Diode

the rafik
Rafik Ouchene – Mihoubi Kais

mcilbba

M.abderrahim Y o u s fi
Diode
What Is a diode ?
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electricity primarily in
one direction. It has high resistance on one end and low resistance on the other
end. These devices are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also
transform AC into DC. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make
the most of the diodes. Even though they transmit current in a single direction, the
way with which they transmit differs. There are different kinds of diodes and each
type has its own applications.

Diode Construction and Symbol Explained

A diode in its fundamental form is a PN junction device through which current flows
when the proper forward potential is applied. The p and n-type semiconductor
materials must be carefully combined so that the two must have a controlled quantity
of donor and acceptor impurities. In its basic form, a single silicon or germanium
wafer is taken which is doped with pentavalent and trivalent impurities in its two
halves. P region denotes the doping of trivalent impurity and n region denotes the
doping of pentavalent impurity. Or simply, we can merge separate p and n-type
material in order to form the semiconductor device.

The figure given below shows the structure of a PN junction diode:

Here, as we can see a p-type semiconductor material is merged with an n-type
semiconductor material that forms a junction. This junction is known as PN junction.
At the opposite ends, two metal contacts are attached that combinedly form PN
junction diode. The p-type material holds holes as its majority carrier and electrons
as its minority carrier. As against, the n-type material has electrons as its majority
carrier and holes as its minority carrier.

This p-n junction is nothing but a layer of immobile ions termed as depletion layer.
When a proper potential is provided then conducting and non-conducting state is
noticed in it.
 History
Thermionic (vacuum-tube) diodes and solid-state (semiconductor) diodes were
developed separately, at approximately the same time, in the early 1900s, as radio
receiver detectors.[7] Until the 1950s, vacuum diodes were used more frequently in
radios because the early point-contact semiconductor diodes were less stable. In
addition, most receiving sets had vacuum tubes for amplification that could easily
have the thermionic diodes included in the tube (for example the 12SQ7 double
diode triode), and vacuum-tube rectifiers and gas-filled rectifiers were capable of
handling some high-voltage/high-current rectification tasks better than the
semiconductor diodes (such as selenium rectifiers) that were available at that time.
Vacuum tube diodes[
In 1873, Frederick Guthrie observed that a grounded, white-hot metal ball brought
in close proximity to an electroscope would discharge a positively charged
electroscope, but not a negatively charged electroscope.In 1880, Thomas Edison
observed unidirectional current between heated and unheated elements in a bulb,
later called Edison effect, and was granted a patent on application of the
phenomenon for use in a DC voltmeter.
About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi
Company and former Edison employee) realized that the Edison effect could be used
as a radio detector. Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode, the Fleming
valve, in Britain on November 16, 1904[12] (followed by U.S. Patent 803,684 in
November 1905).
Throughout the vacuum tube era, valve diodes were used in almost all electronics
such as radios, televisions, sound systems, and instrumentation. They slowly lost
market share beginning in the late 1940s due to selenium rectifier technology and
then to semiconductor diodes during the 1960s. Today they are still used in a few
high power applications where their ability to withstand transient voltages and their
robustness gives them an advantage over semiconductor devices, and in musical
instrument and audiophile applications.
Solid-state diodes
In 1874, German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the "unilateral
conduction" across a contact between a metal and a mineral.[13][14] Jagadish Chandra
Bose was the first to use a crystal for detecting radio waves in 1894. [15] The crystal
detector was developed into a practical device for wireless telegraphy by Greenleaf
Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal detector in 1903 and received a
patent for it on November 20, 1906.] Other experimenters tried a variety of other
minerals as detectors. Semiconductor principles were unknown to the developers of
these early rectifiers. During the 1930s understanding of physics advanced and in the
mid 1930s researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories recognized the potential of the
crystal detector for application in microwave technology. [17] Researchers at Bell
Labs, Western Electric, MIT, Purdue and in the UK intensively developed point-
contact diodes (crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes) during World War II for application
in radar. After World War II, AT&T used these in their microwave towers that criss-
crossed the United States, and many radar sets use them even in the 21st century.
Working Principle of Diode
A diode’s working principle depends on the interaction of n-type and p-type
semiconductors. An n-type semiconductor has plenty of free electrons and a very few
numbers of holes. In other words, we can say that the concentration of free electrons
is high and that of holes is very low in an n-type semiconductor.

Free electrons in the n-type semiconductor are referred to as majority charge

carriers, and holes in the n-type semiconductor are referred to as minority charge
carriers.

A p-type semiconductor has a high concentration of holes and a low concentration of

free electrons. Holes in the p-type semiconductor are majority charge carriers, and
free electrons in the p-type semiconductor are minority charge carriers.

The operation of a diode involves unbiased, forward biased, and reverse biased
condition.

We will discuss the above-mentioned condition in detail. Let us start with the
unbiased condition.

The unbiased condition of a diode:

When no any external potential or voltage is provided to the device. Then it is known
as the unbiased condition of a diode.
The figure given below will help you to have a better understanding of the unbiased
condition of a diode.

Here, the p-type material is fused with an n-type material. This fusion creates a
junction. When no voltage is applied across the diode then, majority charge carriers
i.e., holes from p side and electrons from n side get combined with each other at the
junction. These charge carriers on combining generate immobile ions that deplete
across the junction. Due to this a depletion region is formed at the junction.

It is to be noted here that the flow of charge carriers across the cross-section area is
known as diffusion. Hence the current at no bias condition is known as diffusion
current.
The potential difference at the depletion region generates an electric field across it.
Due to this electric field no any further movement of majority charge carriers is
allowed. This is why the width of the depletion region is fixed. The potential at the
depletion region acts as a barrier for further movement hence known as a barrier or
built-in potential. However, still, minority carrier drifts across the depletion region and
a negligible current flows. This very small current due to minority carriers is known
as drift current.
 The forward biased condition of a diode:
In the forward biased condition, p side of the device is connected with the positive
terminal of the supply. And n side is connected with the negative battery potential.
Thereby causing the junction to be forward biased.

Below a figure is given that represents the diode arrangement with positive biasing:
When forward biasing is applied. The holes in the p side experience a repulsive force
from the positive terminal. Similarly, electrons experience a repulsion from the
negative terminal of the supply provided. However, initially, the majority carriers from
both the sides do not move across the junction due to barrier potential.

But, as the barrier potential is exceeded, the majority charge carrier now shows
movement across the junction. This movement of charge carriers after overcoming
the barrier potential generates current. This current is known as the majority current.
The moment this barrier is removed, the resistance offered by the junction becomes
automatically 0. Thus, a forward current now starts to flow through the device.

It is noteworthy here that the barrier potential offered by silicon is 0.7V and for
germanium is 0.3V. So, after overcoming the respective potential in case of both the
materials, forward current starts flowing through the device.
 The reverse biased condition of Diode:
When we externally provide the potential to the device in such a way that p side is
connected to the negative terminal of the supply. And n side is connected with the
positive terminal. Then the device is said to be reverse biased.

The figure below shows the reverse-biased arrangement of a PN junction diode:

When a reverse potential is applied the holes from the p side experience attraction
from the negative terminal. And electrons in n side experiences attraction from the
positive terminal of the supply provided. Due to this, the majority carriers present in
both the side move in the direction away from the junction. This broadens the width
of the depletion region and hence the potential barrier is increased.

This takes the device to a non-conducting state. However, due to the minority
carriers present in both p and n side, a very small current flows. This small current
through the device is known as reverse leakage current. This reverse current is
independent of barrier potential and depends only on the temperature and
construction of the device.
Diode current equation
The diode current is given by the following relation:

: ID = diode current

IS = reverse saturation current
VD = voltage across the device
TK = temperature in Kelvin
K = 11600/ƞ

ƞ = ideality factor ranges between 1 and 2

Since,

We can also write,

Or

Thus, on substituting the above value in the basic equation. We get,

This is the simplified diode current equation

Characteristic Curve of a Diode
The figure given below shows the characteristic curve of a PN junction diode in
forward and reverse biased condition:

Region A represents the curve for the forward-biased diode. While region B shows a
curve for the reverse-biased diode.

Let us consider that diode is made of silicon material. Hence external potential
required to overcome barrier potential is 0.7V in its case. Thus we can see in forward
biased region, a rapid increase in current is noticed after 0.7 volts. This is known as
knee voltage after which barrier potential is totally removed and the device starts
conduction.

Now, coming towards region B that represents the reverse biased condition of the
device. As we have already discussed that in a reverse biased case, the width of the
depletion region is very large and so the barrier potential. Thus the curve represents
the reverse saturation current that flows only due to the movement of minority charge
carriers through the device. This reverse current is merely less than 1 microamps for
a silicon device.

Another noteworthy point here is that, at a nominal reverse voltage, a small reverse
current flows. But, on increasing the reverse voltage, a condition arises that causes
the junction of the diode to get a breakdown. This causes an immediate increase in
the reverse current through it.
Types of Diodes
The types of diode include:
1. Zener diode
2. PN junction diode
3. Tunnel diode
4. Varactor diode
5. Schottky diode
6. Photodiode
7. PIN diode
8. Laser diode
9. Avalanche diode
10. Light emitting diode
Zener Diode
I / Introduction
The Zener diode is an electrical component whose properties are similar to a conventional diode,
except that the Zener diode lets the reverse current flow when it exceeds the threshold of the
avalanche effect.

II / Electrical diagram
The Zener diode is easily recognized on an electrical diagram because the symbol is similar to a
diode, unlike the side of the cathode which looks like an inverted Z. The side of the anode is
identical to that of the symbol of a conventional diode.

Electrical symbol of a Zener diode  (CC-by-sa - author: Omegatron)

III / Electrical characteristics

A conventional conventional diode generally has a threshold voltage of around 0.6V. The Zener
diode also has this threshold voltage, but also has a threshold when the reverse current exceeds the
avalanche effect. This avalanche effect can range from 1.2V up to several hundred Volts. Some
Zener diodes even have a third pin which serves as a regulator to manually modify the value of
the avalanche effect.

Characteristic of a Zener diode  (CC-by-sa - author: Thedreamstree)

IV / Use
The Zener diode is therefore used for its very specific property when a current reverses the
course. A classic use is to use the Zener diode in an electrical circuit to regulate the voltage. The
component can also be used as a voltage reference, voltage clipping, or for low power DC power.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) :

Light Emitting Diode Colours

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material

GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v

 GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v

AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v

GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

When electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light is
produced. In other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of forwarding
current passes through it. In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as they
are frequency levels that do not allow visibility. LEDs are available in different
colours. There are tricolour LEDs which can emit three colours at a time. Light colour
depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor used.

Types of Light Emitting Diode

 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red,
orange-red, orange, and yellow
 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
 Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
 Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet
Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are current-dependent
devices with its forward voltage drop VF, depending on the semiconductor compound
(its light colour) and on the forward biased LED current. Most common LED’s require
a forward operating voltage of between approximately 1.2 to 3.6 volts with a forward
current rating of about 10 to 30 mA, with 12 to 20 mA being the most common range.
Both the forward operating voltage and forward current vary depending on the
semiconductor material used but the point where conduction begins and light is
produced is about 1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue LED.
The exact voltage drop will of course depend on the manufacturer because of the
different dopant materials and wavelengths used. The voltage drop across the LED
at a particular current value, for example 20mA, will also depend on the initial
conduction VF point. As an LED is effectively a diode, its forward current to voltage
characteristics curves can be plotted for each diode colour as shown below.

Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Schematic symbol and I-V Characteristics Curves
showing the different colours available.
Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow
through it, as it is a current dependant device with their light output intensity being
directly proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED.
As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power supply it
should be current limited using a series resistor to protect it from excessive current
flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be
destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it
out.
From the table above we can see that each LED has its own forward voltage drop
across the PN junction and this parameter which is determined by the semiconductor
material used, is the forward voltage drop for a specified amount of forward
conduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA.
In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series
resistor, RS used to limit the forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for a
simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light output is
needed.
Laser Diode :

It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in CD

drives, DVDs and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs and are
cheaper when compared to other laser generators. Limited life is the only drawback
of these diodes.
Construction of a Laser Diode

A simple semiconductor laser diode is made up of the following parts in order:

 Metal Contact
 P-type Material
 Active/Intrinsic Region (N-type Material)
 N-type Material
 Metal Contact

Avalanche Diode :
This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche effect.
When voltage drop is constant and is independent of current, the breakdown of
avalanche takes place. They exhibit high levels of sensitivity and hence used for
photo detection.

Schottky Diode :
It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop will be
seen where there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges between 0.15 and
0.4 volts. These are constructed differently in order to obtain that
performance. Schottky diodes are highly used in rectifier applications.
Photodiode :
A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulted from the
light. These are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse bias diode
and used in solar cells and photometer. They are even used to generate electricity.

Diode Applications
Following are the applications and uses of the diode:

 Diodes as a rectifier
 Diodes in the clipping circuit
 Diodes in clamping circuits
 Diodes in logical gates
 Diodes in reverse current protection