METTU UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COURSE TITLE: – FOUNDATION ENGINEEERING I (CENG 3141)
Degree Program B.Sc. in Civil Engineering
Module Geotechnical Design
Course Coordinator Name:- Mitiku Adare and Desta Nemomsa
Office location
Mobile : e-mail: -
Consultation Hours: ___________________________________
Lecturer Name: - Mitiku A. and Desta N.
Office location. BLOCK 6, Ground Floor/R45
Mobile:- e-mail:- [email protected]
Consultation Hours: ___ _____
EtCTS Credits 5
Study Hour Lecture …………………………. 35 hrs
Tutorial ………………..……….. 50 hrs
Home Study ………...…….......... 50 hrs
Total …………………………… 135 hrs
Objectives To equip students with a sound knowledge about site exploration methods, selection of
foundation type, analysis and design of shallow foundations and retaining structures.
Competencies The student shall be able to:
 Plan a geotechnical site investigation program.
 Design different types of shallow foundations.
 Design earth retaining walls.
Course Description/  Site exploration: purpose, plan and methods of soil explorations, evaluation of
Course Contents field tests data.
 Types of foundations and their selection.
 Introduction to Ethiopia standards and other standards in foundations area.
 Design of shallow foundations: isolated or spread footings, combined footings,
strap or cantilevered footings, mat foundations, eccentrically and inclined loaded
foundations.
 Analysis and design of retaining structures: conventional retaining walls,
introduction to soil reinforcement techniques, sheet pile walls.
 Comparison of hand calculations with SAFE/PLAXIS/GEOSLOPE
Pre-requisite CEng3133 and CEng3111
Semester VI
Status of the Course Compulsory
Mode of Delivery Lectures, tutorials, assignments, class works, mini projects and field visits
Mode of Continuous assessment (quizzes, tests, assignments, mini projects, class works,
CHAPTER ONE - SOIL EXPLORATION
1.1 Purpose of Exploration 1.6 Laboratory Tests
1.2 Planning an Exploration Program 1.7 Ground Water Measurement
1.3 Methods of Exploration 1.8 Depth and Number of Borings
1.4 Field [In-Situ] Tests 1.9 Data Presentation
1.5 Geophysical Methods 1.10 Soil Exploration Report

CHAPTER TWO - TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SELECTION

2.1 Introduction to Ethiopia Standard 2.4.1 General
2.2 Purposes of Foundations 2.4.2 Loads on Foundations
2.3 Types of Foundations 2.4.3 Pressure Distribution beneath
2.3.1 Shallow Foundations Foundations
2.3.2 Deep Foundations 2.4.4 Settlement of Foundations
2.4 Principles of Foundation Design 2.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type
CHAPTER TRHEE - DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
3.1 Introductions 3.1.3 Structural Considerations
3.1.1 Proportioning of Shallow 3.2 Design of Isolated, Combined and
Foundations using presumptive Strip Footings.
allowable soil pressure 3.3 Strap or Cantilever Footing
3.1.2 Proportioning of Shallow 3.4 Design of Mat/Raft Foundations.
Foundations using soil shear strength
parameters
CHAPTER FOUR - ANALYSIS AND PROPORTIONING OF RETAINING WALLS.
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Common Types of retaining walls
4.3 Common Proportions of Retaining walls
4.4 Stability of Retaining Walls
REFERENCES
1. Foundation Engineering by Alemayehu Teferra
2. Foundation Analysis and Design by J. E. Bowles
3. Foundation Design and Construction by M.T. Tomlinson
4. Foundation Design by W.C. Teng
5. Soil Mechanics and Foundation, by Dr. K. Arora.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
1. SOIL EXPLORATION ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose of Exploration .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Planning an Exploration Program ......................................................................................... 1
1.3 Methods of Exploration ......................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Test Pits .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Soil Boring and Sampling............................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Soil Sampling ................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Field [In-Situ] Tests .............................................................................................................. 6
1.4.1 Penetration Tests............................................................................................................. 6
1.4.2 Vane Shear Test ............................................................................................................ 12
1.4.3 Plate Loading Test ........................................................................................................ 13
1.4.4 Pile Loading Test .......................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Geophysical Methods .......................................................................................................... 15
1.6 Laboratory Tests .................................................................................................................. 15
1.7 Ground Water Measurement ............................................................................................... 16
1.8 Depth and Number of Borings ............................................................................................ 16
1.8.1 Depth of Boring ............................................................................................................ 16
1.8.2 Number of Borings ....................................................................................................... 17
1.9 Data Presentation................................................................................................................. 17
1.10 Soil Exploration Report ..................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 19
2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SELECTION...................................................... 19
2.1 Introduction to Ethiopia Standards ...................................................................................... 19
2.2 Purposes of Foundations ..................................................................................................... 19
2.3 Types of Foundations .......................................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Shallow Foundations .................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Deep Foundations. ........................................................................................................ 23
2.4. General Principles of Foundation Design .............................................................................. 28
2.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 28
 2.4.2 Loads on Foundation .................................................................................................... 29
2.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type....................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 31
3. DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ............................................................................ 31
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.1 Proportioning of shallow foundations using presumptive allowable soil pressure. ..... 31
3.1.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil strength parameters φ and C. ..... 33
3.1.3 Structural Considerations. ............................................................................................ 36
3.2 Isolated or Spread Footings ................................................................................................. 38
3.3 Combined Footing ............................................................................................................... 55
3.4 Strap or Cantilever Footing ................................................................................................. 57
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 60
4. Analysis and Proportioning of Retaining Walls ....................................................................... 60
4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 60
4.2. Common Types of retaining walls ..................................................................................... 60
4.3. Common Proportions of Retaining walls ........................................................................... 62
4.4. Stability of Retaining Walls ............................................................................................... 64
Foundation Engineering I 2011/2019

CHAPTER ONE

1. SOIL EXPLORATION
1.1 Purpose of Exploration
The purpose of soil exploration is to find out strength characteristics of the sub-soil over which the
structure has to be built. Soil characteristics vary both with respect to depth from the ground
surface and stretch in the horizontal direction. It is, therefore, the prime objective of soil
exploration for a building, bridge or other civil Engineering works, to analyze the nature of soil in
all respects.
The main purposes of soil exploration are: -
a) Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical sites.
b) Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation
c) Selection of alternative methods of construction.
d) Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
e) Location and selection of construction materials.
The soil exploration should provide the following data: -
1. Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification, bearing capacity
or settlement calculation)
2. Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil)
3. Location of ground water level

1.2 Planning an Exploration Program

The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon
i. The nature of sub-soil
ii. The type of structure
iii. The importance of structure

The soil engineer should constantly keep in mind, when planning the exploration program, the
purpose of the program and the relative costs involved. Normally, the cost involved in the soil
exploration is a function of the total cost of the project. It is always advisable to spend a little more
on soil investigation to understand clearly the nature of the soil so that suitable foundation can be
recommended. Often an indication of the extent of an exploration of program can be estimated

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from the history of foundations successes and failures in an area are very helpful. Also, for
planning the program, the engineer should be well acquainted with the current methods of soil
boring, sampling and testing and have some idea of the limitations on both the field and laboratory
equipments and methods.
The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or all of the following
steps: -
I. Assembly of all available information on type and use of the structure, and also of the general
topographic and geological character of the site.
II. Reconnaissance of the area: - This involves inspection of behavior of adjacent structures, rock
outcrops, cuts, etc.
III. A preliminary site investigation: - This is usually in the form of a few borings or a test pit to
establish the types of materials, Stratification of the soil, and possibly the location of the ground
water level. For small projects this step may be sufficient to establish foundation criteria, in which
case the exploration program is finished.
IV. A detailed site investigation: - For complex projects or where the soil is of poor quality and/or
erratic, a more detailed investigation may be undertaken this may involve sinking several
boreholes, taking soil samples for laboratory investigations, conducting sounding and other field
tests.

1.3 Methods of Exploration

Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of sub-surface are
 Test pits
 Boring and sampling
 Field tests
 Geophysical methods
 Laboratory tests

1.3.1 Test Pits

 The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration is to sink test pit to depths
of 3 to 4 m. The use of Test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be examined visually,
thus the boundaries between strata and the nature of any macro-fabric can be accurately
determined. It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples: in cohesive

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soils block samples can be cut by hand from the bottom of the pit and tube samples can be
obtained from the sides of the pit.

1.3.2 Soil Boring and Sampling

1.3.2.1 Soil Boring
 This is the most widely used method. It provides samples from shallow to deeper depths
for visual inspection as well as laboratory tests. The most commonly used methods of
boring are: -
a) Auger boring
b) Wash boring
c) Percussion drilling
d) Rotary drilling
 a) Auger boring: - Operated by hand or by power. Hand operated augers, φ= 15 to 20cm,
are of two types. Post-hole and helical augers. They are used for shallow borings depth 3
to 7.5m in soils, which possess sufficient cohesion to sand unsupported. This boring
method provides highly disturbed soil samples. Power operated augers (helical) can be
used to great depths, even to 30m, and used in almost all types of soils above water table.

b) Wash boring: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a light
chopping bit and jetting action of drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure.
Loosened soil particles rise as suspended particles through the annular space between casing and
drill rod. This method best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e.

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boulders) and rocks. Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more. Changes in soil strata are
indicated by changes in the rate of progress of boring, examination of out coming slurry and cutting
in the slurry. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper samplers.

c) Percussion drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a heavy chisel
into the bottom of the hole. The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole is removed by bailer
or sand pump. Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this method of boring is not favored.
Casing is generally required. Maximum depth of boring is 60m.

d) Rotary drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which cuts the
material at the bottom of the hole into small particles which are removed by circulating fluids,
which may be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry. This is the most rapid method for penetrating
highly resistant materials (e.g. bed rock). In this method undisturbed samples can be obtained at
desired depths by using suitable samplers. Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.

1.3.2 Soil Sampling

There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore holes or trial pits.
These are: - Disturbed and Undisturbed samples.
a) Disturbed Samples: - are samples where the structure of the natural soil has been disturbed to
a considerable degree by the action of the boring tolls or excavation equipment. Disturbed samples,
however, need to be truly representative of the stratum.
Disturbed samples are satisfactory for performing classification tests such as, sieve analysis,
Atterberg limits etc.
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b) Undisturbed Samples: - are samples, which represent as closely as is practicable, the true in-
situ structure and water content of the soil. Undisturbed samples are required for determining
reliable information on the shearing resistance and stress-deformation characteristics of a deposit.
Undisturbed samples in cohesion-less deposits are extremely difficult to obtain. Because of this
the above characteristics are provided by field tests.

Types of Samplers
It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples, especially from moderate to deep
holes. The process of boring, driving the coring too, raising and withdrawing the coring tool and
extruding the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause some disturbance. In addition,
samples taken from holes may tend to swell as a result of stress relief. Samples should be taken
only from a newly- drilled or newly extended hole, with care being taken to avoid contact with
water. As soon as they are brought to the surface, core tubes should be labeled inside and outside,
the ends sealed with wax and capped, and then stored away from extremes of heat or cold and
vibration. Sample disturbance may be reduced by using an appropriate type of sample tube. The
types of tube samplers in common use are described below:

a) Split Spoon Sampler: - A standard split spoon sampler has a 2“outside diameter, 1⅜″ inside
diameter tube, 18 to 24” long. The tube is split longitudinally in the middle.
While the sample is being taken, the two halves of the spoon are held together at the ends by short
pieces of threaded pipe, one of which couples, it to the drill rod and the other serves as the cutting
edge. The sampler is forced or driven into the soil to obtain a sample and is then removed from the
hole. With these sampler-disturbed samples of soft rock, cohesive and cohesionless soils are
obtained. This sampler is used for making standard penetration test.
b) Thin-Walled Tube Sampler: - It is a thin walled seamless brass or steel tubing, with common
outside diameter of 2 to 3” and length of 30 to 36”. The lower end is beveled to form a cutting
edge and it can be slightly tapered to reduce the wall friction and the upper end fitted for attachment
to the drill rod. In order to take sample the sampler is pushed downward into the soil by static force
instead of being driven by a hammer. This sampler is used to take undisturbed samples from
cohesive soils.

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c) Piston Samplers: - They are very thin tube samplers with pistons fitted at their cutting ends.
While taking sample, the piston is held in positions and the tube pushed down. The piston aids the
retention of the soil in the tube during withdrawal. Piston samples provide best-undisturbed
samples of cohesive soils.

1.4 Field [In-Situ] Tests

These tests are valuable means of determining the relative densities; shear strengths and bearing
capacities of soils directly without disturbing effects of boring and sampling.
The most commonly used field tests are; -
 Penetration or sounding tests
 Vane shear test
 Plate loading test
 Pile loading test

1.4.1 Penetration Tests

Penetration tests are the most useful tests. They are conducted mainly to get information on the
relative density of soils with little or no cohesion. The tests are based on the fact that the relative
density of a soil stratum is directly proportional to the resistance of the soil against the penetration
of the drive point. From this, correlations between values of penetration resistance versus angle of
internal friction (φ), bearing pressure, density and modulus of compressibility have been
developed. Penetration tests are classified as: Static and dynamic penetration tests.
a) Static Penetration Tests.
1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test: -This method of testing is widely used in Scandinavia and
here in Ethiopia. The test consists of weights: 5, 10, 10.25,25, and 25kgs (Σ=100 kg), screw point,
driving rod (φ 20 to 22 mm), made up of 100cm parts, and a rotating handle. The depth of
penetration is measured for each loading after which the number of half-turns is counted by
100Kg.load; the penetration depth is then measured after 25 half-turns. If the penetration after 25
half-turns is less than 5cm the rod is unloaded and driven down by a 5 to 6kg hammer.

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2) Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test): -This method is widely used
in Europe. The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600, overall diameter 35.7mm, end area 10cm2,
rods (⅝” φ), casing pipe (φ ¾”). The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground at a rate of
10mm/sec. The pressure exerted on the rod is measured with a proving ring, manometer or a strain

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gauge. Readings are usually taken every 20cm. From this test point resistance and skin frictional
resistance can be determined separately.
 The cone is 1st pushed into the ground. The force required to push the cone 20cm into the
soil is recorded.
 The casing pipe is then advanced to join the cone. The force required to push the pipe is
also recorded.
 The readings thus taken are plotted against depth. The correlation between the cone (point)
resistance and relative density of frictional soils are given in Table 1.1

According to Meyerhof:
N = ¼ (Ckd) ……………… (1.1)
Where N = Standard penetration number
Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm2)

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For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated from cone resistance from the
following relationship.
ES =3/2( Ckd) ……………………… (1.2)
b) Dynamic Penetration Tests
1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT): -This is the most common of the field tests and measures
the resistance of the soil to dynamic penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon sampler which is
driven into the soil at the bottom of a borehole (sometimes cased).
The sampler is attached to drill rods and the dynamic driving force is a 63.5kg mass falling through
a height of 76cm onto the top of the rods as shown in Fig.11.5. The sampler is initially driven
15cm below the bottom of the borehole. It is then further driven 30cm. The number of blows
required to drive the last 30cm is termed as the standard penetration value denoted by N.
The standard penetration number has been correlated to soil characteristics such as: density, angle
of shearing resistance, φ, unconfined compressive strength, as given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.

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Correction to be applied to measured values of SPT

The N. values of SPT as measured in the field may need to be corrected.
I. When SPT is made in fine saturated sands, saturated silty sands, or saturated silts,
correction is usually made for possible buildup of pore water pressure. The SPT
values, greater than 15 are modified as follows
N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15) Suggested by Terzaghi and peck
Where N= corrected value
N’= actual value
II. The other type of correction is known as correction for overburden pressure. This
correction is applied only to cohesionless soils (dry, moist or wet). The correction
suggested by Gibbs and Holtz and widely used is as follows.

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2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test: - This is another useful test, which is normally used to
determine the relative resistance offered by the different soil layers. The cone is fixed to the bottom
of a rod by pushed fit. The cone is driven into the ground in the same way as a SPT is performed.
The number of blows required to penetrate 30 cms depth is called as Nc value. In the case of
dynamic cone penetration test no borehole is used.
Experiments carried out indicate that beyond about 6m depth, frictional resistance on the rod
increases which gives erroneous results for Nc value. The maximum depth suggested for this test
is about 6 m. If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m depth, one has to use drilling mud
(bentonite slurry) under pressure forced through the pipe and the cone as shown in Fig 11.6. The
mud solution coming out of the cone rises above along the drill rod eliminating thereby the
frictional resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The former method is called as dry method
and the latter wet method.

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1.4.2 Vane Shear Test

This test is useful in determining the in-place shear strength of very soft and sensitive clays, which
lose a large part of their strength when even slightly disturbed by the sampling operation. The
strength parameter obtained is consolidated- undrained shear strength, Cu.
In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired depth, where the vane shear test is planned to be
performed and the vane is carefully pushed into the soil. A torque necessary to shear the cylinder
of soil defined by the blades of the vane is applied by rotating the arm of the apparatus with a
constant speed of 0.5 degree/sec. The maximum torque is then measured from which the shearing
strength is determined.
From the measured maximum torque one may estimate the shearing resistance of the tested clay
from the following formula

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1.4.3 Plate Loading Test

In this test a gradually increasing static load is applied to the soil through a steel plate, and readings
of the settlement and applied load are recorded, from which a relationship between bearing
pressure and settlement for the soil can be obtained.
Fig. 1.8 shows the arrangement and typical load settlement curve for a plate load test.
The test procedure used for performing the test is as follows:
1) Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the plate.
2) The plate should be properly placed in the soil. In the case of cohesionless soil (to
prevent early displacement of soil under the edges of the plate), the plate must be
positioned in cast in-situ concrete.
3) Loading platform should be properly erected.
4) Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading increment is kept constant).
5) Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the same incremental steps (to
draw the expansion curve).
Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is determined from settlement consideration. If the
maximum permissible settlement, S, of a footing of width Bf is given, the settlement, Sp, of a plate
of width Bp under the same intensity of loading is given by

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Using the value Sp, computed from the above equation, the loading intensity under the footing
could be read from the load settlement curve.
The settlement of footing in clay is normally determined from principles of consolidation.
However from plate load test, the approximate settlement of footing of width B can be determined
using the following expression

Limitation of Plate Loading Test

 Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence consolidation settlement does not fully occur
during the test.
 For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to sandy soils, and to partially saturated
or rather unsaturated clayey soils.
 Plate loading test can give very misleading information of the soil is not homogeneous
within the effective depth (depth of stress influence) of the prototype foundation.

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 Plate loading test should not recommended in soils which are not homogeneous at least to
depth of 1½ to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation

1.4.4 Pile Loading Test

This is the most reliable means for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile. The load
arrangement and testing procedure are more or less similar to the plate-loading test.
From the results of this test the allowable bearing capacity and load- settlement relationship of a
group of friction piles can be estimated.

1.5 Geophysical Methods

These comprise the seismic and resistivity methods. These methods are usually limited to
establishing location of bedrock underlying softer material (by seismic method) or locating gravel
or sand deposits (by resistivity method). The seismic method is based on the fact that sound waves
travel faster through rocks than through soils. The resistivity method makes use of the fact some
soils (e.g. soft clays) have low electrical resistivity than others (e.g. sand or gravel). These methods
are normally employed as preliminary or supplementary to other methods of exploration.

1.6 Laboratory Tests

Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for calculating ultimate bearing capacity of
soils, stability and settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining physical characteristics
of soils. Results of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction with borehole records and
results of field test.

The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are
♦ Grain size analysis, Atterberg limits
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♦ Natural moisture content, Unit weight

♦ Unconfined compression test, Direct shear test
♦ Triaxial compression test, Consolidation test
♦ Compaction test, Chemical analysis

1.7 Ground Water Measurement

Ground water affects many elements of foundation design and construction. Because of this its
location should be determined in each job with reasonable accuracy. Water table level can be
determined by measuring the depth to the water surface in a borehole. Water levels in bore holes
may take a considerable time to stabilize, this time, known as the response time, depending on the
permeability of the soil. Measurements, therefore, should be taken at regular intervals until the
water level becomes constant.
The depth of water table is measured by lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the borehole. The
depth can also be measured by lowering the leads of an electrical circuit. As soon as the open ends
of the leads touch the water in the borehole, the circuit is completed. It is indicated by glow of the
indicator lamp.

1.8 Depth and Number of Borings

1.8.1 Depth of Boring
The depth to which boreholes should be sunk is governed by the depth of soil affected by
foundation bearing pressures. According to Tomlinson the following depths of boreholes for
various foundation conditions may be used.
i. For widely spaced strip of pad foundations, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5
times the width of the foundation.
ii. For raft foundations, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of raft should be used.
iii. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations where there is overlapping of the zones
of pressure, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of building should be used.
iv. For group of piled foundation on soil, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times
width of pile group, the depth being measured from a depth of two- thirds of the
length of the piles.

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v. For piled foundation on rock, boring depth should be deeper than 3.0m inside
bedrock.
According to Teng, for high ways and airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m, but should be
extended below organic soil, fill or compressible layers such as soft clays and silts.

1.8.2 Number of Borings

Boring is an expensive undertaking. One should therefore minimize the number of borings for a
construction in a given site. From experience Teng has suggested the following guideline for
preliminary exploration.

1.9 Data Presentation

The results of borings, samplings, penetration tests and laboratory tests of a site are usually plotted
graphically on a sheet of drawing paper. The graphical presentation should include.
a) A plot plan, showing the location of all boreholes, test pits, etc and their identification
number.
b) A separate plot, showing the soil profile as established from the drillings or test pits
records.
c) Soil profiles along given lines in the ground surface, showing the boundaries between
identifiable soil layers, variation of thickness of firm bottom layer, thickness of soft
clay layers etc.
d) The penetration number, the unconfined compression strength, Atterberg limits,
natural moisture content, and other appropriate laboratory data may be shown on each
boring on the soil profile.
e) The location of ground water table should also be shown on the soil profile.

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1.10 Soil Exploration Report

A soil exploration report should contain all available data from bore holes, test pits, field and
laboratory tests and site observation. Most reports have the following contents.
1) Introduction: - Purpose of investigation, type of investigation carried out.
2) General description of the site: - general configuration and surface features of the site.
3) General geology of the area.
4) Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits)
5) Laboratory test results.
6) Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and constructions.
7) Conclusion: - recommendations on the type and depth of foundations, allowable bearing
pressure and methods of construction.

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CHAPTER TWO

2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SELECTION

2.1 Introduction to Ethiopia Standards
The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to the
ground is called foundation.
The foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground level so as to increase the lateral
stability of the structure. It includes the portion of the structure below ground level and other
artificial arrangements in the form of concrete block, grillage, raft, piles etc. at its base so as to
provide a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the structure on a large area of the soil
lying underneath.

2.2 Purposes of Foundations

Foundations are used for the following purposes.
I. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensity of
loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
II. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.
III. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
IV. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
V. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

2.3 Types of Foundations

Foundations can be broadly classified into the following two categories
 Shallow foundations
 Deep foundations

2.3.1 Shallow Foundations

The foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to the ground
level are known as shallow foundations. The purpose of this type of foundations is to distribute
the structural loads over a considerable base area at the foundation bed.

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Since spread foundations (shallow foundations) are constructed in open excavations, therefore,
they are termed as open foundations
Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types: -
a) Spread or Isolated footings
b) Combined footing
c) Cantilever footing
d) Continuous or wall footing
e) Raft foundation
Spread or Isolated Footings: - They are used to support individual column.
Isolated footings are stepped type, simple type or slope type, having projections in the base
concrete. To support heavy loads, reinforcement is also provided at the base. The reinforcement
provided is in the form of steel bars and is placed in both directions.

Combined Footing: - A combined footing supports two or sometimes three column in a row.
Combined footing is used when property lines, equipment locations, column spacing or other
considerations limit the footing clearance at the column locations. The combined footing can be

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rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or can be trapezoidal if there is a space
limitation and they carry unequal loads. Generally they are constructed of reinforced concrete.

Cantilever or Strap Footing: - Cantilever footing consists of two individual footings connected
by a beam called a strap. It is also sometimes called as strap footing.
Cantilever footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that a
trapezoidal combined footing becomes quite narrow, with resulting high bending moments.
The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil so a strap doesn’t transfer any pressure to the
soil.

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Continuous or Wall Footing:- In this type of footing a single continuous reinforced concrete slab
is provided as foundation of wall and three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is
suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents differential settlement in the
structure.

Raft Mat Foundation: - A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure
loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one-half of the area, and it may
prove more economical to use raft foundation. It is also used where the soil mass contains

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compressible layers so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control the raft tends to
bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the differential settlement.

2.3.2 Deep Foundations.

When the upper ground stratum at a site is weak and unable to carry the load even by a raft
foundation, then eventually shallow foundation has to be ruled out, and a deep foundation, taken
to an available firm stratum, is adopted. Deep foundation may be in the form of Piles or Well (i.e.,
Caissons).
A pile is relatively a small diameter shaft, which is used to transmit the loads to deeper soil layers
capable of supporting the loads. A well on the other hand is a large diameter circular body, usually,
sunk into the ground, by removing the ground soil and it is usually adopted for structures across
rivers streams, where heavy scouring is involved, such as for supporting the piers of a road or a
railway bridge, or some monumental building.
Pile Foundations
A foundation supported on piles is called a pile foundation

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Pile foundation is suitable under the following situations

a. When the soil is very soft and solid base is not available at a reasonable depth to
keep the bearing power within safe limits.
b. When shallow foundations are very expensive
c. When the building is a very high and carrying heavy concentrated load.
Classification of Piles
Piles are generally classified into the following categories according to
1) The mode of transfer of load
2) The use
3) Composition or material of construction.
4) The method of construction
I. Classification of Piles According to the Mode of Transfer of Loads
a. End-Bearing Piles:- these piles penetrate through the soft soil or water and their bottoms rest
on a hard stratum and transmits the load to it.
b. Friction Piles: - When loose soil extends to a great depth, piles are driven up to such a depth
that frictional resistance developed at the sides of the piles equals the load coming on the piles.
c. Combined End-Bearing and Friction Piles: - the piles which rest on hard strata and resist the
loads partly by bearing and partly by their skin friction are known as friction -cum- Bearing piles

II. Classification of Piles Based on Use

a. Uplift Piles: - These piles anchor down the structure subjected to uplift or overturning
movement.
b. Batter Piles: - The piles driven at an inclination to resist inclined loads are known as batter
piles. These piles are used generally to resist lateral forces in case of retaining walls, abutments
etc.
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c. Compaction Piles: - they are used to compact loose granular soils in order to increase their
bearing capacity. These piles themselves do not carry any load.
d. Sheet Piles: - The piles which consist of thin steel sheets driven in the ground to enclose an area
are known as sheet piles. These piles are used to enclose soil so as to prevent the leakage of water
and to enclose soft material.
III. Classification of Piles According to Their Composition or Material of Construction.
a. Timber Piles:-Timber piles are made of tree trunks with the branches trimmed off.
The timber to be used for the construction should be free from defects; decay etc. and it should be
well seasoned. These piles are circular or square in cross section. Top of these piles is provided
with an iron ring to prevent it from splitting under bellows of the hammer. The bottom is fitted
with an iron shoe to facilitate sinking of the piles. Piles entirely submerged in water last long
without decay. When a pile is subjected to alternate wetting and drying the useful life is relatively
short.
b. Concrete Piles: - Cement concrete is used in the construction of concrete piles.
These piles are strong and durable and can bear more load than timber piles.
Concrete piles may be classified into the following two types
I. Pre-cast concrete piles
II. Cast in situ piles
Pre-Cast Concrete Piles: - These piles are manufactured in factory. These are R.C piles, which
are usually square, circular or octagonal in cross-section. Normally these are made to resist the
stresses caused by driving and handling as well as those produced by loads they are supposed to
carry.
Cast-in situ Concrete Piles: - These type of piles are constructed in their locations in the bore
holes prepared for these purpose. The operation consists of boring a hole, filling it with only
concrete or with steel reinforcement and concrete. Straight bored piles or piles with one or more
bulbs at intervals may be cast at site the latter type is call as under reamed pile.

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Cast in-situ concrete piles are easy to handle. They do not require any extra reinforcement to resist
the stresses developed during handling or driving operations.
There is no wastage of material as the pile of required length is only constructed. The extra cost of
transporting pile is eliminated.
The disadvantages of these piles are
a. It is difficult to maintain the reinforcement in correct position during construction of pile
b. The piles cannot be constructed under water, and
c. It is not possible to have a proper control over the composition and design of these piles.

c. Sand Piles: - The piles consisting of sand filled in boreholes are called sand piles. These piles
are formed by digging holes. The holes are then filled sand and compacted. Top of the sand pile is
covered with concrete to prevent the sand to come upwards due to lateral pressure. Sand piles are
used occasionally for taking light loads. They are not suitable in regions subjected to frequent
earthquakes.
d. Steel Piles: - The piles consisting of a steel section are called steel piles. These piles are useful
where driving conditions are difficult and other types of piles are not suitable. Steel piles are
usually H shapes or pipe piles. H-piles are proportioned to withstand large impact stresses during
hard driving. Pipe piles fitted with conical cost iron shoes are driven in the ground and then hollow
space is filled with concrete.
e. Composite Piles: - A composite pile is formed when it is a combination either of a bored pile
and a drive pile or of driven piles of two different materials. They are suitable where the upper part
of a pile to project above the water table. They are economical and easy to construct.

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Iv. Classification Based on Method of Construction

(Installation)
a. Driven Piles: - These piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy hammer on
their tops.
b. Driven and Cast In-Situ Piles: - These piles are formed by driving a casing with a closed
bottom end into the soil. The casing is later filled with concrete.
The casing may or may not be withdrawn.
c. Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles: - These piles are formed by excavating a hole into the ground
and then filling it with concrete.
d. Screw Piles: - The piles are screwed into the soil.
e. Jacked Piles: - These piles are jacked into the soils by applying a downward force with the help
of a hydraulic jack.
Selection of Type and Length of Piles
The choice of a pile is governed largely by the site and soil conditions. Based on the soil conditions
the following types of piles are recommended.

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Pile Cap
The main function of pile cap is to transfer loads from a column or wall to an underlying group of
piles. To ensure stability against lateral forces, a pile cap must include at least three piles; otherwise
it should be connected by the beams to adjacent caps.
In general, pile caps should be arranged in such a manner that the centroid of pile group coincides
with the line of action of load, to ensure that all piles carry an equal load and avoid tilting of group
in compressible bearing stratum.

2.4. General Principles of Foundation Design

2.4.1 General
The usual approach to a normal foundation-engineering problem is
1) To prepare a plan of the base of the structure showing the various columns, loadbearing
walls with estimated loads, including dead load, live load, moments and torques coming into
the foundation units.
2) To study the tentative allowable bearing pressures allocated for the various strata below
the ground level, as given by the soil investigation report.
3) To determine the required foundation depth. This may be the minimum depth based on soil
strength or structural requirement considerations.
4) To compute the dimensions of the foundation based on the given loading and allowable
bearing pressure.

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5) To estimate the total and differential settlements of the structure. If these are excessive the
bearing pressure will have to be reduced or the foundation taken to a deeper and less
compressible stratum or the structure will have to be founded on piles or other special
measures taken

2.4.2 Loads on Foundation

An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation should be made before it can be
properly designed. A foundation may be subjected to two or more of the following loads.
a) Dead load: - - Weight of structure
- All material permanently attached to structure
- Static earth pressure acting permanently against the structure below ground surface.
- Water pressure acting laterally against basement walls and vertically against slab.
b) Live load: - temporary loads expected to superimpose on the structure during its useful life.
c) Wind load: - lateral load coming from the action of wind. Local building codes provide
magnitude of design wind pressure.
d) Earth-quake load: - lateral load coming from earth quake motion. The total lateral force (base
shear) at the base of a structure is evaluated in accordance with local building code.
e) Dynamic load: - load coming from a vibrating object (machinery). In such case, separate
foundation should be provided. The impact effect of such loads should be considered in design.

2.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type

In selecting the foundation type the following points must be considered
a) Function of the structure
b) Loads it must carry
c) Subsurface conditions
d) Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure.
Having these points in mind one should apply the following steps in order to arrive at a decision.
I. Obtain at least approximate information concerning the nature of the superstructure
and the loads to be transmitted to the foundation
II. Determine the subsurface condition in a general way.
III. Consider each of the usual types of foundations in order to judge whether or not
a. They could be constructed under existing conditions.

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b. They are capable of carrying the required load.

c. They experience serious differential settlements.
The types that are found to be unsuitable should then be eliminated.
IV. Undertake a detailed study of the most promising types. Such a study may require
additional information on loads and subsurface conditions.
Determine the approximate size of footing or the approximate length and number of piles
required
v. Prepare an estimate for the cost of each promising type of foundation.
vi. Select the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between performance
and cost.

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CHAPTER THREE

3. DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

3.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the economical and safe design of the common types of shallow
foundations. The main foundation types that are considered here are: isolated or spread footings,
combined footings, strap or cantilever footings and mat or raft foundations.
Shallow foundations are structural members that are used to transfer safely to the ground the dead
load of the superstructure and all external forces acting upon it. The type and magnitude of the
loading will usually be furnished by the engineer design the superstructure. It is up to the
foundation engineer to collect all the information regarding the purpose of the superstructure, the
material that will be used in its construction, its sensitivity to settlements in general and to
differential settlement in particular and all other pertinent information that may influence the
successful selection and execution of the foundation design. The foundation engineer should also
select the soil stratum that most suitable for the support of the superstructure.
The design of shallow foundations is based on the assumption that they are rigid so that the
variation of pressure under the foundations will be linear. The distribution of pressure will be
uniform if the centroid of the foundation coincides with the resultant of the applied loads. The
requirements in design of foundations are:
1. The pressure on the soil should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be within the permissible limits. Further there should be
no differential settlement.
In order to proportion shallow foundations one should either know the presumptive allowable soil
pressure as dictated by prevalent code or know the appropriate strength parameters of the soil, i.e.,
the angle of internal friction, φ and cohesion, C.

3.1.1 Proportioning of shallow foundations using presumptive allowable soil

pressure.
Through many years of practice, it has been possible to estimate the allowable soil pressure for
different types of soils for uncomplicated soil conditions. Accordingly different

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Building codes give allowable average soil pressure. Here EBCS 7 is presented. Table 4.1
Presumed Design Bearing resistance * under static loading (EBCS 7)

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* The given design bearing values do not include the effect of the depth of embedment of the
foundation.
** Compactness: dense: N> 30 medium dense: N is 10 to 30 loose: N< 10, where N is standard
penetration value
*** Consistency: hard: qu > 400kPa stiff: qu = 100 to 200kPa medium stiff qu = 50 to 100kPa
soft: qu = 25 to 50 kPa, where qu is unconfined compressive strength

3.1.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil strength parameters

φ and C.
For cases where presumptive allowable soil pressures cannot be used, one should determine the
soil strength parameters φ and C. These parameters may be approximated or determined from

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laboratory tests. Using the value of φ and C thus obtained, one can easily determine the area of the
foundation in question using bearing capacity equations.
In applying the bearing capacity equations one should differentiate two states of loading, namely,
the initial or instantaneous loading condition and the final or long- term loading condition.
In the initial loading condition, the load is assumed to act instantaneously. At this stage the pore
water pressure in the soil does not have time to dissipate. This situation corresponds to the quick
or undrained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters are designated by φu and Cu -
in most cases φu = 0.
In the final or long term loading condition, the load is assumed to act gradually as construction
progresses thus giving the pore water pressure in the soil ample time to dissipate. Here the situation
corresponds to the slow or drained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters in this
case are designated by φ’ and C’.
The ultimate load that may be applied on a foundation with sides a and b may be determined from
the following equation
Vf = A′σf ----------------------------------------------------------- (4.1)
Where A′ = a′ b′= effective area (Fig. 4.1)
a′ = a-2ea = effective length
b′ = b-2eb= effective width
σf = ultimate bearing capacity of the footing
ea and eb = Eccentricities in the long and short directions, respectively

The actual sustained load on the footing may be related to the ultimate load
Vf =ηp -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - (4.2)
Where η = factor of safety
P = actual sustained load on the foundation

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From Eqn. (4.4) one easily determines the required area since all the quantities on the right hand
side of the equation are known.
The ultimate bearing capacity, σf , may be determined from the following equation
σf = CNc Scdcic+ ½ b’ γ Nγ Sγdγ iγ + q Nq Sqdqiq --------------------- (4.5)
Where
qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing,
C = Cohesion,
q = Effective surcharge at the base level of the footing.
γ = effective unit weight of soil
Nc , Nq, Nγ = Bearing capacity factor
Sc , Sq ,Sγ = Shape factors
Dc ,dq, dγ = Depth factors
Ic , iq, iγ , = Inclination factors
For initial loading conditions, where φu = 0, the failure surface of the soil consist of straight lines
and an arc of a circle. The bearing capacity coefficient would have the values Nc =5.1, Nq= 1.0,
Nγ = 0. Eqn. (4.5) may be written as
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σf = 5.1CuSc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq --------------------------------- (4.6)

3.1.3 Structural Considerations.

Before going into the structural design, one should check if the settlement of the selected
foundation is within the prescribed safe limits. If the settlement exceeds the safe limits, one should
increase the dimensions of the foundations until the danger of settlement is eliminated.
The last stage in the design of foundations is the structural design. One should check the adequacy
of the thickness of the footing and provide the necessary reinforcement to withstand punching
shear, diagonal tension (wide beam shear), bending moment and bond stress.

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3.2 Isolated or Spread Footings

I. Depth of footing
The depth of embedment must be at least large enough to accommodate the required footing
thickness. This depth is measured from the lowest adjacent ground surface to the bottom of the
footing.
Footings should be carried below
a) Zone of high volume change due to moisture fluctuation
b) Top (organic) soil
c) Peat and muck
d) Unconsolidated (or fill) material
According to EBCS-7
- Minimum depth of footing should be 50cm
- For footings on sloping sites, minimum depth of footing should be 60cm and
90cm below ground surface on rocky and soil formations, respectively.
Footing at different elevations: - When adjacent footings are to be placed at different levels, the
distance between the edges of footings shall be such as to prevent undesirable overlapping of
stresses in soils and disturbance of the soil under the higher footing due to excavation for the lower
footing. A minimum clear distance of half the width of the footing is recommended.

II. Proportioning of footing

The required area of the footing and subsequently the proportions will be determined using
presumptive allowable soil pressure and/or the soil strength parameters φ and C as discussed
previously.
III. Structural Design
i) Punching shear:- This factor generally controls the depth of footings. It is the normal practice
to provide adequate depth to sustain the shear stress developed without reinforcement. The critical
section that is to be considered is indicated in Fig. 4.2

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ii) Diagonal Tension (wide beam shear)

The selected depth using the punching shear criterion may not be adequate to withstand the
diagonal tension developed. Hence one should also check the safety against diagonal tension. The
critical sections that should be considered are given in Fig. 4.3.

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iii) Bending Moment

The external moment on any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a vertical plane
through the footing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over the entire area of the
footing on one side of that vertical plane. The critical sections for the bending moment vary
according to the type of columns.
According to EBCS 2-1995, the critical section for moment shall be taken as follows:
a) At the face of column, pedestal or wall for footings supporting a concrete pedestal or wall
b) Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footings supporting a masonry wall
c) Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base for footings supporting a column with
base plates.

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Flexural Reinforcement
1. Distribution: In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement shall be
distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing.
2. In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall be distributed as follows:
a) Reinforcement in long direction shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing
b) For reinforcement in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement given by Eqn.(4.15)
shall be distributed uniformly over a band width ( centered on center line of column or pedestal)
equal to the length of the short side of footing. The reminder of the reinforcement required in the
short direction shall be distributed uniformly outside the center band width of the footing.

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IV. Development length

The reinforcement bars must extend a sufficient distance into the concrete to develop proper
anchorage. This distance is called the development length.
The necessary development length may be calculated using the following equation.

Concrete cover to reinforcement (According to EBCS2-1995)

- Concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover should be greater than 75mm
- Concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover should be greater
than 40mm.

Spacing of reinforcement
The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to the largest of the
following values: (EBCS2-1995)
a) 20mm
b) The diameter of the largest bar
c) The maximum size of the aggregate plus 5mm
The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350mm
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400mm

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3.3 Combined Footing

A) Rectangular Combined footing
a) Area of use: - Used to carry two or more columns in one row
-used to carry two columns when X’ = L’/2,
X’= distance to center of gravity of column load

b) Design Assumptions: - footing is infinitely rigid linear soil pressure distribution under footing
c) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam in the short direction, it is
analyzed as spread footing with effective widths at exterior and interior columns being a’ +d/2 and
a’ +d respectively

d) Design procedure
i) Determine length of footing (L) in such a way that the center of gravity (c.g.) of footing
Area coincides that of the c.g. of loads
i.e., L = 2x’
ii) Determine the width of footing (B) such that the allowable soil pressure is not

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exceeded

iii) Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the footing
iv) Calculate depth of footing
v) Calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement
B) Trapezoidal combined footing
Area of use: - used in case where exterior column carries largest load and X’ < L’/2 but X’ > L’/3

a) Design Assumptions: - footing is infinitely rigid, linear soil pressure distribution under footing
b) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam
In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing similar to that of rectangular combined
footing.
c) Design procedure
1) determine the sizesof footing (L,B1,B2) from conditions that
i) the minimum required are

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2) Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the footing.
In this case, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are 2nd degree and 3rd degree curves,
respectively.
3) Calculate depth of footing
4) Calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

3.4 Strap or Cantilever Footing

Strap footings are used as alternatives to combined footings when the cost of combined footings
is relatively high.
Essentially a strap footing consists of a rigid beam connecting two pads (footings) to transmit
unbalanced shear and moment from the statically unbalanced footing to the second fotting.
Design Assumptions
- Strap is infinitely rigid
- Strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. (To confirm with this, strap is
constructed slightly above soil or soil under strap is loosened).

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It should be noted that the actual bearing pressures under the footings should not very different
from each other in order to minimize differential settlement.
3. Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the footings.
4. Select depths of footings for shear requirement.
5. Select steel reinforcement for bending requirement.
6. In short direction, the footings analyzed as spread footing subject to uniform soil pressure

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CHAPTER FOUR

4. Analysis and Proportioning of Retaining Walls

4.1. Introduction
Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability of earth or other material where conditions
disallow the mass to assume its natural slope.

4.2. Common Types of retaining walls

1.Gravity walls:-
- made of plain concrete or stone masonry
- depends upon its weight for stability
- Trapezoidal in section with the base projecting beyond the face and back of the wall.
- no tensile stress in any portion of the wall
- economically used for walls less than 6m high

2. Cantilever walls
- made of reinforced concrete material
- inverted T-shaped in section with each projecting acts as a cantilever
- economically used for walls greater than 6 m high

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Vertical stem

Toe

Heal

3. Counterfort walls
- made of reinforced concrete materials
- consists of cantilever wall with vertical brackets known as counterfort placed behind face of
wall
- ordinarily used for walls height greater than 6.0m

Counterfort

4. Buttress walls
- same as counterfort except that the vertical brackets are on the opposite side of the backfill

Vertical stem

Toe

Heal
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4.3. Common Proportions of Retaining walls

The usual practice in the design of retaining walls is to assign tentative dimensions and then
check for the overall stability of the structure. In figures shown below the common proportions
based on experience are indicated for the three types of retaining walls.

ii) Gravity Wall 30cm to H/2

50

lt = Df/2 to Df lh = 10 to 15cm H

Df = H/8 to H/6

B = H/2 to ⅔ H

ii) Cantilever wall

Min. 30cm

50

lt = B/3 bs = H/12 to H/10 H

Df = H/12 to H/10
B = 0.4 to 0.7H

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i) Counter fort wall

Min. 30cm

50
H

Min. 30cm
Df = H/14 to H/12
H/14 to H/12 H/14 to H/12
B = 0.4 to 0.7H

Forces on Retaining Walls

The forces that should be considered in the design of retaining walls include
i) Active and passive earth pressures
ii) Dead weight including the weight of the wall and portion of soil mass that is
considered to act on the retaining structure
iii) Surcharge including live loads, if any
iv) Water pressure, if any
v) Contact pressure under the base of the structure

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PA

WS
WC

Fr
qh
qt

Rs

Fr = Rstan + CB , Rs = WC +Ws +PA sin

= ⅔  to  (of foundation soil) , C= ½ C to ¾ C (of foundation soil)

4.4. Stability of Retaining Walls

Retaining walls should be designed to provide adequate stability against sliding, overturning,
foundation bearing failure and overall or deep foundation failure.
1. Sliding stability

Horizontal resisting force FR

Factor of safety = 
Horizontasliding force PAh
Factor of safety  1.5 for granular soils
Factor of safety  2.0 for cohesive soils
2. Overturning Stability

Sum of moments to resist overturning M s

Factor of safety = 
Sum of overturning moments Mo

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R
 PAv
PA
W

PAh

h1

b1
B

Ms = Wb1, Mo = PAhh1-PAvB Factor of safety  1.5 for granular backfill Factor of safety  2.0
for cohesive backfill. If the line of action of the resultant force on wall acts within the middle third width
of the base, wall is safe against overturning
3. Foundation stability

R


W PA

Rv

Rh
qh
qt

qt Rv  6e 
 1   Where e= eccentricity of Rv qt  qall , qall = qult/F.S
qh B  B
F. S = Factor of safety = 2 and 3 for granular and cohesive soils, respectively.

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4. Deep foundation failure ( Overall stability)

If layer of weak soil is located within a depth of about 1 ½ times the height of the retaining
wall the overall stability of retaining wall should be investigated. E.g. using Swedish circle
method

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