system and to the immune system.

Mercury alloys are called amalgams. Amalgams are alloys of mercury with at
least one other metal, usually gold, silver, tin, or copper. Silver amalgams are
used in dentistry. They often contain small amounts of other metals like tin and
copper. These dental amalgams were used for years to fill tooth cavities. They are
strong and durable, but soft enough to fit the size and shape of the cavity.
However, most dentists now use tooth-colored plastic fillings instead of
amalgams.

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 54 Study Materials

 SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

ELEMENTAL GROUPS
GROUP 17 – HALOGENS The Periodic Table of Elements
1 HALOGENS 18

Halogens, including fluorine, chlorine, and bromine, are nonmetal elements 1 H

2 13 14 15 16 17
He

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

with the following characteristics: 3 Na Mg

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Al Si P S Cl Ar

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
• Exist as diatomic molecules at normal room temperature—F2, Cl2 6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(except astatine) 7
(267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276)
Copernicium
(285)
Nihonium
(284)
Flerovium
(289)
Moscovium
(288)
Livermorium
(293)
Tennessine
(294)
Oganesson
(294)

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
• Are highly reactive and are not found naturally in pure form on the
earth
• Need only a single electron to complete their outer energy level (shell)
At normal room temperature (about 74oF), the halogen group includes elements
that occur in solid, liquid, and gaseous states. Iodine is a solid, bromine is a
liquid, while fluorine is a gas.
Quick Fact
Groups 13-16 have more variation
Halogens react with metals to form salts . Halogen salts (often referred in characteristics within each group
to as halides), include sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium chloride because they contain combinations of
(CaCl2). metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. They
are not discussed as groups often and
do not have commonly
used group names.
Quick Fact
The name halogen comes from Quick Fact
the Greek words “hals” meaning Fluorine compounds are
“salt” and “gennan” meaning added to toothpaste to help
“to form or generate.” prevent tooth decay

F
Fluorine is very reactive, making it difficult to separate from compounds. It was
finally separated in 1886 by French chemist Ferdinand Frederic Henri Moissan.
For nearly 75 years before, many other scientists tried but were not successful.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is the most electronegative element (see the subsection on Periodic Trends
- page 59.)

• Is the most reactive element, reacting with nearly all organic and inorganic
FLUORINE substances
Atomic #9
• Is a pale yellow-green color and is highly corrosive in gaseous form
In the late 1600s, minerals containing fluorine were used to etch glass.
Eventually, scientists figured out what substance was making that work. The
Quick Fact substance attacking the glass was hydrogen fluoride (HF). Many accidents
Pure fluorine’s reactivity makes occurred during early work with HF and fluorine because of their reactivity.
it difficult to store. It attacks When HF is dissolved in water, it is known as hydrofluoric acid, a very corrosive
glass and causes most metals and dangerous acid.
to burst into flames.

You Be The Chemist Challenge® 55 Study Materials

 Cl
SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

The name chlorine comes from the Greek word “chloros” meaning “pale green.”
In 1774, Karl Wilhelm Scheele first produced chlorine gas. However, he believed
the gas he produced was a compound that contained oxygen. He was incorrect.
In 1811, Sir Humphry Davy realized the gas was actually a new element.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is a very reactive halogen that combines directly with almost all elements
• Is found abundantly in the form of NaCl
CHLORINE
Atomic #17 • Is used commercially as a bleaching substance and a disinfectant
As a gas, chlorine has a yellowish-green color. It has a high density (for a gas) of
0.0032 g/mL. Its density is approximately 2.5 times greater than air. As a result,
chlorine gas generally remains close to the ground unless there is significant air
movement. The gas also has a sharp odor. It is extremely irritating to the
respiratory system and was used for chemical warfare during World War I.

Chlorine is used to disinfect or “chlorinate” water. The amount of chlorine needed

to kill harmful bacteria and other microorganisms depends on what is in the
water. Adding chlorine to water can make it safer to drink. This process is used
all across the world. Today, most water supplies are chlorinated. However, the
proper amount of chlorine must be used.

It is also used in many other everyday products including paper products, textiles,
petroleum products, medicines, disinfectants, pesticides, food, paints, and
plastics.

GROUP 18 – NOBLE GASES (INERT GASES) The Periodic Table of Elements

Noble gases, including helium, neon, and argon, are colorless, 1 NOBLE GASES 18

1 H He
2 13 14 15 16 17

odorless gases at room temperature with the following characteristics: 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

• Have low boiling points 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

• Have almost no reactivity. The term “inert” means 7 Fr Ra Rf

(267)
Db
(268)
Sg
(271)
Bh
(272)
Hs
(270)
Mt
(276)
Ds Rg Cn
Copernicium
(285)
Nh
Nihonium
(284)
Fl
Flerovium
(289)
Mc
Moscovium
(288)
Lv
Livermorium
(293)
Ts
Tennessine
(294)
Og
Oganesson
(294)

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
inactive, so noble gases are often referred to as inert Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

gases because of their low reactivity.

• Have complete outer electron energy levels, creating a very
stable state (see the subsection on Electron Configuration -
page 63).
• Do not tend to form chemical bonds and are unlikely to
gain or lose electrons
Noble gases are commonly used in lighting. Argon is used in common
incandescent light bulbs. Neon is often used in lighted restaurant and Quick Fact
advertising signs, which is why these signs are called “neon” signs. The other Noble gases were known
noble gases are used in these signs as well. The signs are made of glass tubes mostly as “inert gases” until it
containing one or more noble gases. When an electric current is passed through the tube, the was discovered that xenon
gas will glow with bright colors. Neon creates a reddish-orange color. Argon produces a pale reacts with fluorine and
purple color. Other colors are created by mixing the gases together or mixing them with other oxygen.
elements.

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 He
SECTION V: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORCES OF ATTRACTIONS

Helium was discovered when Pierre Janssen and Norman Lockyer noticed
something strange about the light from the sun. Lockyer hypothesized that it was
an unknown element. He named the new element helium. Helium gets its name
from the Greek root “helios” meaning “sun.”

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is the lightest of the noble gases

HELIUM • Is the second most abundant element in the universe

Atomic #2 • Has the lowest boiling point of any element
• Used for inflating lighter-than-air balloons because it is less dense than
oxygen or nitrogen

– Unlike hydrogen, helium is not combustible making it safe to use in

party balloons.

– French physicist Jacques Charles is credited for being the first to use
helium in a passenger balloon.

Helium also has the lowest freezing point of any element. It is the only element
that cannot be changed from a liquid to a solid by just lowering the temperature.
It will remain a liquid even as its temperature gets close to absolute zero (~ -460oF)

Ar
at standard pressure. However, helium can be changed into its solid form by
increasing the pressure and decreasing the temperature.

Argon gets its name from the Greek word “argos” meaning “inactive.”

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is colorless and odorless as a gas and a liquid
• Makes up a little less than 1% of the earth’s atmosphere by volume
• Is used in incandescent light bulbs

ARGON – Argon prevents oxygen from corroding the hot wire filament inside light
Atomic #18 bulbs.

Argon-40 is the most abundant isotope of argon. Argon-40 is produced by the decay
of potassium-40. Scientists can compare the proportion of K-40 to Ar-40 in a rock
or mineral sample to figure out its age. This radioactive dating process is known as
potassium-argon dating. Geologists have used this method to date rocks as old as
Quick Fact 4 billion years. In addition, this method is also used to figure out the age of ancient
The wire filament in most human artifacts.
incandescent light bulbs is made
of tungsten because the metal
has a very high melting
point.

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LANTHANIDE AND ACTINIDE SERIES

Elements located in the two rows at the bottom of the periodic table are
The Periodic Table of Elements
called the inner transition metals. They are not considered to be a part of 1 LANTHANIDES & ACTINIDES 18

H He
any of the 18 groups. 1

2 Li
2

Be
13

B
14

C
15

N
16

O
17

F Ne

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Lanthanide series (lanthanoid series) are the inner transition metals from 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu

Ag
Zn Ga Ge

Sn
As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Cd In Sb Te I Xe

period 6. They are named after the first element in the series, lanthanum, 6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

and share the following characteristics: La

(267)

Ce
(268)

Pr
(271)

Nd
(272)

Pm Sm Eu
(270) (276)

Gd Tb
Copernicium

Dy
(285)
Nihonium

Ho
(284)
Flerovium

Er
(289)
Moscovium
(288)

Tm Yb
Livermorium
(293)
Tennessine

Lu
(294)
Oganesson
(294)

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

• Are shiny, silvery-white metals

• Are chemically similar to each other; their properties differ slightly
because of their different atomic numbers
• Have high melting and boiling points
• Most oxidize quickly in air to form a tarnish
• React with water to release hydrogen gas
Lanthanides are found naturally on the earth. They were originally classified
as rare earth metals, but now scientists know that most lanthanides can be
found in large quantities in the earth’s crust. Most of the lanthanides occur
together in nature. They are also difficult to separate from each other. Quick Fact
Scandium and yttrium have
Many lanthanides are used as phosphors. A phosphor is a chemical substance
properties similar to the
that emits light when energized by electrons. Most lanthanides emit colored
lanthanides. Therefore, they are
light when they are bombarded by a beam of electrons. As a result, they are
sometimes treated as
used in fluorescent light bulbs and were used in the cathode ray tubes in the
lanthanides.
early TV sets. They are also often used in lasers and sunglass lenses.

Some lanthanide compounds are used in catalysts. They help to speed up the
process by which crude oil is changed into gasoline and other products.
Quick Fact
Lanthanide compounds are also used in searchlights and magnets. Only uranium, thorium,
protactinium, and very small amounts of
actinium and plutonium are found
Actinide series (actinoid series) are the inner transition metals from period naturally on the earth. The other actinides
7. They are named after the first element in the series, actinium, and share are produced artificially in nuclear
the following characteristics: reactors and particle accelerators.
Most plutonium is produced
• Are hard metals that tarnish in air artificially as well.
• Are all radioactive elements and are used in the nuclear energy field
Studies on actinide properties have been difficult because of their
radioactive instability.

NOTES

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PERIODIC TRENDS
As mentioned previously, valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy level (or shell) of an atom (including all sublevels of
the outermost energy level). They are represented as the dots that surround the chemical symbol in a Lewis symbol. For group 1-2 elements,
the number of valence electrons equals their group number. For group 13-18 elements, the number of valence electrons is ten fewer than
their group number (see the subsection on Lewis Symbols - page 66).

• An atom of a main group element can typically hold a maximum of eight valence electrons. The exceptions are hydrogen
and helium.
• Atoms that have fewer than eight valence electrons tend to form bonds with other atoms. Atoms will give, take, or share
electrons to achieve a full outermost energy level (with eight electrons), which makes them stable.
• Generally, metals lose valence electrons to become more stable and nonmetals gain electrons.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes how strongly the nucleus of an atom attracts the shared pair of electrons in a
chemical bond. Electronegativity indicates how strong of a pull an atom has on electrons and how strongly it will compete for electrons
during reactions. When two atoms are bonded together, the shared pair of electrons are more attracted to and more tightly bound to the
more electronegative atom. The difference in electronegativity between two atoms determines what type of bond they form.

• Within a period, electronegativity tends to increase from left to right. Within the same period of the periodic table,
moving one column to the right means adding one more proton and electron to the same outer electron shell
(elements within the same period have the same number of electron shells). Think of proton-electron attractions as
that of small magnets. The more proton-electron pairs are present in an atom, the more the outer shell is drawn
towards the center of the atom. As the outer shell is drawn in and the valence electrons get closer to the attractive,
positively charged nucleus, the atom holds onto its own electrons and other electrons more tightly.

• Within a group, electronegativity tends to decrease from top to bottom. Moving down one group on the periodic table
means adding one more electron shell, increasing the size of the atoms. As the atoms get bigger, there is more space
and there are more electrons between the nucleus and the valence electrons in the outer shell. The nucleus’ ability to
attract an electron decreases as the electron moves farther away from the nucleus and as more electron shells are added
between that electron and the nucleus—this is called “shielding”. Therefore, the nucleus of a larger atom can’t attract other
(or its own) electrons as well as a smaller atom.
Fluorine and chlorine have the same number of valence electrons, but fluorine is smaller, therefore fluorine is more capable of
attracting electrons and adding them to its shell to complete its octet. Fluorine is more electronegative than chlorine (See the
subsection on Atomic Radii - page 61).

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
0.7 4

Pauling Scale

*Electronegativity is measured on the Pauling scale, with 0.7 being the least and 4.0 being the most electronegative.
**The electronegativity is unknown for the elements on the table shown in gray. This includes all the noble gases besides krypton and xenon, as well as elements
103 through 118.
***The arrows indicate the general trend of electronegativity: it increases moving to the right within a period and moving up within a group.

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The most strongly electronegative elements are found in the upper right of the periodic table (excluding the noble gases). Fluorine is
the most electronegative element. Francium is the least electronegative, meaning its nucleus attracts electrons more weakly than any
other element. Francium is the most “electropositive” element.

EXAMPLE:
The electronegativity (from least to greatest) for the second row of the periodic table is: Li, Be, B,
C, N, O, F. Notice that neon (Ne) is not listed. Neon’s outermost energy level, level 2, already has
eight valence electrons (an octet). Since the outer shell is full, neon does not need to gain or lose
electrons - it is already stable!

IONIZATION ENERGY
Ionization energy is the amount of energy needed to remove one of the outermost electrons from a neutral atom in the gas phase.
Each negatively charged electron is attracted to the positively charged nucleus, so in order to remove an electron a certain amount
of energy (the ionization energy) is needed to overcome that attraction. Think of ionization energy as an indicator of how strongly
an atom holds onto its valence electrons. A higher ionization energy means the atom has a stronger hold on its valence electrons,
so it takes more energy to get the electrons away from the atom and its nucleus. A lower ionization energy means that the atom can
more easily lose its valence electrons, and the electrons are not as tightly bound to the nucleus.

• Within a period, ionization energy tends to increase from left to right across the periodic table. Much like
electronegativity, this trend occurs because of the increasing number of protons and electrons. More protons and
electrons means more proton-electron pairs attracted to one another (again, think of proton-electron attractions as
that of small magnets). As proton-electron pairs are added, the electron shell is pulled closer to the nucleus. Electrons
closer to the nucleus are more strongly attracted to the nucleus, so it requires more energy to overcome that attraction
and remove an electron.

• Within a group, ionization energy tends to decrease from top to bottom down the periodic table. Also similar to
electronegativity, this trend occurs because atoms get larger moving down a group. The valence electrons are in
electron shells farther and farther from the nucleus. Less energy is needed to remove an electron that is farther from
the nucleus, so ionization energy decreases as atoms get larger moving down a group.

IONIZATION ENERGY

375.7 2372.3

*In the table above, ionization energy is measured in kilojoules per mol (kJ/mol).
**The ionization energy is unknown for the elements on the table shown in white.
***The arrows indicate the general trend of ionization energy. It increases moving to the right within a period and moving up within a group.

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Ionization energy and electronegativity trends explain why metals and nonmetals react differently to achieve stability. Metallic
elements like sodium lose, rather than gain, electrons to reach an octet because they have lower ionization energies (and lower
electronegativity). Moving to the right across the periodic table, atoms get closer to having a full octet, become more electronegative,
and have higher ionization energy. As a result, nonmetals are more likely to gain, rather than lose, electrons and become like the
noble gas in their same period, rather than losing electrons to become like the noble gas in the period above.

Since atoms want to be stable, elements like the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, etc.) that are only one electron away from a full octet
will want to gain an electron, and it will take more energy to take one away. Notice that noble gases have higher ionization energies
because they already have an octet and are therefore stable. (See Octet Rule subsection - page 69)

ATOMIC RADII
The atomic radius of an element’s atom is a measure of atomic size. For a single atom, it can be considered as the typical distance
from the nucleus to the boundary of the electron cloud. To understand this, think of an atom as a ball. The radius of the ball can be
found by measuring from the center of the ball to the edge. It can also be found by dividing the diameter by two.

In actuality, an atom does not have a clearly defined edge because of the electron cloud. The atomic radius is determined by how
close one atom is to a neighboring atom. It is half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms of one element that are bonded
together. This distance is so small that it is typically measured in picometers (1 pm = 10-12 m).

EXAMPLE:
The atomic radius for bonded metallic atoms in an elemental sample, like sodium, is half the distance
between the nuclei of the two neighboring atoms.

Distance between the nuclei of two neighboring sodium atoms:

372 pm

Atomic radius of sodium:

186 pm

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EXAMPLE:
In a bonded nonmetal, like oxygen or another diatomic molecule, the radius is half the distance
between the nuclei of the atoms in the molecule.

Distance between the nuclei of oxygen atoms joined in a diatomic oxygen molecule:
146 pm

Atomic radius of oxygen:

73 pm

• Atomic radii tend to decrease from left to right across the periodic table. Similar to electronegativity and ionization
energy, this trend results from the increasing positive charge in the nucleus from left to right across a period. The more
positively charged nucleus attracts the electrons more strongly and pulls them closer to the nucleus.

• Atomic radii tend to increase from top to bottom down the periodic table. This trend is caused by the increasing energy
levels (and thus larger orbitals). The electrons are farther from the pull of the positive nucleus, and are therefore not held
as tightly or as closely.

ATOMIC RADIUS
31 270

picometers (pm)

*In the table above, the atomic radii are measured in picometers (pm).
**The atomic radius is unknown for the elements on the table shown in gray.
***The arrows indicate the general trend for atomic radii. It increases as you move to the left within a period and as you move from the top to the bottom within a group.

Knowing the atomic radii of elements can help to explain their ionization energies. If the radius of an element is small, the electrons
are closer to the nucleus. This means that the protons in the nucleus are more strongly attracting and pulling in the electrons in the
outer shells. The amount of energy needed to pull an electron off (the ionization energy) gets smaller as the distance between the
valence electrons and nucleus gets larger, and as more electrons are added between the valence electrons and nucleus. When there
are more electrons shells, the attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electrons is weaker, so pulling off an electron will
be easier and require less energy.

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
An element gets its chemical properties mainly based on its atoms’ electrons. All electrons are the same, but they aren’t all found
in the same places in the atom. Electron configuration is the term for how electrons are arranged within an atom.

Because scientists are not able to observe all phenomena and scientific processes, they use models. A model is an image, picture,
diagram, mathematical equation, or other representation of a phenomenon or process. It is important to remember that models are
used to help with our understanding of things we may not be able to observe easily so they may not be exact. As mentioned earlier,
scientists have developed different models of the atom over the years. These models have helped scientists to build a better
understanding of atoms and of science in general.

For a long time, scientists thought electrons traveled around the nucleus in simple circular orbits. They pictured it the same as the
way the planets move around the sun. We now know that this is not correct. Electrons move around the atom, but they don’t move
in simple circular orbits. They are actually found in cloud-like zones around the nucleus. The constant random and rapid movement
of the electrons makes it very hard to predict their location and speed, so they are described as being found “somewhere in the cloud.”

You can think of it like an airplane that flies through a cloud. Even if you watched carefully as the plane entered the cloud, the pilot
could turn the airplane in another direction once inside. You would have a very hard time knowing where the plane was. However,
you could use radar to locate the approximate location of the plane.

Scientists of the 20th century studied how light interacts with electrons, which helped them learn more about the location of electrons
in atoms. The information they discovered is just the beginning. Scientists still have much to learn and confirm about atoms.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states:

• The more accurately we can determine the position of an electron, the less accurately we can determine the
momentum of the electron at that point in time.
• Likewise, the more accurately we can determine the momentum of an electron, the less accurately we can determine
the position of the electron at that point in time.
Simply stated, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle tells us that it is impossible to know both the exact
position and the exact velocity of an electron at the same time. The best way to visualize
this is to represent the probability of finding an electron of a given energy and
momentum within a given space.

An orbital is a specific area outside of the nucleus where an electron is likely Quick Fact
to be found. Be careful not to confuse cloud-like orbitals with circular orbits.
“Shells” is a simplified way to
Different orbitals are grouped according to their shapes and are identified
represent principal quantum number
by the letters s, p, d, and f. The letters correspond to the general shape of
because orbits in shells are easier to visualize
the orbital cloud. For example, an s orbital is spherical. It looks a little bit
than orbital probability clouds. If electrons have
like a cotton ball. The p orbitals look like two touching cotton balls. The d
the same principal quantum number (the same
and f orbitals have more complicated shapes.
energy level), those electrons are in the same
To get an idea of an electron’s location, the first thing to know is its principal shell. However, remember that electrons are
quantum number. This number is simply a whole number (1, 2, 3 …) that not actually in shells. They are in
gives us an idea of the size of the orbital. Therefore, it also describes the overall orbitals.
energy of the electron. For example, a level 3 electron is at a higher energy level
than a level 2 electron.

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In general, electrons with lots of energy tend to be farther from the center of the atom. This also means that those orbitals are
usually larger.

EXAMPLE:
A 3s orbital is larger than a 1s orbital. However, both are s orbitals, so they have the same spherical
shape.

An electron with more energy can occupy more of the different types of orbitals. You can think of electrons like people. The more
energy a person has the more places he/she is likely to go. You are not likely to find a couch potato at the top of Mount Everest.

EXAMPLE:
An energy level 1 electron can be found in only one type of orbital. It would be found in a simple s orbital.
An energy level 3 electron can find its way into an s orbital, one of three possible p orbitals, or one of five
possible d orbitals! Therefore, a level 3 electron can “choose” from nine different orbitals.

Each orbital can hold up to two electrons. Based on the previous example, we know that an atom cannot have more than 18 electrons
with energy level 3 because there are nine orbitals that hold two electrons each. The example also tells us that there are different
numbers of each type of subshell.

• The s-type subshell has one orbital, which can hold up to two electrons.
• The p-type subshell has three orbitals. Each orbital can hold two electrons, for a total of six electrons.
• The d-type subshell has five orbitals. Each of those orbitals can hold two electrons, for a possible total of ten electrons.
• The f-type subshell has seven orbitals. Each of those orbitals can hold two electrons, for a total of up to fourteen electrons.
The table below breaks down the amount of electrons that different types of sublevels or subshells can “hold”:

Subshell Type Number of Orbitals Maximum Number of Electrons

s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14

These orbitals and the electron energy levels are filled in a specific order, as shown in the diagram below:

1s
Quick Fact 2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
The term “sublevel” can also be

4s 4p 4d 4f
used instead of subshell. For
example, we can say that “lithium has
electrons in the 1s and 2s sublevels.” 5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
Therefore, we know that its
electrons occupy the 1s and
2s subshells. 7s 7p

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As shown above, the order for filling in the orbitals and energy levels is: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p,
4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, etc.
Quick Fact
Start at the top (1s). Begin at the base of each arrow and follow it all the way to the Notice that electrons fill in the 4s orbital
point. As you go, fill in the orbitals and energy levels that the arrow passes through. before the 3d orbital. The 3d state is at a higher
energy level than the 4s even though the 3d state has a
Scientists use a certain format to write an atom’s electron configuration. The electron lower principal quantum number. There is no simple
configuration below represents the element helium. explanation here, but it has to do with how an electron
1s2 interacts with all the other electrons already in the atom. There
are also some exceptions to this when the different levels are
• The first number is the principal quantum number. Again, it is the filled. Again, you can think of this in terms of people. A
electron’s energy level. In this case, the “1” represents the first mountain climber might have the energy needed to
energy level, which tells us that the electrons of helium occupy the climb Mount Everest. However, s/he may stay at
first energy level of the atom. the base camp if there are already too
• The letter refers to the type of orbital. In this case, the “s” tells us many people at the top.
that the helium atom’s two electrons occupy an “s” orbital.
• The superscript number refers to the total number of electrons in
that subshell. In this case, the “2” tells us that there are two
electrons in the “s” orbital at the “1” energy level.
As the image of the lithium atom shows, the first two orbitals are s orbitals (with spherical
shapes). Also notice that the second energy level orbital is larger and farther from the nucleus.
The electron configuration for lithium is: 1s22s1.

Notice that the last (and only) energy level where helium electrons can be found is the
first energy level (1). For lithium, its last electron can be found in the second energy
level (the 2s sublevel). Helium is in the first row of the periodic table. Lithium is in the
second row.

This trend continues with all elements. The electron configuration of an element or ion
can be determined by its location on the periodic table. The way the periodic table is
arranged indicates the specific order in which the electron energy levels are filled, going
from left to right across each row as pictured below (compare to orbital filling diagram on
page 64). For example, the electron configuration of argon, located on the right in the 3p
section, is 1s22s22p63s23p6. All of the orbitals in the first row are filled, as are all of the orbitals
in the second and third rows. The electron configuration of chlorine, located to the left of argon, is
1s22s22p63s23p5. Each section of the periodic table below is labeled with the orbital sublevel of the elements’
valence electrons. Also notice that elements in the same groups have similar electron configurations but with increasing number of
energy levels as you move down the table.

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CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND BONDING
OBJECTIVES
• Identify the Lewis symbols for different elements.
• Identify and write chemical formulas using chemical symbols.
• Recognize common chemical compounds and their formulas.
• Use the guidelines of chemical nomenclature to name chemical compounds.
• Identify the three primary types of bonds.
• Use Lewis structures to illustrate bonding.

LEWIS SYMBOLS
Scientists have many different ways to represent an atom of an element. One way is to write the element’s ground-state electron
configuration (see the subsection on Electron Configuration - page 63). Another way is to use Lewis symbols. Lewis symbols (also
known as electron dot structures) contain the element’s chemical symbol and dots that represent the high-energy outermost
electrons, called valence electrons. Remember, each element has a unique chemical symbol of one or two letters, as shown on the
periodic table.

VALENCE ELECTRONS
Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest energy level, located in the electron
shell the farthest from the nucleus of an atom (see Periodic Trends - page 59). Atoms
often react using their valence electrons, so looking at a Lewis symbol and knowing Quick Fact
how many valence electrons an element has can help determine how it will react The ground-state electron
with other elements. The electrons not in the highest energy level are known as configuration of an atom shows the
core electrons, and are not usually involved in chemical reactions. lowest energy state of the atom. In
the presence of light energy, electrons can
Most main group elements (elements in groups 1-2 and groups 13-18) can have
sometimes absorb energy to jump to a
up to eight valence electrons. Transition metals (groups 3-12) do not follow this
higher energy level, changing
rule.
the electron configuration. This
Groups 1-2 and 13-18 (the main group elements) all follow the same pattern of is called an excited state.
valence electrons. Moving from left to right across the periodic table, one electron is
added with each group. The number of valence electrons increases by one with each
group from left to right, not including the transition metals (groups 3-12, colored purple), as
shown on the following page.

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VALENCE ELECTRONS BY PERIODIC GROUP

Valence
Electrons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

• Groups 1-2: the number of valence electrons equals the element’s group number on the periodic table. For example,
calcium is in group 2 and has two valence electrons.

• Groups 13-18: the number of valence electrons is ten fewer than the element’s group number. For example, oxygen
is in group 16 and has six (= 16 - 10) valence electrons.

• Groups 3–12: the process is not so simple for the transition metals. Transition metal atoms can use electrons from their
inner shells as valence electrons, so the number of valence electrons varies.

• Group 18: the noble gases in the last group on the periodic table each have eight valence electrons. Since eight is
the maximum number of electrons that can fit into each of these atom’s outermost energy level, each of the noble
gases has a full octet. Atoms are most stable when they have eight valence electrons, making the noble gases
generally unreactive.
The noble gas helium is an exception with only two valence electrons. Its outermost energy level is only a 1s orbital, which is full
with two electrons, making helium stable.

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DRAWING LEWIS SYMBOLS

The Lewis symbol of one atom of an element depends on the element’s chemical symbol and the number of valence electrons that
atom has.

To draw the Lewis symbol of one atom of an element, use the following steps:

1. Write the chemical symbol of the element. The symbol represents the nucleus and all of the electrons not in the
valence shell (the core electrons).

2. Determine the number of valence electrons based on the element’s periodic table group.

3. For each of the first four valence electrons, draw a single dot on each side of the chemical symbol.

4. After there is one electron dot on each side, each additional electron can be paired with another electron dot
until all valence electrons are shown in the structure.

EXAMPLE:
To draw the Lewis symbol of one atom of nitrogen, begin with the chemical symbol “N.” Nitrogen is
in group 15. To determine the number of valence electrons, we subtract ten from fifteen and find that
nitrogen has 5 valence electrons.

Add the first four valence electrons with

one dot on each side of the chemical symbol:

Finally, add one more electron to reach a total

of five valence electrons. This is the Lewis symbol
for one atom of nitrogen:

Atoms of other elements can be drawn using these same steps, as shown below.

Atom of Element Lewis Symbol

Lithium

Boron

Beryllium

Carbon

Oxygen

Fluorine

Chlorine

Lewis symbols help illustrate why elements of the same group tend to react similarly. Look at the Lewis symbols for fluorine and
chlorine above. The Lewis symbols for elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. All of the halogens
(group 17) need just one more electron to have a full octet and be stable, so they will all participate in reactions where they gain
one electron (see the subsection on Types of Chemical Bonds - page 76).

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THE OCTET RULE

The number of valence electrons indicates how many bonds an element is likely to make. The number of electrons that an atom tends
to gain, lose, or share (and therefore the number of bonds that atom will make) can be predicted by the octet rule, which states that:

• Atoms of main group elements are more stable when they have eight valence electrons,
so they gain, lose, or share electrons by forming chemical bonds with other atoms.
Atoms form bonds in such a way that they achieve an octet of valence electrons
(eight valence electrons).
Think
• A metal element tends to lose electrons until it has the same electron About It...
configuration as the noble gas in the period above itself. Sodium tends to
Argon’s electron configuration is
lose an electron to achieve the same electron configuration as neon.
1s22s22p63s23p6. What ion of chlorine
• A nonmetal element tends to gain or share electrons until it has the same has the most stable electron
electron configuration as the noble gas in the same period as itself. Sulfur configuration? What about
tends to gain two electrons to achieve the same configuration as argon. calcium?
• Hydrogen, helium, lithium, and beryllium are exceptions to the octet rule
because they achieve the same electron configuration as the noble gas helium,
which has only two electrons.

WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAS

When atoms form chemical bonds to gain or lose electrons according to the octet rule, Quick Fact
those atoms form a compound. Remember, a compound is a pure substance made up of
In a chemical formula, the less
two or more atoms that are chemically combined in a whole-number ratio. The chemical
electronegative element is written first.
formula of a compound shows which elements it contains, as well as how many atoms
After reading about electronegativity in
of each element. Chemical formulas use subscripts to indicate how many atoms of each
the subsection on Periodic Trends (page
element there are in a given compound. Subscripts are the numbers located at the lower
59), this will be an easier way to
right of a chemical symbol.
determine the order of elements in a
chemical formula than
EXAMPLE: oxidation number.
Water is a compound that contains the elements hydrogen and oxygen.
Two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are needed to form one water
molecule, so the chemical formula is H2O.

Chemical symbol for hydrogen Chemical symbol for oxygen

H2O
The 2 indicates that two hydrogen When no subscript is written after the chemical symbol,
atoms are required to make one just one atom is needed. One atom of oxygen is required
water molecule to make one molecule of water.

The subscripts after hydrogen and oxygen in the previous example show how many atoms of each element are needed to make a
molecule of water: 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom.

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CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF COMMON COMPOUNDS

The following table lists some common compounds and their chemical formulas.

Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula

Alcohol (grain alcohol) Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) C2H5OH

Bleach (chlorine bleach) Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl (aq)*

Chloroform Trichloromethane CHCl3

Laughing gas Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen monoxide) N2O

Lye Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Quicklime Calcium oxide CaO

Silica (sand) Silicon dioxide SiO2

Rock salt (halite)** Sodium chloride NaCl

Table sugar (cane sugar) Sucrose C12H22O11

Vinegar Acetic acid CH3COOH (aq)*

Water Water H2O

Wood alcohol Methanol (methyl alcohol) CH3OH

* An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. Vinegar is actually a mixture of acetic acid in
water. To indicate an aqueous solution, scientists generally list (aq) after the chemical formula. For example, in
the chemical equation H2CO3 (aq)→H2O (l) + CO2 (g), carbonic acid, H2CO3, is dissolved in water. The equation
also shows that it breaks down to produce liquid water and gaseous carbon dioxide.

** Halite, commonly known as rock salt, is the mineral form of NaCl. Common table salt is also primarily made of
NaCl (generally about 97%–99% NaCl), but it may also contain other chemical substances, such as magnesium
carbonate. Many brands of table salt also contain additives, such as iodine salts, for health reasons.

NAMING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

Chemical nomenclature is the system used for naming chemical Quick Fact
substances. There are millions of identified chemical Chlorine changes to chloride in
compounds, so naming them all would be difficult without a the compound sodium chloride.
set of systematic rules. Some compounds have been For some elements, the name is
recognized for a long time and have common names (like
Quick Fact
changed to end in -ide when the
water) but most compounds do not have common There are exceptions for naming
element gains electrons to
names. Instead, they have standard names based on compounds. According to the guidelines
become an ion.
the naming rules established by the International Union for naming compounds, the chemical name
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The rules for of water should be dihydrogen monoxide.
naming compounds depend on the type of compound. Instead, the IUPAC name for water is
Similar compounds, like acids or ionic compounds, have actually oxidane. However, water is
similar names. most commonly called “water,”
even by scientists.

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NAMING IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

An ion is an atom or molecule that has lost or gained one or more of its valence electrons. Atoms that have lost electrons and acquired
a positive charge are called cations. Atoms that have gained electrons and acquired a negative charge are called anions. Ions formed
from a single atom are called monatomic ions.

• Monatomic cations formed from atoms keep the same name as the element.

Symbol IUPAC Name

K+ Potassium ion

Na+ Sodium ion

Al3+ Aluminum ion

H+ Hydrogen ion

• If a metal can form different cations, the positive charge is shown by placing Roman numerals in parentheses after
the metal name. Many of the transition metals can take on different charges and still be stable. Take a look at the
ions of iron in the table below. Both cations are stable and are likely to form.

Symbol IUPAC Name

Fe2+ Iron(II) ion

Fe3+ Iron(III) ion

Scientists sometimes include Roman numerals even for metals that do not form more than one cation. For example, although Al3+ is
the most common aluminum ion, it is also theoretically possible for aluminum to have a charge of 1+ or 2+. Scientists can write
“aluminum(III) ion” to specify which ion is present.

To distinguish anions from cations, anions have different endings to their names.

• Monatomic anions are named by replacing the ending of the element name with “–ide.”

Symbol IUPAC Name

H- Hydride ion*

Cl- Chloride ion

N3- Nitride ion

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Ions containing more than one type of atom are polyatomic ions. When writing the symbol/formula of a polyatomic ion, the symbol of
the cation is written first, followed by the symbol of the anion. The overall charge of a polyatomic ion is the sum of the individual oxidation
numbers for each atom in that ion.

• Polyatomic cations formed from nonmetal atoms have names that end in “–ium.”

Symbol/Formula IUPAC Name

NH4+ Ammonium ion

H3O + Hydronium ion

• Polyatomic anions may be written in different ways depending on the number of atoms and the elements that
combine. For example, some are named in the same way as monatomic ions with “–ide” at the end of the name (as
a suffix).

Symbol/Formula IUPAC Name

OH- Hydroxide ion

CN- Cyanide ion

• Polyatomic anions that contain oxygen have names that end in “–ate” or “–ite.” These anions are known as oxyanions.
When an element can form two different oxyanions with the same charge, the suffix “–ate” is used for the oxyanion
with one more oxygen than the oxyanion with the suffix “–ite.” As shown below, sulfate and sulfite have the same
charge, but sulfate has one more oxygen atom than sulfite.

Symbol/Formula IUPAC Name

SO42- Sulfate ion

SO32- Sulfite ion

• An ion that contains hydrogen and an oxyanion is named by adding the word hydrogen or dihydrogen at the
beginning of the name (as a prefix).

Symbol/Formula IUPAC Name

HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate ion

H2PO4- Dihydrogen phosphate ion

Ionic compounds are formed from oppositely charged ions bonded together by electrical forces (remember, opposite charges attract).
When writing the name or symbol/formula of an ionic compound, the name or symbol/formula of the cation is written first, followed
by the name or symbol/formula of the anion.

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NAMING ACIDS
Chemical compounds that release hydrogen cations (H+) when they are dissolved in water are acids (see the Acids, Bases, and pH section
- page 94). Many acids are composed of two parts: negatively charged ions (monatomic or polyatomic anions) combined with enough
positively charged hydrogen cations (H+) to make the compound electrically neutral.

Some acid compounds have only two elements: hydrogen and one other element. These compounds are called binary
acids and do not contain oxygen.
• To name binary acids use the following steps:
Quick Fact
1. Start with the prefix “hydro–.” Hydrofluoric acid actually
refers to HF that is dissolved in
2. Add the name of the monatomic anion (the element that is not hydrogen).
water, or HF(aq). When HF is in
3. Change the “–ide” ending of the monatomic anion name to “–ic.” the gas phase, it is called
hydrogen fluoride.
4. Add the word “acid” to the end of the name.

EXAMPLE:
For the acid HF, begin with the prefix “hydro.” Then, add on the name of the monatomic anion of
fluorine, which is fluoride. The result of the first two steps is “hydrofluoride.” Next, change the “–
ide” ending to “–ic.” This gives the name “hydrofluoric.” Finally, add the word “acid.” The name of
the compound HF is hydrofluoric acid.

Symbol/Formula IUPAC Name

HCl Hydrochloric acid

H2S Hydrosulfuric acid

Other acidic compounds contain oxygen. These acids are called oxyacids. There are two main methods
Think
for naming acids that contain oxygen, depending on the name of the polyatomic anion involved.
About It...
• To name oxyacids that contain a polyatomic anion with a name ending in “–ate” use the Look back at the definition
following steps: of an acid. Why do HF(aq)
and HF(g) have different
1. Start with the name of the polyatomic anion.
names? Is HF(g) still an
2. Change the “–ate” ending "of the polyatomic anion name to “–ic.” acid?
3. Add the word “acid.”

EXAMPLE:
For the acid HClO3, begin with the name of the anion. ClO3– is a chlorate ion. Next, change the “–
ate” ending to “–ic.” This gives the name “chloric.” Finally, add the word “acid.” The name of the
compound HClO3 is chloric acid.

Symbol/Formula IUPAC Name

HNO3 Nitric acid

H2SO4 Sulfuric acid

Notice that sulfuric acid is an exception to step 2 above because its name is not “sulfic acid.” Another exception is phosphate, PO43–.
The acid H3PO4 is called phosphoric acid, rather than “phosphic acid.”

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• To name oxyacids that contain a polyatomic anion with a name ending in “–ite” use the following steps:
1. Start with the name of the polyatomic anion.
2. Change the “–ite” ending of the polyatomic anion name to “–ous.”
3. Add the word “acid.”

EXAMPLE:
For the acid compound HClO2, begin with the name of the anion. ClO2– is a chlorite ion. Next, change
the “–ite” ending to “–ous.” This gives the name “chlorous.” Finally, add the word “acid.” The name
of the compound HClO2 is chlorous acid.

Symbol/Formula IUPAC Name

HNO2 Nitrous acid

H2SO3 Sulfurous acid

Notice that sulfurous acid (H2SO3) is an exception to step 2 above because its name is not “sulfous acid.” Another exception is phosphite,
PO33-“. The acid H3PO3 is called phosphorous acid, rather than "phosphous acid."

NAMING MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Molecular compounds are formed by combining two or more nonmetal atoms. They are typically held together by covalent bonds
(see the section on Types of Chemical Bonds - page 76).
• To name binary molecular compounds from the molecular formulas use the following steps:
1. Write the name of the element that is the most electropositive (least electronegative). This is usually the element that is
farther to the left in the periodic table. If both elements are in the same group, then the element with the higher atomic
number is usually written first.
2. Write the name of the second element.
3. Change the ending of the second element to “–ide.”
4. Use the Greek prefixes below to represent the number of atoms of each element in the compound.

Prefixes
1: mono- 6: hexa-
2: di- 7: hepta-
3: tri- 8: octa-
4: tetra- 9: nona-
5: penta- 10: deca-

EXAMPLE:
For the molecular compound CO, oxygen is found farther to the right on the periodic table, and
therefore attracts electrons more strongly than carbon does. Since carbon is found farther to the left
on the periodic table, it is less electronegative. Therefore, carbon is written first. Oxygen is written
second, and its ending is changed to “–ide.” At this point, the name is “carbon oxide.” Finally, add the
Greek prefix “mono–” to oxygen. The name of the compound is carbon monoxide. (Note the extra “o”
is dropped).

In some cases, the prefix “mono-” is left out implying just one atom of the element; e.g. ZnO has the
name zinc oxide. Likewise, the name of the molecular compound CO2 is carbon dioxide.

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Symbol/Formula IUPAC Name

Cl2O Dichlorine monoxide

NF3 Nitrogen trifluoride

Remember, these rules apply only to molecular compounds, which are made of nonmetal atoms bonded together. The rules for
naming combinations of metal and nonmetal atoms (see the subsection on Ionic Compounds - page 71) are not the same.

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
Although forces are most often discussed in relationship to gravity and pressure, a force is any kind Quick Fact
of push or pull on an object. Pressure is a type of force that requires objects to touch, so it is Quantum mechanics explains
known as a contact force. Friction, air resistance, and tension are also examples of contact forces. why the electrons in an atom stay a
There are other forces that can act on objects at a distance; these are known as non-contact
certain distance away from the
nucleus. Otherwise, protons and
forces. These forces include intermolecular and intramolecular forces. An intermolecular force is electrons would simply crash into
a force acting between two or more molecules. An intramolecular force is a force acting within one another because of Coulomb’s
an atom, ion, or molecule. law and the attraction of their
charges.
Intramolecular forces of attraction hold together atoms and molecules. These forces are described
by Coulomb's law which states that:

1. The charges in an atom or molecule attract if they are different (one positive and one negative).
The attraction is greater when the charges are higher.
2. The charges in an atom push each other apart if they are the same (both positive or both negative).
For example, two electrons repel each other because they both have negative charges. An electron and a proton attract each other
because one is negative and one is positive.

The electron (-) is attracted to the

proton (+) at the center of an atom.*

The two electrons repel each other, and their

like charges push them away from each other.*

Both of the two electrons are attracted to the proton but

still repel one another. They tend to be close to the proton
but not close to each other.*

*In the atom images above, the electron cloud has been removed for easier visualization. The images are not to scale.

These forces also occur in ions and ionic compounds. Just like protons and electrons, cations and anions are attracted to one another.
_ _
For example, an ammonium cation (NH4+) will be attracted to a chloride anion (Cl ). A bromide anion (Br ) will be attracted to a potassium
cation (K+).

Coulomb’s law and other principles of chemistry, such as quantum mechanics, combine to explain the structure of atoms.

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TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

Quick Fact
There are seven elements that
CHEMICAL BONDS appear most commonly as diatomic
A chemical bond is an intramolecular force of attraction that holds together atoms in a molecules in their elemental state, they
molecule or compound. Bonds are formed as a result of the attraction between the positive are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine,
nucleus of one atom and the negative electrons of another atom. Chemical bonds can also chlorine, bromine, and iodine. The
mnemonic device HOFBrINCl
be formed by the attraction between positive and negative ions. Ionic bonds, for example,
(pronounced "hoffbrinkle") can be
are the result of attraction between oppositely charged ions. used to help remember the
diatomic elements.
Atoms work to achieve a stable octet arrangement of valence electrons. Atoms and molecules
give, take, or share their valence electrons during chemical reactions in order to reach this stable
state. When atoms or ions of different elements interact, chemical bonds can be formed, broken, or
rearranged to create new compounds. Therefore, a chemical change takes place.

EXAMPLE:
Hydrogen is commonly found on the earth as diatomic hydrogen gas. Two hydrogen atoms combine
to make up a molecule of hydrogen gas (H2). Likewise, a molecule of oxygen gas (O2) contains two
bonded oxygen atoms. When a molecule of oxygen gas combines with two molecules of hydrogen
gas, the hydrogen-hydrogen bonds in H2 and the oxygen-oxygen bonds in O2 break. Each oxygen
atom then forms two new bonds, each to a different hydrogen atom, producing H2O molecules (see
the Chemical Reactions section - page 84).

2H2 + O2 g 2H2O

There are three types of chemical bonding: ionic, covalent, and metallic. Bonding involves only the valence electrons of an atom (see
the subsection on Valence Electrons - page 66).

IONIC BONDING
Ionic bonds occur when one atom gives up electrons and another atom takes them. The atom that gains electrons becomes a negative
ion (anion). The atom that loses electrons becomes a positive ion (cation). The resulting ions have opposite charges and become attracted
to one another. This force of attraction holds the ions together. Compounds held together by ionic bonds are called ionic compounds.

Ionic bonds typically occur between metal atoms and nonmetal atoms because of their very different electronegativities. The less
electronegative atom (the metal) readily gives up electrons, and the more electronegative atom (the nonmetal) readily accepts these
electrons. The resulting metal cation and nonmetal anion are attracted to each other because of their opposite charges. The cations and
anions in an ionic bond can also be polyatomic.

As a result, individual atoms or ions are not held together closely by shared electrons, as is the case with covalent bonds. There are no
distinct, individual molecules, but rather a collection of ions held together by the attraction of their charges. Ionic compounds exist as three-
dimensional networks of ions all connected by ionic bonds.

EXAMPLE:
When sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) combine to make sodium chloride (NaCl), the chlorine
atoms want to take the valence electrons from the sodium atoms. Chlorine, a nonmetal, is on the
more electronegative side of the periodic table. Sodium, a metal, is on the electropositive side and
donates electrons to the chlorine atoms.

Step 1: Na g Na+ + electron (production of an Na+ cation plus release of one electron)
Step 2: electron + Cl g Cl– (released Na electron reacts with Cl to produce a Cl– anion)
Overall: Na + electron + Cl g Na+ + Cl– + electron

Notice that the electron produced in Step 1 is used in Step 2, so it is cancelled out in the overall
reaction. (See the subsection on Ions in the Atomic Structure section - page 44.)

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EXAMPLE:
What would happen if magnesium (Mg) atoms were bonding with Cl
atoms instead?
Quick Fact
Step 1: Mg → Mg2+ + 2 electrons (production of an Mg2+ cation
The periodic table can be used to
predict ionic compounds.
plus release of two electrons) Remember: all atoms want electron
Step 2: 2 electrons + 2 Cl → 2 Cl– (the two released Mg
configurations like the noble gases.
electrons react with Cl to produce Cl– anions) In the MgCl2 example, Mg wants to be like Ne.
Overall: Mg + 2 electrons + 2 Cl → Mg 2+ –
+ 2 Cl + 2 electrons
Mg can only do this by losing two electrons.
Chlorine wants to be like Ar, which only requires
Magnesium is in group 2 and has two valence electrons. When one electron. Therefore two chlorine atoms
magnesium reacts with chlorine, each Mg atom donates two are required to bond with one
electrons. Chlorine is in group 17 and has seven valence electrons, so magnesium atom.
each Cl atom will only gain one electron. Therefore, two Cl atoms are
needed to accept the two electrons from each Mg atom, making the
formula MgCl2. Here’s the
periodic table trick:
• Count twoHere’s
boxes the
backward from
COVALENT BONDING periodic table trick:
Mg to get to Ne. Give the 2 to the Cl.
Covalent bonds occur when valence electrons are shared between two nonmetal atoms, • Count two boxes backward from
• Count one box forward for Cl to get
which have similar electronegativities and are close to one another on the periodic table. Mg to get to Ne. Give the 2 to the Cl.
to Ar. Give that 1 to the Mg.
Compounds formed entirely from atoms that share electrons through covalent bonds are • Count one step forward for Cl to get
• The result is Mg1Cl2. Because
called covalent compounds. to Ar. Give that 1 to the Mg.
we don’t show the number one
• Covalent bonds create stable compounds if the sharing of electrons brings about a in• The result isweMgwrite
formulas, 1Cl2.

noble gas electron configuration for each atom (with eight valence electrons).
Because
MgCl2.

• In a covalent bond, one atom does not actually lose an electron in order for the other
atom to gain an electron. Instead, the atoms share the electrons. Both atoms in a
covalent bond gain electrons. Two atoms would not be able to share electrons
if their electronegativities were very different, because one atom would
attract the electrons much more strongly than the other.

• Each covalent bond contains one electron pair (two electrons).

Quick Fact
Hydrogen is an exception to
• Nonmetal atoms generally have high electronegativity, meaning that the octet rule. A hydrogen atom is
they want to gain electrons, and also high ionization energy, meaning stable when it makes one bond (has
that they do not want to give up their own electrons. Nonmetal atoms two valence electrons), because it
tend to form covalent bonds because it allows them to share electrons, achieves the same electron
configuration as the noble
so they can gain electrons without giving up any of their own.
gas helium.

Think
About It...
What type of covalent bond is
found in diatomic oxygen?
What about diatomic nitrogen?
Use the periodic table to
determine how many bonds
oxygen and nitrogen tend
to make. "See page 78."

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EXAMPLE:
Look at the molecule of Cl2 below. Chlorine is found on the third period of the periodic table and is
part of the halogen group. Because this molecule is made up of two atoms that are the same, both
atoms in the bond have the same electronegativity and the same ability to attract electrons. The two
chlorine atoms share the electrons equally between them. Remember that only the outermost
electrons participate in the bond. Chlorine’s electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p5, so its
outermost electrons are those in the third energy level: the 3s23p5 subshells. Chlorine has a total of
seven valence electrons, and it is these electrons that participate in the bond. The reaction can be
shown as:

The two electrons inside the dotted oval (above right) are shared. Each chlorine atom now has access
to eight electrons. Both atoms now have the same electron configuration as the noble gas in the same
period, argon, and are therefore stable.

A single covalent bond contains two shared electrons. This means there is one covalent bond in a Cl2 molecule (2 electrons shared,
divided by 2 electrons in each bond = 1 bond).

• Two electrons that form a bond are shown as a line between the
bonded atoms. Cl2 is shown as:

Quick Fact
Structures that show atomic
symbols and either lines or dots for the
valence electrons, such as the one pictured
to the left, are called Lewis structures
(see the section on Lewis Structures -
• The bond that forms between the chlorine molecules to make Cl2 is page 81).
called a single covalent bond. Chemical compounds can also
contain double covalent bonds and triple covalent bonds. This name was given in honor of Gilbert
N. Lewis for his contributions to
– Single covalent bond (single bond): a covalent bond sharing only bonding theory.
one pair of electrons (two electrons total) between two atoms
(e.g. Cl2).

– Double covalent bond (double bond): a covalent bond sharing two Think
pairs of electrons (four electrons total) between two atoms About It...
(e.g. O2). Why must atoms have similar
electronegativities to form covalent
– Triple covalent bond (triple bond): a covalent bond sharing three bonds? What happens when atoms
pairs of electrons (six electrons total) between two atoms (e.g. N2). have very different
electronegativities?
Atoms do not have to be identical to form a covalent bond. A covalent bond
can form between two nonmetals or between a nonmetal and a semimetal.

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METALLIC BONDING
Metallic bonding occurs when metal atoms bond by contributing their electrons to a “sea” of shared electrons. This “sea” of electrons
is shared among all of the bonded atoms in the entire structure.
• Metallic bonds are collective by nature, so a single metallic bond does not exist.
• In a metal, the valence electrons are shared among all the atoms. Each metal atom gives up its valence electrons,
forming a “sea” of electrons.
– The creation of an electron “sea” only occurs if there are no elements with high electronegativity (i.e. nonmetals)
present to accept the electrons. Since there are no nonmetals to accept the electrons, there is no more stable
place for the electrons to be than in the electrons sea, shared between all metal atoms.
– Remember, metals often have low electronegativity and low ionization energy. This allows metal atoms to give up
electrons easily. Metallic bonds occur when the Coulombic attraction keeping the electrons bound to the atom’s
nucleus is weaker than the electron’s energy; the electrons have enough energy to break free.
• Metallic bonds can also form among elements that have higher ionization energies. These elements' atoms do not
give up electrons to other substances easily.
– Gold, cadmium, iridium, and platinum are metals with relatively high ionization energies. Atoms
of gold will not give up electrons to other substances, but will come together to form strong
metallic bonds.
Since electrons in a metallic compound are not held tightly to individual nuclei, the electrons are able
Quick Fact
Silver and gold are precious
to move more freely. Many properties of metals result from the high mobility of electrons in a metallic metals because they are less
bond, as well as the ability of those electrons to move across the entire object. reactive than most other metals and
• Luster: the ability to reflect light. Luster is why metals look shiny. have a high luster. “Precious”
refers to their high
– The large number of freely moving electrons in a metal absorb and re-emit light. economic value.
• Electrical conductivity: a measure of the rate at which electricity can travel through a
material.
– Metals have good electrical conductivity because their electrons can move easily throughout
the metal.
• Thermal conductivity: a measure of the rate at which thermal energy can travel through Think
a material. About It...
– Metals also have good thermal conductivity. As part of a metal is heated, the electrons In the movie A Christmas Story,
become excited. The excited electrons then travel to the other side of the metal, carrying Flick is dared to touch his tongue to a metal
the thermal energy with them. Metals conduct thermal energy better than substances flagpole in freezing temperatures. He takes
the dare, and his tongue gets stuck to the
whose electrons cannot move freely. This is why cold metal feels colder to the touch than
metal. Why would this NOT have
equally cold plastic or wood. The thermal energy in a person’s hand is transferred to
happened if the flagpole had been
metal more quickly than it is transferred to wood, even if the difference in thermal energy made of wood?
(difference in temperature) between someone’s hand and the wood is the same.
• Malleability: the ability of a metal to be flattened, shaped, or formed without breaking when
pressure is applied. This includes the ability of a metal to be hammered into a thin sheet.
– The mobility of electrons allows metal atoms to slide past one another when stress is applied.
They do so without experiencing strong repulsive forces that would cause other materials to
shatter.

• Ductility: the ability of a metal to be stretched into a thin wire or thread without breaking.
– Like malleability, the mobility of electrons in a metallic bond allows the atoms to slide past
one another as the metal is pulled and reshaped.

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BONDING SUMMARY
• Ionic bonding is the result of one atom donating an electron to another atom so that both atoms complete their octets.
• Covalent bonding is the result of atoms that both need electrons, so they share electrons.
• Metallic bonding is the result of collectively shared electrons.

Ionic Bonding

Covalent Bonding

Metallic Bonding

*In the atom images above, the electron cloud has been removed for easier visualization.

NOTES

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LEWIS STRUCTURES
Lewis structures are one way to represent chemical compounds. In the Lewis structure of a compound, chemical symbols are used to
represent each atom in the compound. Bonds (lines) are drawn between symbols to show how electrons are shared. Dots represent
valence electrons that are not shared, or “lone pairs” belonging to only one atom.

When atoms react, they create bonds to achieve a full octet of eight valence electrons (again, hydrogen and helium are exceptions—they
are stable when they have two valence electrons). The bonding rules below determine the number of bonds that one atom of an element
will make in a compound.

• Gaining electrons: when an atom is gaining electrons, the number of bonds it will make equals the number of electrons
that the atom needs to complete its octet. In a covalent bond, both atoms gain electrons. In an ionic bond, the more
electronegative atom gains electrons.
Number of bonds = 8 — Number of valence electrons
For example, fluorine is in group 17 and has seven valence electrons. According to the equation above, fluorine makes
one bond because 8 - 7 valence electrons = 1 bond. Moving along period 2, oxygen makes two bonds, nitrogen makes
three bonds, and carbon makes four bonds. Nonmetals tend to gain electrons as they are more electronegative.

• Losing electrons: when an atom is losing electrons, the number of bonds it will make equals the number of valence
electrons that atom has. In ionic compounds, the less electronegative element loses all of its high-energy valence
electrons to achieve the same electron configuration as the noble gas in the period above it.
Number of bonds = Number of valence electrons

In period 2 of the periodic table, lithium makes one bond and beryllium makes two bonds. Metals tend
to lose electrons as they are less electronegative. Think
About It...
• Hydrogen atoms always make one bond, whether they are in an ionic or a covalent compound. Why can’t a hydrogen atom hold
Hydrogen atoms are never given a full octet because a hydrogen atom can hold only two more than two electrons? What is
electrons. the ground-state electron
configuration of a
• Except in rare and unstable cases, carbon cannot have any lone pairs and will always make
hydrogen atom?
four bonds.

COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Covalent compounds are made up of one or more nonmetal atoms connected by covalent bonds. In the Lewis structure of a covalent
compound, lines between atoms are used to represent the sharing of electrons (covalent bonds), just one line in the case of Br2.

At normal room temperature, halogens like bromine exist as diatomic molecules. The Lewis structure of diatomic bromine, Br2, a
covalent compound, is shown below:

• The Lewis symbols of the individual bromine atoms are shown to the left of the arrow.
• The Lewis structure of the covalent compound Br2 is shown to the right of the arrow.
• All of the black dots around each of the bromine atoms represent lone electron pairs belonging to that atom (each
dot is one electron). The lines between atoms are bonds (shared electron pairs), just one line in the case of Br2.
• The electron pair shared between the bromine atoms in Br2 is a single covalent bond. The bond is made up of one
electron from each bromine atom. Both electrons in the bond are shared equally, so that each bromine atom gains
one electron and achieves an octet (eight valence electrons).

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SECTION VI: CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND BONDING

To count the number of valence electrons that one atom has in the Lewis structure of a covalent compound:

+
Number of electron dots 2 x Number of bonds the
Valence electrons = around the atom atom makes in the compound

Each bromine atom in the Lewis structure of Br2 has (6 electron dots) + (2 x 1 bond) = 8 valence electrons.

To draw the Lewis structure of a covalent compound:

1. Count the total number of valence electrons in the compound. This is the sum of the valence electrons of all of
the atoms in the compound.
2. Represent each atom using its chemical symbol. Draw bonds between atoms according to the bonding rules on
the previous page.
3. Count the number of valence electrons that each atom has after adding the bonds in step 2. Give each atom
(besides hydrogen) a complete octet by adding electron dots until the atom has eight valence electrons.
4. Count the total number of valence electrons in the Lewis structure:
Total valence electrons = Total number of electron dots + 2 x Total number of bonds

The total number of valence electrons in the Lewis structure should be the same as the total valence electrons
from step 1.

EXAMPLE:
To draw the Lewis structure of one molecule of water, begin by counting the total number of valence
electrons in H2O.

(1 valence electron per H atom) x (2 H atoms) = 2 valence electrons from hydrogen

(6 valence electrons per O atom) x (1 O atom) = 6 valence electrons from oxygen
One H2O molecule: 8 valence electrons

One molecule of H2O has a total of 8 valence electrons.

Next, draw bonds between the chemical symbols of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Let’s look at the
bonding rules. Oxygen is in group 16, so it should make 8 — 6 valence electrons = 2 bonds. Hydrogen
makes 1 bond. This gives us:

Each oxygen atom now has 2 x 2 bonds = 4 valence electrons. Oxygen needs 4 more electrons to
complete its octet, so we add 4 electron dots around oxygen:

Remember, hydrogen does not need a full octet and is stable with only two valence
electrons. Finally, count the total number of valence electrons in the Lewis structure. Think
About It...
Total valence electrons = (4 electron dots) + (2 electrons per bond) x (2 bonds) What does the Lewis structure of
Total valence electrons = 8 valence electrons
the covalent compound NH3
(ammonia) look like? How many
bonds does one nitrogen atom
This is the same as the number of valence electrons we counted at the beginning! tend to make?
Therefore the image above is the correct Lewis structure for one molecule of H2O.

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IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds are made up of two or more ions held together by ionic bonds. Unlike in covalent compounds, ionic compounds
are not held together by shared electrons. Instead, ionic compounds are held together by the attraction between opposite charges
(cations and anions). Because ionic compounds are a collection of ions, and not atoms held together by individual bonds, Lewis
structures are not used as frequently to draw ionic compounds.

The Lewis structure for an ionic compound is simply all of the individual Lewis symbols for each of the ions in the compound.

To write the Lewis symbol of an ion from the chemical formula:

1. Start with the Lewis symbol of the neutral atom (see the subsection on Lewis Symbols - page 66).
2. Add or remove electron dots to show how many electrons the neutral atom has lost or gained.
3. Put the symbol in brackets, and add the charge as a superscript outside of the brackets.
Lithium fluoride (LiF) is an example of an ionic compound:

• The neutral atoms of lithium and fluorine are shown to the left of the arrow. The Lewis structure of
the ionic compound LiF is shown to the right of the arrow.
• Lithium, the less electronegative atom, donates one electron to fluorine, the more
electronegative atom.
Think
About It...
• The lithium cation and the fluorine anion are attracted to each other because of their Why do aluminum and
opposite charges. oxygen combine in a 2:3
ratio? In what ratio would
• Both lithium and fluorine reach a full outer energy level and the same electron
aluminum and fluorine
configuration as a noble gas. Lithium’s electron configuration goes from 1s22s1 as a neutral combine?
atom to 1s2 as a 1+ cation, the same configuration as helium. Fluorine’s electron configuration
goes from 1s22s22p5 as a neutral atom to 1s22s22p6 as a 1— anion, the same configuration as
neon.
Many ionic compounds are not formed in a 1:1 ratio, so coefficients can be used to show how many ions of each element are present.
For example, aluminum and oxygen combine in a 2:3 ratio to form aluminum oxide, Al2O3. Aluminum oxide can be represented as
shown below:

Quick Fact
Both rubies and sapphires are
made of a mineral form of aluminum
oxide called corundum. When small
amounts of chromium are present in
corundum, the mineral appears red and is
called ruby. When small amounts of iron
and titanium are present, the
mineral appears blue and is
called sapphire.

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS
OBJECTIVES
• Identify the reactants and products of a chemical reaction.
• Identify exothermic and endothermic reactions.
• Understand rates of chemical reactions and the effects of catalysts.
• Describe and identify examples of types of chemical reactions.
• Describe the law of conservation of mass.
• Apply the law of conservation of mass to correctly balance chemical equations.
• Explain pH and describe substances as acidic or basic on the pH scale.
• Define and identify common acids, bases, and indicators.

A chemical reaction occurs when the atoms of one or more substances are rearranged to produce one or more different substances.
As a result of a chemical reaction, new substances with new properties are formed.

• Reactants: the starting material or materials for a chemical reaction.

• Products: the substance or substances produced from a chemical reaction. Sometimes one or more of the products can
be classified as byproducts.
In general, a chemical reaction will be represented as shown below:

Reactants g Products

EXAMPLE:
The chemical reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen is shown below:

3H2 + N2 → 2NH3

• The hydrogen, H2, and nitrogen, N2, molecules are the reactants.
• The resulting ammonia, NH3, is the product.

VISUALIZING CHEMICAL REACTIONS

When a chemical reaction occurs, the reactants do not just change directly into the products. It takes time and energy for chemical bonds
to be broken and made, and the reactants are often rearranged in multiple different ways as the atoms shift around to become the final
product. The road that atoms and molecules take to get from starting materials to products is called the reaction pathway.

As the reactants change and bonds are broken and remade, the total energy of the reactants changes too. A reaction coordinate diagram
plots the energy of the reaction—and all of the molecules and atoms involved—versus how far the reaction has progressed, as shown on
the following page. When all of the molecules and atoms are lower in energy, they are more stable. Conversely, they are less stable when
they are higher in energy. In general, chemical compounds try to move towards a state that is lower in energy because it is more stable.

Think of a reaction pathway as a hiking trail going over a mountain, and think of altitude (height) as the total energy of the reactants. The
altitude changes moving along the trail, and a hiker has to pass through all of the different altitudes along the trail to get from the
beginning of the trail to the end. Similarly, reactants have to progress along the reaction pathway, changing energy as they go, until they
reach the final products.

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• The initial flat portion is the energy of the reactants. The flat portion at the end is the energy of the products.

• ∆E represents the overall change in energy. It is the difference between the starting energy and the final energy.

∆E = (Energy of the products) — (Energy of the reactants)

• Ea represents the activation energy. Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy needed to start a chemical
reaction.

– The reactants pass through a state that is much higher in energy in order to get to the
products, called the “transition state.” In the transition state, the bonds in the reactants
are in the process of breaking and the bonds in the products are in the process of
Quick Fact
forming. The transition state is the top of the hill (highest in energy) in the reaction A spark provides the energy
coordinate diagram. needed to start a combustion
– Activation energy is the amount of energy required to get the reaction “over the reaction and set wood on fire.
The thermal energy (heat) of
hill,” or to start the reaction by overcoming the energy barrier. It is the energy
the spark is greater than the
needed to go from the reactants to the transition state.
activation energy of the
Ea = (Energy of the transition state) — (Energy of the reactants) combustion reaction.

– All chemical reactions need some amount of activation energy. The activation energy is
needed to break existing bonds so that new bonds can be made.

The activation energy (Ea) and the change in energy (∆E) above are independent of one another. The change in energy depends only
on the starting energy and the final energy (the reactants and the products) and is not affected by energies along the way.

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ENERGY OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

All chemical reactions involve some overall change in energy, because the products have a different
amount of energy than the reactants.
Quick Fact
Think of a chemical reaction as a hiking trail over a mountain. The difference in height between the A common example of an
beginning of the trail and the top of the mountain is the activation energy. The energy change of exothermic reaction is burning
the reaction is the difference in height between the beginning of the trail and the end of the trail. wood in a wood stove. Wood
The path a hiker takes to cross the mountain won’t change their altitude at the beginning or their combines with the oxygen in the
altitude at the end. These two altitudes (the beginning and the end) are completely independent of air to produce carbon dioxide,
the height of the mountain and the path that a hiker takes to get across. water, light, and heat.
Some chemical reactions require the input of energy and others release energy, depending on whether
the products are higher or lower in energy than the reactants.

• Exothermic reactions: chemical reactions that produce energy, often in the form of heat, light, or sound.

The reactants themselves lose energy, and that energy is released to the environment around the reaction. The products
of an exothermic reaction are more stable (lower in energy) than the reactants.

A + B g C + D + energy

EXAMPLE:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) g CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + energy

In the exothermic reaction above, methane and oxygen react to produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat.

• Endothermic reactions: chemical reactions that require the input of energy to occur.

The reactants gain energy by taking energy from their surroundings, often in the form of heat or light. An endothermic
reaction would feel cold to the touch because it absorbs heat from its environment. The products of an endothermic
reaction are less stable (higher in energy) than the reactants.

A + B + energy g C + D

EXAMPLE:
energy + 2Al2O3(s) g 4Al(s) + 3O2(g)

In the endothermic reaction above, energy is added to bauxite (aluminum oxide) to produce aluminum
metal and oxygen gas.

Quick Fact
A common example of an
endothermic reaction is the process of
photosynthesis. During photosynthesis,
plants use the energy from the sun to
convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose and oxygen.

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The reaction coordinate diagrams below show the difference between exothermic and endothermic reactions.

Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction

Ea Ea
Energy

Energy
∆E ∆E

Reaction Progress Reaction Progress

than the reactants. The difference, ∆E, is the amount of energy released
• In the exothermic reaction above, the products are at a lower energy level

from the reaction. Quick Fact

– Since ∆E = (Energy of the products) — (Energy of the reactants),
Diamond and graphite are both forms of
pure carbon. Graphite is more stable than
∆E is negative. It is lost by the reactants. diamond at normal room temperature and pressure,
so the reaction of diamond turning into graphite is

energy level than the reactants. This difference, ∆E, is the amount
• In the endothermic reaction above, the products are at a higher exothermic and should spontaneously occur. The
reason that diamonds do not turn into graphite is
of energy that has to be put into the reaction. because the activation energy for the reaction is

– The product energy is greater than the reactant energy, so ∆E is

extremely high, making it almost impossibly
difficult for the reaction to occur.
positive. It is gained by the reactants.

• Just because a reaction requires energy in order to start

does not mean that it is an endothermic reaction. The
exothermic reaction above requires a certain amount
of energy (Ea) to get over the energy barrier, but
Think
releases more energy during the reaction than it
About It...
takes to get started. Chemists often initiate
What does the reaction coordinate
exothermic reactions, adding a small amount of diagram for diamond turning into graphite
energy, to produce much more energy. look like? How do the energy of the
reactants, the energy of the products,
and activation energy compare to
one another?

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RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Different reactions occur at different rates (or speeds), and even the same reaction can occur at different rates under different conditions.
Chemical kinetics is the field of science that studies the rates of chemical reactions. Kinetics answers the question: “how fast will this
reaction occur?”

To understand reaction rates, it is helpful to first understand what actually happens during a chemical reaction. Three things must be true
for a chemical reaction to occur:

1. Particles of the reactants must collide with (or run into) each another. “Particle” here just means one unit, so a
particle of a reactant could be an atom, an ion, a molecule, or a formula unit.
2. The particles must have enough energy to react—this usually means the particles must be going at least a
certain speed. “Enough energy” means at least the activation energy. If the particles are not moving fast
enough, they will not have enough energy to break old bonds and form new bonds when they collide.
3. The particles must have the proper orientation to react.
Particles are always moving around randomly, so sometimes they will collide with one another. If the particles collide with enough energy
and the right orientation, they react. The frequency of particles colliding with each other successfully and reacting determines the reaction
rate. This is called collision theory.

In general, the rate of a chemical reaction can be increased in a few different ways:

1. Concentration: A higher concentration of the reactants increases the number of particles in the same amount of space,
so it is more likely that particles will run into each other. Think of particles as people. People are more likely to run into
each other in a crowded room. Generally, increasing the concentration of the reactants increases the reaction rate.
2. Temperature: Remember, temperature is a measure of kinetic energy, or how fast the particles in a substance are
moving. When particles are moving faster, they are more likely to collide. People running around in a room are more
likely to run into each other than people walking. The particles also have more energy (on average), so when two
particles collide they are more likely to have enough energy to react.
3. Catalysts: A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a reaction. Catalysts are most often used to increase the
reaction rate (to make the reaction happen more quickly) by making it easier for the reaction to take place. The identity
and amount of a catalyst is the same at the beginning and at the end of a reaction.
– A catalyst usually lowers the activation energy by changing the reaction pathway to avoid the
highest-energy state.

– There is a lower energy barrier for the reaction to Quick Fact

occur, so it is more likely that particles will have For the average reaction
enough energy to react when they collide. occurring at room temperature,
raising the temperature by 10 °C
– Think of a hiking trail again. A catalyst Quick Fact approximately doubles the
is like a shortcut across the mountain Humans need catalysts! Your body reaction rate.
so hikers don’t have to climb all the burns fuel (in the form of food), just like a
car’s engine burns fuel. Your body doesn’t
way to the top.
require the amount of heat that a car needs in
order to burn fuel, but it does require a lot of
energy. There are special catalysts in the body
called enzymes that help humans burn fuel at
normal body temperature. Without catalysts,
the activation energy of the reaction that
burns fuel in the human body
would be too high.

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The diagram below illustrates the effect of a catalyst on a reaction. With a catalyst, the “energy Quick Fact
hill" that a reaction has to climb is much lower. Car exhaust contains
environmental pollutants.
Automobiles use catalysts such
as palladium and platinum to
convert these pollutants into
less toxic chemicals and
improve air quality.

Quick Fact
The slowest known biological
reaction would take 1 trillion
years without a catalyst. However,
this reaction is essential to creating our
DNA. With enzymes, the reaction
can occur in only 10
milliseconds.

as seen above, so ∆E remains the same. The rate of a reaction is independent of the overall change in energy.
Changing the activation energy changes the rate of the reaction. However, it does not change the energy of the products or reactants,

NOTES

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TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

In the chemical reactions described in this section, the letters A, B, C, and D are used to represent chemical elements or compounds.

SYNTHESIS (OR COMBINATION) REACTION: a chemical reaction in

which smaller molecules combine to form a larger one. As shown below, two or more
reactants (A and B) combine to form a product (AB).
A + B g AB
Think
About It...
The reaction to the left could be
EXAMPLE: used for hydrogen-powered cars.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) g 2H2O (l) There is plenty of oxygen in the
air to fuel the reaction, but
The (g) and (l) after the compounds correspond to the phases of each of where would the hydrogen
those compounds. A (g) means that compound is a gas, (l) means a liquid,
come from?
and an (s) means a solid. You might also see (aq), which stands for aqueous
solution – or a liquid mixture of a compound where water is the solvent.

DECOMPOSITION REACTION: a chemical reaction in which a compound (AB)

breaks apart into two or more products (A and B). It is the opposite of a synthesis reaction.
Most decomposition reactions need an outside source of energy to take place.
Quick Fact
AB g A + B If you wanted to say what was
occurring in the reaction to the
EXAMPLE: left, you would describe it as:
∆
“Two mercury oxide molecules
2HgO (s) g 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
decompose into two mercury
atoms plus one oxygen gas
In this decomposition reaction, mercury(II) oxide (HgO) splits into liquid
molecule.”
mercury and oxygen gas. The small triangle above the arrow means the
reaction needs energy (usually in the form of heat) to take place.

SINGLE DISPLACEMENT (OR REPLACEMENT) REACTION: a chemical reaction in

which a reactant (A) takes the place of some part of a compound (BC). In doing so, a new compound (AC) is made,
and a separate product (B) is released.
A + BC g AC + B

EXAMPLE: Think
About It...
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) g MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) How would you describe
This displacement reaction happens when a piece of solid (s) magnesium the displacement
metal is combined with some aqueous (aq) hydrochloric acid. When these reaction to the left?
reactants combine, they produce two products: a liquid solution called
aqueous magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas (g).

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DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT (OR REPLACEMENT) Quick Fact

REACTION: a chemical reaction between two compounds, AB and CD, in
The reaction shown to the left could also
which part of one reactant trades places with part of another reactant. The
be written as:
AB + CD g DA + BC
elements are rearranged to form two or more different compound products,
AD and CB.
A molecule composed of a single D atom and a
AB + CD g AD + CB single A atom can be written as either DA or AD,
but scientists have adopted a rule that says to
EXAMPLE: place the more electropositive element first.
Fe2O3 (s) + 6HNO3 (aq) g 2Fe(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
The products will be written as AD and
CB, if A and C represent
In this double displacement reaction, iron(III) oxide combines with cations.
nitric acid. The reaction produces iron(III) nitrate and water.

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

When a chemical reaction occurs, it can be described by a chemical equation, which uses chemical symbols and formulas to describe a
reaction. A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show the reactants and products involved. A chemical equation can also show
the physical states of the reactants and products, as well as the involvement of heat, light, or radiation. Unlike mathematical equations,
the two sides are separated by an arrow to show that the reactants form the products.

CONSERVATION OF MASS
Law of conservation of mass: matter cannot be created or destroyed, although it may be changed. According to this law, the mass of the
reactants must equal the mass of the products. (Nuclear reactions are an exception.)

Because all matter is made of atoms, the law implies the conservation of the number of atoms in a chemical reaction. Therefore, although
atoms may be rearranged, they cannot be not lost during the reaction.

What does conservation of atoms mean? The number of atoms of each element on the reactants side (left side of the arrow) must equal
the number of atoms of each element on the products side (right side of the arrow). When the atoms on both sides are equal, the equation
is balanced. A balanced equation demonstrates conservation of atoms. It also shows the lowest whole-number ratio of products to
reactants.

• If a hydrogen atom goes into a reaction, it has to appear somewhere in the products of the reaction.

• Likewise, if three hydrogen atoms appear on the reactant side of a chemical equation, three must appear on the product
side.

EXAMPLE:
Methane interacts with oxygen in air as shown in the reaction below:
Quick Fact
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) g CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Diatomic elements must
As written above, the equation correctly indicates that methane and always have a subscript of 2 in pure
oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide and water. However, this form. In the reaction shown to the left,
reaction violates conservation of matter. There are more oxygen oxygen must be present as O2 and not just
atoms on the right than on the left, and more hydrogen atoms on the O. The elements that are always
left than the right. The correctly balanced equation for the reaction diatomic at room temperature in
looks like this: elemental form aree H, O, F,
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) g CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Br, I, N, and Cl.

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To determine the number of atoms of one element in a chemical formula:

• Multiply the number in front of the chemical formula by the subscript number Quick Fact
on that atom in the chemical formula. The number in front of the chemical Balancing chemical equations is
formula is called a coefficient. It indicates how many of that molecule or like putting a puzzle together. You may not
atom there are. The coefficient of a molecule applies to all of the elements be able to tell which pieces fit where, so you
in the molecule’s formula. may have to try a few different ways before you
find a good fit. With chemical equations, you
• The number one is never written. CH4 stands for 1C1H4. may not be able to immediately see which
• To make sure the equation is balanced correctly: numbers will work to balance the
equation, so you have to
– Write the number of each type of atom on the reactant side.
experiment!
– Write the number of each type of atom on the product side.
– Compare the numbers.

EXAMPLE:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) g CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

Reactant Side of Equation Product Side of Equation

C: 1 × 1 = 1 C: 1 × 1 = 1
H: 1 × 4 = 4 H: 2 × 2 = 4
O: 2 × 2 = 4 O: (1 × 2) + (2 × 1) = 4

The number of each type of atom is the same in the reactants as it is in the products, therefore the
reaction is balanced.

HISTORY: ANTOINE LAVOISIER (1743–1794)

Antoine Lavoisier proposed the first version of the law of conservation of mass. His law stated that during an ordinary
chemical change, there is no noticeable increase or decrease in the quantity of matter.

Lavoisier is known as the father of modern chemistry. He changed chemistry from a qualitative to a
quantitative science.

He recognized and named oxygen. He also discovered the role oxygen plays in combustion.

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BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

1. Write the unbalanced equation and see which elements are not balanced (not equal). For example, below is the unbalanced
equation for ethane reacting with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
C2H6 (g) + O2 (g) g CO2 (g) + H2O (I)

Reactant Side of Equation Product Side of Equation

C: 1 × 2 = 2 C: 1 × 1 = 1
H: 1 × 6 = 6 H: 1 × 2 = 2
O: 1 × 2 = 2 O: (1 × 2) + (1 × 1) = 3

• There is 1 fewer carbon atom, 4 fewer hydrogen atoms, and 1 more oxygen atom in the products than there are
in the reactants. This equation is not balanced.

2. Balance the equation. An easy way to start is to balance the elements that appear in only one reactant and one product (carbon and
hydrogen in this reaction). Once those elements are balanced, move on to the elements that appear in multiple reactants or products
(oxygen in this reaction). To test each change that you make in the equation multiply the different atoms and molecules on each side
by different amounts based on their coefficients.
• To get the same number of carbon atoms on both sides, multiply CO2
(on the right side) by 2. This is shown by placing a 2 in front of CO2.
C2H6 (g) + O2 (g) g 2CO2 (g) + H2O (I) Quick Fact
Often the best way to balance
• Be sure to multiply all atoms by the coefficient. Therefore, 2CO2
an equation is by trial and
means there are 2 carbon atoms and 4 oxygen atoms. Do not change error, and testing a few
the subscripts. Changing the subscripts changes the ratio of different different numbers until one
elements in the compound, which makes it a different molecule set of coefficients works.
altogether. In this case, 1 molecule of CO2 is made of 1 carbon atom
and 2 oxygen atoms. The coefficient of 2 in front of CO2 says that the
reaction produces 2 molecules of CO2.

• To get the same number of hydrogen atoms on both sides, add a Quick Fact
coefficient of 3 in front of H2O on the right side, making it 3H2O. A properly balanced equation must
C2H6 (g) + O2 (g) g 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (I) have the lowest possible whole number
for each coefficient. For example
• Now there are 2 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen atoms on each side. 4C2H6 (g) + 14O2 (g)g4CO2 (g) + 12H2O (I)
However, the number of oxygen atoms is not the same. There are 2 would not be the final balanced equation,
on the left side and 7 on the right side (4 from CO2, 3 from H2O). because all of the coefficients can be
• Add a coefficient of 3.5 in front of O2 on the left side, making it 3.5O2. divided by 2.
C2H6 (g) + 3.5O2 (g) g 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (I)
This equation has the same number of each type of atom
on both sides, but is not quite done.

3. A balanced equation should not contain decimals. In the equation above, the oxygen on the left is written as having a half molecule.
Because there is no such thing as half an oxygen molecule, we must eliminate it from the equation. We do this by multiplying all the
coefficients by two.
2C2H6 (g) + 7O2 (g)g 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O (I)
This equation is the properly balanced equation for the reaction.

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ACIDS, BASES, AND pH

ACIDS
Substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water are acids. Quick Fact
The word “acid” comes from
An acidic solution has an excess of hydrogen ions (H+).
the Latin term “acidus,” which means
• Acids often donate H+ ions to bases. sour. Substances with a sour taste
(like lemon juice) are usually acidic. Refer
• Acids dissociate (break down) into ions in solution, making them back to Naming Acids subsection in
able to conduct electricity. Some acids are corrosive in nature, and Chemical Bonding and Formulas (page
have the ability to dissolve some metals. 73) to refresh on how to name
different acids.
– Most acids can react with metals to produce metal salts and hydrogen.

EXAMPLE:
When magnesium comes into contact with hydrochloric acid, the acid
reacts with the metal. The reaction produces magnesium chloride (a salt) and hydrogen gas.

Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) g MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

BASES _
Substances that either release hydroxide ions (OH ) when dissolved in water or that accept H+ ions from
_
acids are bases. A basic solution has an excess of OH ions.
_
• Bases often donate OH ions to acids.

• Bases feel slippery to the touch and are often used to make soaps. However, strong
Quick Fact
Bases typically have
bases such as drain cleaner can harm human skin. a bitter taste and, like
• Although the term “alkali” is often used as a synonym for base, they are not the same acids, can conduct
thing. Alkalis are a type of base made of ionic salts of an alkali metal (Group1) or an electricity when in solution.
alkaline earth metal (Group2). All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.

EXAMPLE:
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and soda lye (NaOH) are bases that are also alkali salts.
Ammonia (NH3) is a base but not an alkali.

THE pH SCALE
The pH of a solution indicates how acidic or basic it is by measuring the concentration of H+ ions in a
solution. The pH scale is used to measure the acidity of a solution.
Quick Fact
• Acids release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Thus, the acid content of a solution Negative pH: some very strong
is based on the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. When a lot of hydrogen ions acids may have a pH lower than 0.
are released into a solution (high concentration of hydrogen ions), that solution is very acidic. For example, concentrated
• The pH scale is the tool used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. hydrochloric acid, HCl, may have
a pH of zero or less than
• Usually, substances in aqueous solution range from 0 to 14 on the pH scale. pH values do not zero.
have units.

– Substances with a pH value less than 7 are acids. The smaller the number on the pH scale, the more
acidic a substance is. A substance with a pH of 1 is a stronger acid than a substance with a pH of 5 (though both
are acidic).

– Substances with a pH value greater than 7 are bases. The higher the number on the pH scale, the more basic a
substance is. A substance with a pH of 13 is a stronger base than a substance with a pH of 10 (though both are basic).

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– Pure (distilled) water has a neutral pH of 7.0. A neutral substance is neither acidic nor
basic. Water has an equal number of hydrogen (H+) ions and hydroxide (OH ) ions,
_ Quick Fact
giving it a neutral pH. Clean rain usually has a pH of 5.6,
which is slightly acidic because of the
H+ + OH ⇌ H2O
_
carbon dioxide naturally present in the
– Small changes on the pH scale actually mean large changes in acidity. An increase of
atmosphere. Rain measuring less than
just one pH unit indicates that the concentration of H+ ions (and the acidity) has 5 on the pH scale is abnormally
increased by a factor of ten. For example, the concentration of H+ ions in a solution with acidic, and is called
a pH of 5.0 is ten times that in a solution with a pH of 6.0; the solution with pH 5.0 is ten acid rain.
(101) times more acidic. Similarly, a solution with a pH of 3.0 is 1,000 (103) times more acidic
than a solution with a pH of 6.0.

The table below lists some common acids and bases on the pH scale. All of the substances whose pH is less than the pH of water (pictured
above water on the table) are acidic. All of the substances whose pH is greater than the pH of water are basic.

Substance Approximate pH Indicator Paper Color*

Sulfuric acid, battery acid 0.8–1.5
(pH < 7.0)

Stomach acid 1.0–2.0

Acids

Lemon juice, cola 2.3–2.5

Vinegar 2.9
Apple juice, orange juice 3.3–3.8
Coffee 5.0–5.5

Neutral
Milk 6.5
Pure water 7.0
Human blood 7.4
Sea water 8.0
(pH > 7.0)

Baking soda solution 8.5–9.0

Bases

Milk of magnesia 10.5

Household ammonia 11.5–12.0
Bleach 12.5
Liquid drain cleaner 13.5–14.0

*See the subsection on Indicators - page 97.

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STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES

Acids and bases may be strong or weak depending on how well an acid or base produces ions in water. Many things will affect the
strength of an acid or a base.

ACIDS
• A strong acid produces many hydrogen ions. A weak acid produces fewer hydrogen ions. As
a result, indicator paper and litmus paper reveal slightly different colors depending on the
strength of the acid (see the subsection on Indicators - page 97). Think
About It...
• The chemical equation of an acid, HA, dissociating (producing hydrogen ions) is shown Like acids, metallic substances
below: can also conduct electricity. What
HA (aq) ⇌ A (aq) + H+ (aq)
_ do they have in common? How
do acids conduct electricity
• For some acids, the strength of an acid may be affected by the size of the anion produced differently than metals?
when the hydrogen is released into water (see the section on Ions - page 44). Within a
group, acid strength increases as atomic radius increases moving down the periodic table.

– Larger anions are more stable, so they are more easily separated from the hydrogen ion and
the corresponding acid is stronger (produces more H+ ions). Hydroiodic acid (HI (aq)) is a stronger acid
_ _
than hydrofluoric acid (HF (aq)) because the iodide ion (I (aq)) is larger than the fluoride ion (F (aq)), and
therefore more stable. Binary acids (made from hydrogen and one other element) increase in strength going
down a group on the periodic table.

• Electronegativity also affects acid strength (see the subsection on Electronegativity - page 59). A more electronegative
atom more strongly attracts electrons away from hydrogen atoms in solution, so more hydrogen atoms lose an electron
to become H+ cations. The more electronegative the element bonded to hydrogen in an acid, the stronger the acid. For
example, hydrofluoric acid (HF(aq)) is more acidic than the base ammonia (NH3(aq)) because fluorine is more
electronegative than nitrogen. Within a period, acid strength increases as electronegativity increases moving from left
to right across the periodic table.
• Strong acids include hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and
nitric acid (HNO3).

BASES
• Strong bases act in a manner similar to strong acids, producing hydroxide ions instead of hydrogen ions. The equation
of a base, BOH, dissociating looks like this:

BOH(aq) ⇌ B+ (aq) + OH (aq)

_

• Strong bases include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), and lithium hydroxide (LiOH).
_
• Bases can also produce OH ions by accepting H+ ions. In the equation below, a base, B, accepts an H+ ion from
water:

B(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HB+ (aq) + OH (aq)

_

– Ammonia, NH3, is an example of a base that accepts H+ ions, as shown in the equation below:

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH (aq)

_

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INDICATORS
Indicators are substances that change color at a specific pH. They provide a way to determine approximately how acidic or basic a
solution is. Some common qualitative indicators are:

• Litmus paper turns red in an acidic solution and blue in a basic solution.

• Phenolphthalein solution changes from colorless to pink for a pH greater than 8.2.

• Bromothymol Blue (BTB) turns yellow in acidic solutions and blue in basic solutions.

To get more accurate, quantitative pH measurements, scientists use an

instrument called a pH meter.

Quick Fact
Try It... Certain foods and flowers act as
Try making your own pH indicators. Cherries, beets and purple
cabbage appear red in acidic solutions
indicator solution at home by
but turn blue or purple in basic
extracting the purple pigment solutions. The flowers of
(anthocyanin) from purple hydrangea plants are blue in
cabbage. acidic soil but pink or white
in basic soil.

NOTES

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 SECTION VIII:
RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS
OBJECTIVES
• Define radioactivity and radioisotopes.
• Explain half-life and use it in calculations.
• Identify common radioactive elements and describe their properties.
• Describe the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
• Identify human-made elements and their location on the periodic table.

Elements tend to exist in multiple forms, called isotopes. Remember, isotopes are atoms
of the same element that contain different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes of the
same element have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers (see Quick Fact
the subsection on Isotopes - page 44). Carbon-12 is the most common form of
carbon. It was adopted in 1961 as the standard for
Isotopes of one element have similar chemical properties to each other and
defining all atomic weights.
undergo similar reactions. However, since the isotopes differ in atomic
mass, their physical properties are not exactly the same. Different isotopes Carbon-13 is non-radioactive and is frequently used for isotopic
of the same element often undergo chemical reactions at different rates. labeling studies. These studies follow how a carbon atom goes
through specific reactions.
EXAMPLE:
Carbon-14 is used in a process called carbon dating. It takes 5,730
Remember that hydrogen can exist as one of three
years for half of the nuclei in a sample of a carbon-14 to decay.
isotopes (protium, deuterium, and tritium). The lightest
This period of time is its halflife. Scientists use the predictable
isotope, protium, tends to undergo chemical reactions at
decay of carbon-14 to determine the age of organic
the fastest rate.
materials up to 50,000 years old. Carbon dating is
useful for studying artifacts left behind
by ancient cultures.
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is the spontaneous breakdown of an unstable nucleus in an atom.
When a radioactive atom decays, it releases radiation in the form of electromagnetic
radiation and/or particles (page 100).

• Radioisotopes: The isotopes of an element that are unstable and therefore radioactive.

The half-life of an isotope is the time it takes for one-half of the nuclei present in a sample to undergo radioactive decay.

• After one half-life, 50% of the original sample will remain.

• After two half-lives, 25% of the original sample will remain, and so on.

HISTORY: HENRI BECQUEREL (1852–1908)

In 1896, French physicist Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity while investigating
phosphorescence in uranium salts.

The SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel (Bq), is named after him.

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HISTORY: MARIE CURIE (1867–1934)

Marie Curie discovered that the element thorium was “radioactive,” a term she created. The same year, a German scientist
named Gerhard Schimdt also made the same discovery about thorium.

Curie, along with her husband Pierre, discovered the radioactive elements polonium and radium.

In 1903, the Curies and Henri Becquerel were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for the discovery and
exploration of natural radioactivity. In 1911, Curie received her second Nobel Prize in chemistry for isolating

Po
radium and determining its atomic weight. She was the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize and the only
woman, to this day, to receive two Nobel Prizes.

Polonium was discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898. The element was
named after the country Poland, where Marie Curie was born.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is a very rare natural element, found in extremely small amounts in uranium
ores.

• Is mainly used as a source of neutrons, generally by combining it with

POLONIUM beryllium.
Atomic #84 • Has specialty uses in eliminating static electricity in machinery and removing
dust from photographic film.

Rn
Polonium has over 25 known isotopes. Its most common isotope, Po-210, has a half-
life of only 138 days. The radioactive decay of Po-210 produces lead-206 and a lot
of energy (140 watts per gram).

Radon is produced by the radioactive decay of the element radium.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is radioactive; the isotope with the longest half-life is radon-222 with a half-
life of only four days.

• Is a colorless radioactive gas at a normal room temperature of about 70–75 ºF.

• Glows with a yellow color when cooled to its solid state.
RADON
Atomic #86 • Is emitted naturally, in some regions, from soil and rocks and can sometimes
build up in homes.

The World Health Organization estimates that radon is responsible for up to 14% of
all lung cancer cases. Radon test kits are available to check for radon accumulation
in homes, especially basement levels.

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SECTION VIII: RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Radium was discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898. Its name comes from the
Latin word “radius” meaning “ray.”

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is a highly reactive metal.
• Is a brilliant, white metal in pure form but blackens when exposed to air.
• Occurs naturally in the environment from the decay of uranium and thorium.
RADIUM
Atomic #88 Its most stable isotope, radium-226, has a half-life of about 1,600 years.

Pure radium and some of its compounds glow in the dark. As a result, radium was
used in the mid-1900s in a luminous paint on the hands and numbers of watches to
make them glow in the dark. However, this practice stopped when the risks of radium
exposure became known.

The radioactive decay of an unstable nucleus may release several types of radiation, including alpha radiation, beta radiation, and
gamma radiation.

ALPHA ( α ) RADIATION (ALPHA PARTICLES): Alpha particles have a nucleus that is the same as helium: two protons and two
neutrons. When an atom undergoes alpha decay, it loses two protons and two neutrons to form an alpha particle (a helium-4
nucleus). The atom’s atomic number decreases by two, and its mass number decreases by four.

• Alpha radiation travels only a very short distance through air. It cannot penetrate skin or even a thin sheet of paper.

• Alpha particles are not radioactive (they do not decay farther). After losing their energy, they attract two electrons
to become helium atoms.

EXAMPLE:
Uranium-238 has 92 protons and 146 neutrons. When uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay, it loses
two protons and two neutrons to produce an alpha particle and thorium-234 (90 protons and 144
neutrons).

BETA ( β ) RADIATION (BETA PARTICLES): radiation composed of high-velocity electrons emitted from an unstable nucleus.
When an atom undergoes beta radiation, a neutron loses a negative charge and becomes a proton after emitting a high velocity
electron. The atom's atomic number increases by one and its mass number stays the same.

• Beta radiation can travel several meters through air but is stopped by solid materials.

• Beta particles can penetrate human skin, but clothing often helps to block most beta particles.

• Sometimes the release of a beta particle is not enough to get rid of the extra energy
in an unstable nucleus. In this case, the nucleus often releases the rest of the excess Quick Fact
energy in the form of gamma rays. Radiation can be used in medicine

GAMMA ( γ ) RADIATION (GAMMA RAYS): high-energy photons in the form of

to treat disease and to look inside the
body to diagnose medical problems.
electromagnetic radiation. Gamma radiation comes from the energy stored through holding Radiation has proven useful to kill cancer
the nucleus and subatomic particles together, similar to the energy stored in chemical bonds. cells by causing mutations (defects) in the
Gamma radiation on its own does not cause the identity of an atom to change. DNA of those cancer cells, thus
• Gamma radiation is able to travel many meters in air. It easily penetrates most preventing the cancerous cells from
materials, including several centimeters through human tissue. being able to grow and
divide.
• Gamma radiation frequently accompanies the emission of alpha and beta radiation.

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HISTORY: JOHANNES WILHELM GEIGER (1882–1945)

Johannes Wilhelm “Hans” Geiger was a German physicist known for his work on radioactivity. In 1928, with
fellow physicist Walther Müller, he developed a device to measure radioactive emissions. The device became
known as the Geiger Counter. The two worked to improve the device’s sensitivity, performance, and durability.
As a result, they created a tool that is used in laboratories around the world today.

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear reactions are changes that occur in the structure of atomic nuclei. The energy that
results from nuclear reactions is called nuclear energy or atomic energy. Nuclear energy
is released from atoms in two different ways: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Quick Fact
The atomic bomb developed by the
NUCLEAR FISSION: a nuclear reaction that occurs when an atomic nucleus splits United States during World War II used
into two smaller parts (nuclei), usually about the same size. When this happens, vast a nuclear fission reaction beginning with
amounts of energy are released. the radioactive isotope uranium-235.
Nuclear fission is also used in

U
• Uranium nuclei can be split easily by bombarding them with neutrons. nuclear power plants to
• Once a uranium nucleus is split, multiple neutrons are released. Each of these generate energy.
neutrons initiates other fission reactions, resulting in a chain reaction.

Uranium was first identified in pitchblende ore in 1789. It was named after the
planet Uranus, which had been discovered around that time.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is the heaviest naturally occurring element on Earth, except for minute traces
of neptunium and plutonium.

• Is highly radioactive, toxic, and carcinogenic.

URANIUM • Has over 16 isotopes, all of which are radioactive.
Atomic #92
Uranium’s radioactivity was first detected by Henri Becquerel in 1896. Today, it is
primarily used in nuclear fuels and explosives. Uranium, specifically the isotope
uranium-235, is the principle element used in nuclear reactors and in certain types
of atomic bombs.

Uranium compounds have been used for centuries as additives in glass. They give
glass interesting yellow and green colors and a fluorescent effect.

NUCLEAR FUSION: a nuclear reaction that occurs when the nuclei of two atoms join to Quick Fact
make a larger nucleus. Again, energy is given off in this reaction. The hydrogen bomb uses nuclear
fusion. Hydrogen nuclei fuse to
• Nuclear fusion only occurs under very hot conditions.
form helium. In the process, they
• The sun and all other stars create energy (in the form of heat and light) through release huge amounts of energy
nuclear fusion. In the sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse to make helium. and create a massive
explosion.

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HISTORY: ENRICO FERMI (1901–1954)

Enrico Fermi was an Italian physicist most known for his work on beta decay, the development of the first nuclear
reactor, and his contributions to the development of quantum theory. He worked on the Manhattan Project
during World War II to produce the atomic bomb, though he warned of its power.

Pu
In 1938, Fermi won the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on radioactivity. Element 100 (fermium) was
named after him.

Plutonium was discovered in 1940 at the University of California at Berkeley. It was

named after the dwarf planet Pluto. The element’s discovery, however, was kept
classified by the government until 1946.

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Is a very heavy, silvery metal in pure form.
• Is a rare radioactive element; found in minute amounts (one part per trillion)
PLUTONIUM in uranium ore.
Atomic #94 • Used mainly as a fuel for nuclear reactors and nuclear bombs.
Plutonium was produced in the United States during World War II as part of the
Manhattan Project to create the atomic bomb. Over one-third of the energy produced
in most nuclear power plants comes from plutonium.

NOTES

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HUMAN-MADE ELEMENTS
All of the elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 are known as transuranic or transuranium elements. They do not occur
naturally on the earth. Most of these heavier elements have been made by bombarding the element uranium with neutrons or other
particles in a cyclotron.

Many of the human-made, transuranic elements are named for important chemists or physicists. Curium (atomic number 96), for
example, is named after Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre Curie. Other human-made elements are listed in the table below:

Atomic # Element Symbol Named for ...

99 Einsteinium Es Albert Einstein, the famous scientist who developed the
Theory of Relativity.

101 Mendelevium Md Dmitri Mendeleev, who developed the modern periodic table.
102 Nobelium No Alfred Nobel, who commercialized dynamite and endowed
the Nobel Prizes for physics, chemistry, medicine, literature,
and peace.

103 Lawrencium Lr Ernest O. Lawrence, who invented the cyclotron.

104 Rutherfordium Rf Ernest Rutherford, who helped develop the modern understanding
of the atomic nucleus.
106 Seaborgium Sg Glenn Seaborg, who was known for his work in the separation and
purification of plutonium. He was also known for proposing the
“Actinide” concept for reorganizing the periodic table.

107 Bohrium Bh Niels Bohr, who proposed a model of atomic structure that explained
the role of the electron.
109 Meitnerium Mt Lise Meitner, who is known for her work on the discovery of nuclear
fission.

Quick Fact
In December 2015, the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) verified the discovery of four
new transuranic elements. The addition
of elements 113, 115, 117, and 118
completed the seventh row of the Quick Fact
periodic table. The new elements were named
nihonium (element 113), moscovium
(115), tennessine (117), and oganesson
(118). Nihonium is the first element to be
named by researchers in Asia—the
common Japanese name for
Japan is “nihon.”

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 SECTION IX:
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
OBJECTIVES
• Identify various types of laboratory equipment.
• Describe how certain laboratory equipment is used to conduct experiments.

BASIC EQUIPMENT
The following are some examples of common laboratory equipment that scientists use while performing experiments:

Beaker: a wide, open container with a flat bottom made of glass or plastic.

• A beaker is a simple container used to mix, heat, or hold substances.

• A graduated beaker can give approximate measurements of liquid volumes. The term
“graduated” means it is marked with measurements.

• The top rim of the beaker usually has a lip and a curved indentation that allows liquids
to be easily poured from the beaker.

Flask: a glass container with a thin “neck” that widens to a round or cone shaped base.

• Flasks can be used to measure, heat, or store liquids.

• The neck of the flask allows scientists to either attach a clamp to it or place a stopper in it.

• Erlenmeyer flask: a flask with a cone-shaped base. It is often used during a filtration
or titration process.

– The wide surface area of the flask’s bottom allows liquids to be heated quickly.

• Florence flask (boiling flask): a round flask that may have a rounded or flat-bottomed
base.

– A liquid contained in a Florence flask will heat evenly because the round shape spreads
the heat around the flask.

– Florence flasks tend to be stronger than other flasks. They are often used to boil liquids
for distillation processes and must be able to withstand extreme temperature changes.

• Volumetric flask: a flask with a pear-shaped base and a long neck. The neck of a
volumetric flask is usually fitted with a stopper.

– Each volumetric flask is marked to hold a specific volume, such as 50 mL,

100 mL, or 250 mL. A volumetric flask has a single line around the long neck marking
the point to where the flask should be filled. Volumetric flasks are used to accurately
measure liquids to a fixed volume or to create solutions of fixed volumes.

Test tube: a small cylindrical glass tube that has a rounded, u-shaped bottom.

• Test tubes are used to hold or heat small amounts of a substance during laboratory
experiments.

• Test tubes are usually held upright using clamps or special test tube holders.

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MEASURING LIQUID VOLUMES

Buret (burette): a long glass cylinder used to accurately measure and dispense a specific
volume of liquid. The cylinder is open at the top, while the bottom comes together into a tip from Stopcock
valve
which the liquid flows. A stopcock valve is attached to the bottom, above the tip, which controls
the amount of liquid that flows from the buret.

• Burets are often used for titrations, where scientists place an Erlenmeyer flask directly
below the tip of the buret and then control the amount of liquid released from the buret.

Graduated cylinder: a tall, cylindrical container used to measure the volume of a liquid.

• It was named a “graduated” cylinder because it has markings along the side to
indicate how much volume is being measured. Graduated cylinders are made in many
different sizes, ranging from 10 mL to 2,000 mL.

• When looking at a liquid in a graduated cylinder, you will most likely notice a slight
curve at the liquid’s surface. This concave (inward) curve at the liquid’s surface is
called the meniscus. Meniscus
READ
– A meniscus is created because the liquid’s particles are attracted to the walls of the LEVEL
HERE
container.

– Scientists measure the volume of a liquid by reading the bottom of the meniscus at
eye level (see the image at right).

HISTORY: DISPLACEMENT
Over 2,000 years ago, ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes made a very useful
measurement observation. As legend has it, Archimedes noticed that when he stepped
Quick Fact
into a bathtub of water, the water level rose. When he sat down in the water, it rose
Why should you take all
even higher. Archimedes had uncovered the concept of displacement.
measurements at eye level? Let’s
Displacement occurs when one substance takes the place of another. Archimedes experiment! Pick some measurement device
observed his body taking the place of the water. The water rose in the tub as it for your test—a graduated cylinder, a scale, or
was pushed out of the way by his body. an analog clock (not digital). Then, stand in
different places around the device (above,
The concept of displacement can be used to measure the volume of solids with
below, far to the right or left, etc.) and
irregular shapes. When an object is placed under water, the volume of the water
record your measurements. What
that the object displaces is equal to the volume of the object. For this to be true, the
do you notice?
object must be completely under the water.

Scientists often use graduated cylinders to measure the volume of irregularly shaped solids.
If the solid reacts with water, they may need to choose another liquid for the measurement. First,
they add a certain amount of water or other liquid to a graduated cylinder and record its volume. Then, they carefully
place the solid into the cylinder. After the solid is completely submerged, they take the new volume measurement. Finally,
they subtract the original volume from the new volume to determine the volume of the solid.

For example, you fill a graduated cylinder with 50 mL of water. Then, you carefully place a small object into the water. You take
a new measurement at the liquid’s meniscus and get a measure of 60 mL. This means that the solid has a volume of 10 mL.

Other graduated lab devices can be used as well. Beakers are sometimes used for larger objects, but the measurement may
not be as accurate.

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MEASURING MASS
Mass is measured using devices known as balances, which measure mass by comparing an object of unknown mass to an object of
known mass. This comparison is important because it ensures that gravity does not affect the measurement.

Triple-beam balance: a device used to measure the mass of an object by comparing the objects’ mass
to the mass of predetermined “weights” known as riders.

• The balance has a pan connected to three beams marked with certain measurements, each
carrying a different rider with a known mass. Attached to the other end of the beams is a
pointer, which shows when the device is balanced.

• To measure the mass of the object on the pan, the riders are moved across the beams until the
pointer shows that the riders and the object on the pan are balanced. The total sum of the
measurements on the three beams is equal to the mass of the object on the pan.

Many science laboratories use instruments called analytical balances or single-pan electronic balances,
which measure with great precision and accuracy.

• The measuring pan of an analytical balance is enclosed inside the device to prevent dust from
collecting on the pan and to prevent air currents in the room from affecting the measurement.

Scientists often measure an empty container first and then measure the container with a substance
inside. The mass of the substance can then be determined by subtraction.

• The mass (or weight if measuring on a scale) of the empty container is called the tare (or tare
weight if measuring on a scale).

• Some balances provide an option for automatically “taring” the vessel so that the balance
reads zero with the vessel placed on the measuring pan. Then, the mass (or weight if measuring
on a scale) of the substance can be read directly on the display.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE
Thermometer: a device used to measure temperature.

• Traditional bulb thermometers measure temperature based on the expansion of a fluid.

– Traditional bulb thermometers are thin sealed graduated glass tubes. They have a bulb at one
end that holds a fluid that expands as it is heated. Above the fluid, the tube is typically filled with
an inert dry gas such as nitrogen at or below atmospheric pressure. The heated fluid is pushed
up the tube. The tube is so thin that even a small increase in volume causes the fluid to rise
noticeably.

– The markings of a thermometer are generally determined based on two fixed reference points,
usually the freezing point and boiling point of water. The degrees of measurement depend on the
temperature measurement scale being used, whether Fahrenheit, Celsius, or Kelvin.

• Digital or electronic thermometers measure temperature using thermoresistors or

“thermistors.”

– Thermistors contain a semiconductor substance. A semiconductor is a substance that conducts

an electric current well at high temperatures but not at low temperatures. Therefore, at high
temperatures, their resistance is low. At low temperatures, their resistance is high.

– A microchip inside measures this resistance. Then, the microchip converts that measurement
into a temperature measurement. That temperature measurement then appears on a digital
display.

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– Unlike traditional bulb thermometers, the process happens very quickly. You are able
to see a temperature measurement almost immediately.

• Another type of thermometer is a bimetallic strip thermometer, which measures

temperature based on the expansion of metals. Inside these thermometers, two
Quick Fact
different metals are bonded together. Those metals will expand at different rates when Ever have trouble opening a jar?
heated. As a result, the strip will bend. If the jar is made of glass and has a
metal lid, here’s a trick. Run hot water
– The bimetallic strip is generally attached to a pointer. As the metals bend, the around the metal lid. The heat will
pointer moves to show the temperature. cause the metal to expand. Once
this happens, it will be
– Bimetallic strips are often wound into small coils. Those coils curl or uncurl with easier to open the jar.
temperature changes.

– Bimetallic thermometers are used in ovens and older household thermostats.

EXAMPLE:
Most bimetallic strips are made of copper and steel. Copper may be on top and steel on the bottom.
Copper will expand more when heated, causing the strip to bend downward. As it cools, the copper
will shrink more quickly than the steel, so the strip will bend upward.

HISTORY: THERMOMETER
In 1593, Galileo Galilei invented a water thermometer. Water freezes at 0 °C, so the thermometers could not measure
temperatures below the freezing point of water.

In 1714, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the first mercury thermometer. Ten years later, he developed a temperature
scale—the Fahrenheit scale.

More recently, alcohol replaced mercury in thermometers. Like mercury, alcohol has a freezing point below the freezing point
of water. Mercury was replaced with alcohol because it is dangerous to humans. If a mercury thermometer breaks it can
be a hazard, so alcohol is a safer alternative.

MEASURING PRESSURE Po Pa
Manometer: a device used to measure the pressure of a fluid. Manometers
often measure pressure based on differences in the height (H) and position of
a column of liquid in a “U” tube. Po = reference pressure (open
to atmosphere)
• The legs of the manometer are connected to separate sources of
pressure. The liquid will rise in the leg with the lower pressure and
drop in the other leg. One leg of the tube is a reference leg, often
H Pa = test pressure
left open to the atmosphere. The other leg of the tube is the
measuring leg.

• Manometers are usually used to measure pressures close to

atmospheric pressure.

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Barometer: a type of manometer used to measure atmospheric pressure.

• When the water or mercury level rises in a barometer, the air pressure is increasing.
When the water or mercury level falls, the air pressure is decreasing.

• Mercury barometers are commonly used in weather reporting.

Most pressure gauges used today are aneroid (meaning “without fluid”).
They contain a coiled elastic metal tube, called a “Bourdon” tube.

• A Bourdon tube uncoils or straightens like a spring when pressure inside it increases.

• As the tube coils or uncoils, it turns a pointer. The pointer is on the face of the gauge
and marks the pressure.

HISTORY: EVANGELISTA TORRICELLI (1608–1647)

Evangelista Torricelli was an Italian physicist and mathematician. He developed the first mercury barometer in the early
1640s while he was investigating vacuums.

• He determined that the height of mercury in a tube placed over a dish of mercury was only 1/14 the height of water
in a tube placed over a dish of water. This is because mercury is fourteen times as dense as water.

• He noticed that the level of mercury varied from day to day and concluded that the difference was
caused by changes in atmospheric pressure.

• He also determined that the space above the mercury in the barometer must contain a vacuum.
The “torr,” a unit of pressure, is named after him.

TRANSFERRING LIQUIDS
Pipette: a device used to measure and move a liquid from one container to another.

• Liquid is drawn up into a pipette by suction. A vacuum is created in the pipette. When
the pipette is placed into a liquid, the vacuum creates suction. The suction causes the
liquid to move up into the pipette.

• Pasteur pipette: a long, skinny tube with a bulb at one end. These pipettes are like eye
droppers, and do not provide accurate measurements.

• Volumetric pipette: a long, skinny tube with an enlargement in the middle and a
suction device at one end. These pipettes are used to accurately measure a specific
volume of liquid.

– The size of the enlarged middle section determines the volume for that pipette.

– These pipettes come in different sizes, usually ranging from 5 mL to 50 mL.

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HEATING MATERIALS
Bunsen burner: a gas burner that produces a single, steady flame for laboratory experiments.
The flame burns at the top of a vertical metal tube connected to a natural gas source.

• A valve on the Bunsen burner controls the amount of gas that flows into it. Valve
Collar
• A “collar” controls the amount of air that mixes with the fuel. It can be rotated to
control the amount of air flowing into the burner. The amount of air affects the quality Gas Line
of the flame. The ideal flame is bluish in color, not yellow or smoky.

Many laboratories prefer to heat substances using an electric source, such as a hot plate or
temperature-controlled oven, rather than a flame.

HISTORY: ROBERT BUNSEN (1811–1899)

In 1855, Robert Bunsen improved the heating burner that is named after him, although he did not invent it. Up until
Bunsen’s improvements, the burner’s flames were smoky, flickered too much, and did not produce much heat.

Bunsen, along with his colleague Gustav Kirchhoff, also developed a device called a spectroscope in 1859
that allowed them to discover the elements cesium and rubidium. (The spectroscope was initially invented
in 1819 by Joseph Von Fraunhofer.)

NOTES

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 SECTION X:
LABORATORY & CHEMICAL SAFETY
OBJECTIVES
• Explain the importance of chemical safety and where to find chemical safety
information.
• Identify common chemical safety and protective equipment symbols.
• List and describe basic laboratory safety guidelines and tips.

Chemicals are a part of our everyday lives. They have many beneficial uses, but can also be hazardous if mishandled or misused. It is
very important that anyone using chemicals understands how to safely store, handle, and use them.

WHERE TO FIND CHEMICAL SAFETY INFORMATION

Product container labels include important information about storage and handling, as well as warnings, first aid information, and other
emergency details.

Many commercial chemical containers will have an image with a symbol similar to the one shown below. This symbol gives a very quick
overview of things to consider when storing or handling the chemicals. The diamond is divided into four sections, each displaying a hazard
rating from 0 to 4. Each section of the safety diamond has a specific color associated with a particular type of hazard. A zero indicates
no hazard. Higher numbers stand for increasing precautions that need to be taken to safely work with those chemicals.

Flammability
3

Health 2 4 Reactivity

W
Special

• Health rating: indicates the degree of harm that exposure to the substance would cause a person, which in turn
indicates the amount of protective equipment a person needs in order to safely work with the substance. A rating
of 4 would most likely mean that specialized equipment is needed to work safely, while a rating of 1 may mean that
only basic protection, such as goggles and gloves, is needed.

• Flammability rating: indicates the likelihood of the substance to vaporize, ignite, and burn.

• Reactivity rating: indicates the likelihood of the substance to release energy by chemical reaction or explosion.

• Special Warning section: provides any extra safety information or warnings.

– The symbol shown above (a “W” with a line through it) means that the chemical reacts with water, indicating that
the chemical should be kept away from water.
– Other common symbols for the special warning section are: OXY (oxidizer), ACID (acid), ALK (alkali), COR
(corrosive), and RAD (radiation hazard).

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Labels should also contain more information about the chemical, such as the name, where it was manufactured, precautionary statements,
and other information needed to safely handle that chemical. The image below shows what a label might look like*.

*Image Source: “Hazard Communication Standard Labels.” Occupational Health & Safety Administration.
U.S. Department of Labor. 2016. https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3492QuickCardLabel.pdf

Another information source is the safety data sheet (SDS) for a chemical. SDSs are available for most chemicals and are prepared
by the manufacturer of a product.

An SDS gives workers, emergency personnel, and all of us information about the proper way to handle or work with a certain
substance and includes:
• Detailed information about the chemical identity and all ingredients of the product
• Physical and chemical properties of the product (melting point, boiling point, etc.)
• Potential hazards associated with the substance (health, storage cautions, flammability,
radioactivity, reactivity, etc.)
• Emergency actions and first aid procedures if an accident happens Quick Fact
• Storage and handling precautions The Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) recently
• Safe disposal information
made changes to the way that chemical safety
In addition, an SDS includes information to identify the manufacturer. This includes the information is communicated. These changes are
manufacturer's address, as well as emergency phone numbers. Not all SDSs may look meant to allow people to better understand how
the same but they all must contain the required information. to safely handle chemicals. Beginning in June
2015, all chemical labels were required to
Anyone can benefit from having this important product information available. SDSs have basic information about how to
provides information about any necessary precautions when using products, but are also safely handle and work with
meant to provide general information about different chemicals and substances. SDSs are
those chemicals.
available for most substances, including common household cleaning products, gasoline,
pesticides, certain foods, drugs, some office and school supplies, and even water.

EXAMPLE:
The safety data sheet (SDS) for water includes that water is a clear liquid, is not a health hazard, has
a boiling point of 100 °C, and many other properties. Although you may have already known this
information about water, you can look up SDSs for other chemicals and find similar information.

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WARNING SYMBOLS
Anyone working with chemicals should become familiar with these common warning symbols. These symbols are often found on
chemical containers and around laboratories. They may seem intimidating, but their job is to keep people informed of any potential
hazards. They are designed to be noticed and they ultimately help make sure that people use chemicals in a safe and responsible
manner. If you see these symbols, pay attention, follow instructions carefully, and look for other information about the chemical.

The gas symbol indicates that there are gases that may be compressed, under
pressure, or in other forms that may require special care when handling.
Quick Fact
These warning symbols are used as
The environmental hazard symbol indicates that the chemicals part of the Globally Harmonized System
contained are hazardous to the environment and to aquatic life. This of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals
symbol is especially important during disposal when special care is (GHS).These symbols are used to label
needed to avoid causing any harm. chemicals in many countries, making it
easier for people to understand potential
hazards and learn how to
The explosive symbol indicates the potential for an explosive situation. The safely handle chemicals.
substance may explode if it comes into contact with fire or if it experiences
shocks or friction.

The flame symbol indicates the presence of a flammable substance. A flammable substance is
one that easily ignites. When working with a flammable substance, be sure to avoid anything
that could start a fire, such as electrical sparks or a hot surface. Flammable substances include
gasoline, propane, and ethanol.

The corrosive symbol indicates the presence of a substance that can cause damage to skin, eyes,
and can potentially destroy metals. These substances can destroy or cause major damage to other
substances. Often times these corrosives are strong acids or bases. As with other chemicals,
remember to avoid contact with skin, eyes, and clothing and do not inhale the vapors.

The oxidizer symbol warns you to keep the substance away from flammable and combustible
materials. An oxidizing substance easily gives off oxygen, transfers oxygen atoms, or behaves like
oxygen in a chemical reaction. Just because a substance is an oxidizer does not mean it is combustible.
However, oxidizers can fuel a fire and make it more difficult to put a fire out. The definition of an
oxidizer for safety classifications is different than the definition used by analytical chemists.

This warning, or irritant and sensitizer, symbol is used to indicate toxic chemicals with less severe
toxicity than those labeled with the skull and cross-bones or the chronic health hazard symbols.
These chemicals can cause irritation and be harmful depending on contact.

The skull and cross-bones, or acute toxicity, symbol is used to indicate a health hazard. It often
means that there is a toxic or poisonous substance inside the container with the symbol or in
close proximity to that location.

The chronic health hazard symbol is used to indicate chemicals that are very harmful to the
human body. As with the other health symbols mentioned above, contact may be detrimental
to human health and may require medical help.

Here are a few other warning symbols and their meanings:

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The radiation symbol (the “trefoil”) means that a substance is radioactive. Instructions should
be followed carefully to avoid harmful exposure.

In 2007, a new radiation symbol was released. The different images in this symbol are designed
to provide a more obvious and powerful warning than the previous radiation symbol.

The biohazard symbol warns of a biological substance that is dangerous to humans or the
environment. These include syringes and other medical devices that have come into contact
with bodily fluids and could carry harmful diseases.

Lasers can damage skin and eyesight. Even low-powered lasers can cause severe damage to
eyesight.
• Lasers produce an intense and narrow beam of single-color light.
• Laser beams can travel long distances and can carry huge amounts of energy.

Please note that more information on warning symbols and updates to the Safety Data Sheets can be found online at OSHA’s
website: https://www.osha.gov/dsg/hazcom. Be sure to ask your teacher or educator if you would like more information.

NOTES

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PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT SYMBOLS

Other symbols tell you what equipment you should wear to keep yourself safe.

Quick Fact
The respiratory protection symbol means that you should wear a Exposure to low temperatures may
protective mask or other facepiece. The symbol is used in areas where damage the skin just as much as a heat
a person may be exposed to contaminated air. burn. For example, liquid nitrogen and dry
ice are very cold substances that should be
The hand protection symbol indicates when gloves must be worn. Be handled carefully. Appropriate thermal
sure to find out what type of glove is needed. Thermal gloves are used hand protection must be worn when
for handling hot and cold materials. Leather gloves are used for working with either hot or cold
handling rough or scratchy materials. Nitrile gloves are used to protect substances.
against chemical solvents and potentially infectious substances.

The protective footwear symbol indicates that you should wear

protective boots or shoes. Sharp or falling objects, hazardous liquids, or
heavy materials can injure your feet.
Quick Fact
Most of the symbols described are meant
The eye protection symbol means that safety goggles or other eye to prevent injury. Other symbols are used to
protection is required. Different types of eye protection can be worn guide you in an emergency. For example, the
depending on different safety measures. Safety goggles are made to fit symmetrical cross symbol shows you where the
completely around the eyes. They protect against sharp flying objects, first aid kit or station is located. There are also
splashing liquids, and dust. symbols to direct you to the safety shower,
eyewash station, and emergency exits.
The face protection symbol indicates that full face protection, such as See if you can find what these
a face shield, is required. Face shields protect your entire face from symbols look like.
splashing liquids or other potentially hazardous materials.

GENERAL SAFETY RULES

Scientists take special care when working in the lab and performing experiments. They are careful to choose the safest chemical to
work with, to follow safe practices, and to understand all potential hazards.

Three basic principles guide the general safety rules for storing, handling, and using chemicals. Those principles are keeping people
safe around chemicals, keeping reactive chemicals away from each other, and practicing good chemical hygiene. Some general
rules to remember are provided in this section. However, specific safety instructions for the place you are working and for the
materials you are using should always be followed.
• Always read through directions and SDSs completely before beginning an experiment.
• Avoid touching your eyes, nose or mouth when working in the laboratory.
• Keep your face away from the opening of a container that holds chemicals.
• Wear the proper protective gear and clothing.
• When mixing chemicals, follow the instructions carefully.
• Work with other people, never work alone.
• Wear safety goggles to protect your eyes.
• Know where safety equipment is located.
• Do not eat or drink in the laboratory.
• Be careful when working with sharp objects like scissors or knives.

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When storing chemical substances:

Think
• Label all storage areas and containers clearly.
About It...
• Avoid storing chemicals in areas that are difficult to see or reach.
Do you follow the same safe
• Reactive chemicals should never be stored near each other. chemical storage practices at home
that you follow in the laboratory?
When pouring liquids from one container to another: What do you have stored under
• Keep the label of a chemical bottle against the palm of your hand to prevent your kitchen sink or in utility room
contamination. cabinets? Which items are
acids? Which are bases?
• Use a glass stirring rod to pour a liquid into a beaker to prevent liquid from
splashing.
• If you are transferring a liquid to a small-mouthed vessel (like a test tube), pour the liquid
into a beaker or graduated cylinder first.
• When an acid must be mixed with water, always add the acid slowly to water.

When handling glassware:

• Do not use glassware that is chipped or cracked.
• Do not place hot glassware directly on a table.
• Allow plenty of time for hot glass to cool before touching it.

When heating substances:

• Never leave a flame or other heating instrument unattended.
Quick Fact
• Do not use electrical cords that have frayed ends, bare wires, or loose plugs. Crucibles are often used to melt metals,
• Do not let electrical cords lay across work spaces. to dry powders, or to accomplish other
• Never reach across an open flame or other heating device. high-temperature tasks. Crucibles are special
high-temperature porcelain containers.
• Never look into a container that is being heated.
• Never heat a closed container; pressure may build up and cause the Tongs should be used to hold onto hot
container to break or burst apart. containers or crucibles.
• Do not bring any substance into contact with a flame. Special “test tube holders” should be
• Use tongs when removing glassware or other containers from a heat source used to hold a test tube over the
to avoid burns. flame of a Bunsen burner.

When cleaning up, be sure to:

• Turn off all heating instruments and disconnect any electrical equipment.
• Return all materials to their proper places.
• Avoid simply disposing of chemicals down the drain.
• Clean and dry your work area.
• Wash your hands with soap and water after completing an experiment.

NOW YOU’RE READY FOR THE CHALLENGE! GOOD LUCK!

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