57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 1

Chapter 6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

Fluid Element Kinematics

Fluid element motion consists of translation, linear

deformation, rotation, and angular deformation.

Types of motion and deformation for a fluid element.

Linear Motion and Deformation:

Translation of a fluid element

Linear deformation of a fluid element

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 2

Change in δ∀ :
⎛ ∂u ⎞
δ x ⎟ (δ yδ z ) δ t
δ∀ = ⎜
⎝ ∂x ⎠
the rate at which the volume δ∀ is changing per unit
volume due to the gradient ∂u/∂x is
1 d ( δ∀ ) ⎡ ( ∂u ∂x ) δ t ⎤ ∂u
= lim ⎢ ⎥=
δ∀ dt δ t →0
⎣ δ t ⎦ ∂x
If velocity gradients ∂v/∂y and ∂w/∂z are also present, then
using a similar analysis it follows that, in the general case,
1 d (δ∀ ) ∂u ∂v ∂w
= + + = ∇⋅V
δ∀ dt ∂x ∂ y ∂ z
This rate of change of the volume per unit volume is called
the volumetric dilatation rate.

Angular Motion and Deformation

For simplicity we will consider motion in the x–y plane,
but the results can be readily extended to the more general
case.

Angular motion and deformation of a fluid element

The angular velocity of line OA, ωOA, is

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 3

δα
ω OA = lim
δ t →0 δ t

For small angles

tan δα ≈ δα =
( ∂v ∂x ) δ xδ t ∂v
= δt
δx ∂x
so that
⎡ ( ∂v ∂x ) δ t ⎤ ∂v
ω OA = lim ⎢ ⎥=
⎣ δt
δ t →0
⎦ ∂x
Note that if ∂v/∂x is positive, ωOA will be counterclockwise.

Similarly, the angular velocity of the line OB is

δβ ∂u
ω OB = lim =
δ t →0 δ t ∂y
In this instance if ∂u/∂y is positive, ωOB will be clockwise.

The rotation, ωz, of the element about the z axis is defined

as the average of the angular velocities ωOA and ωOB of the
two mutually perpendicular lines OA and OB. Thus, if
counterclockwise rotation is considered to be positive, it
follows that
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
ωz = ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Rotation of the field element about the other two coordinate
axes can be obtained in a similar manner:
1 ⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞
ωx = ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 4

1 ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞
ωy = ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠
The three components, ωx,ωy, and ωz can be combined to
give the rotation vector, ω, in the form:
1 1
ω = ω x i + ω y j + ω z k = curlV = ∇ × V
2 2
since
i j k
1 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×V =
2 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
u v w
1 ⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
= ⎜ − ⎟ i + ⎜ − ⎟ j + ⎜ − ⎟k
2 ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ 2 ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ 2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
The vorticity, ζ, is defined as a vector that is twice the
rotation vector; that is,
ς = 2ω = ∇ × V
The use of the vorticity to describe the rotational
characteristics of the fluid simply eliminates the (1/2) factor
associated with the rotation vector. If ∇ × V = 0 , the flow
is called irrotational.

In addition to the rotation associated with the derivatives

∂u/∂y and ∂v/∂x, these derivatives can cause the fluid
element to undergo an angular deformation, which results
in a change in shape of the element. The change in the
original right angle formed by the lines OA and OB is
termed the shearing strain, δγ,

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 5

δγ = δα + δβ
The rate of change of δγ is called the rate of shearing strain
or the rate of angular deformation:
δγ ⎡ ( ∂v ∂x ) δ t + ( ∂u ∂y ) δ t ⎤ ∂v ∂u
γ = lim
 = lim ⎢ ⎥= +
δ t →0 δ t δ t →0 δ ∂ ∂y
⎣ t ⎦ x
The rate of angular deformation is related to a
corresponding shearing stress which causes the fluid
element to change in shape.

The Continuity Equation in Differential Form

The governing equations can be expressed in both integral

and differential form. Integral form is useful for large-scale
control volume analysis, whereas the differential form is
useful for relatively small-scale point analysis.

Application of RTT to a fixed elemental control volume

yields the differential form of the governing equations. For
example for conservation of mass

∂ρ
∑ ρV ⋅ A = − ∫ dV
CS CV ∂t

net outflow of mass = rate of decrease

across CS of mass within CV

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 57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 6

Consider a cubical element oriented so that its sides are ⎢⎢to

the (x,y,z) axes
⎡ ∂
⎢ρu + (ρu )dx ⎤⎥dydz
⎣ ∂x ⎦
outlet mass flux

inlet mass flux

ρudydz Taylor series expansion
retaining only first order term

We assume that the element is infinitesimally small such

that we can assume that the flow is approximately one
dimensional through each face.

The mass flux terms occur on all six faces, three inlets, and
three outlets. Consider the mass flux on the x faces

⎡ ∂ ⎤
x flux = ⎢ρu + ( ρu ) dx ⎥ dydz outflux − ρudydz influx
⎣ ∂x ⎦
∂
= (ρu )dxdydz
∂x
V

Similarly for the y and z faces

∂
y flux = (ρv)dxdydz
∂y
∂
z flux = (ρw )dxdydz
∂z

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 7
The total net mass outflux must balance the rate of decrease
of mass within the CV which is
∂ρ
− dxdydz
∂t

Combining the above expressions yields the desired result

⎡ ∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
+
⎢ ∂t ∂x (ρu ) + (ρv ) + (ρw ) ⎥ dxdydz = 0
⎣ ∂y ∂z ⎦
dV
∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂ per unit V
+ (ρu ) + (ρv) + (ρw ) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z differential form of
continuity equations
∂ρ
+ ∇ ⋅ (ρV) = 0
∂t
ρ∇ ⋅ V + V ⋅ ∇ρ

Dρ D ∂
+ ρ∇ ⋅ V = 0 = + V ⋅∇
Dt Dt ∂t

Nonlinear 1st order PDE; ( unless ρ = constant, then linear)

Relates V to satisfy kinematic condition of mass
conservation

Simplifications:
1. Steady flow: ∇ ⋅ (ρV) = 0

2. ρ = constant: ∇ ⋅ V = 0

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 8
∂u ∂v ∂w
i.e., + + =0 3D
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂u ∂v
+ =0 2D
∂x ∂y

The continuity equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

The velocity at some arbitrary point P can be expressed as

V = vr e r + vθ eθ + vz e z
The continuity equation:
∂ρ 1 ∂ ( r ρ vr ) 1 ∂ ( ρ vθ ) ∂ ( ρ vz )
+ + + =0
∂t r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
For steady, compressible flow
1 ∂ ( r ρ vr ) 1 ∂ ( ρ vθ ) ∂ ( ρ vz )
+ + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
For incompressible fluids (for steady or unsteady flow)
1 ∂ ( rvr ) 1 ∂vθ ∂vz
+ + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 9
The Stream Function
Steady, incompressible, plane, two-dimensional flow
represents one of the simplest types of flow of practical
importance. By plane, two-dimensional flow we mean that
there are only two velocity components, such as u and v,
when the flow is considered to be in the x–y plane. For this
flow the continuity equation reduces to
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y

We still have two variables, u and v, to deal with, but they

must be related in a special way as indicated. This equation
suggests that if we define a function ψ(x, y), called the
stream function, which relates the velocities as
∂ψ ∂ψ
u= , v=−
∂y ∂x
then the continuity equation is identically satisfied:
∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
⎜ ⎟+ ⎜− ⎟= − =0
∂x ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x∂y ∂x∂y

Velocity and velocity components along a streamline

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 10
Another particular advantage of using the stream function
is related to the fact that lines along which ψ is constant are
streamlines.The change in the value of ψ as we move from
one point (x, y) to a nearby point (x + dx, y + dy) along a
line of constant ψ is given by the relationship:
∂ψ ∂ψ
dψ = dx + dy = −vdx + udy = 0
∂x ∂y
and, therefore, along a line of constant ψ
dy v
=
dx u

The flow between two streamlines

The actual numerical value associated with a particular
streamline is not of particular significance, but the change
in the value of ψ is related to the volume rate of flow. Let
dq represent the volume rate of flow (per unit width
perpendicular to the x–y plane) passing between the two
streamlines.
∂ψ ∂ψ
dq = udy − vdx = dx + dy = dψ
∂x ∂y
Thus, the volume rate of flow, q, between two streamlines
such as ψ1 and ψ2, can be determined by integrating to
yield:

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 11
ψ2
q = ∫ dψ = ψ 2 −ψ 1
ψ1

In cylindrical coordinates the continuity equation for

incompressible, plane, two-dimensional flow reduces to
1 ∂ ( rvr ) 1 ∂vθ
+ =0
r ∂r r ∂θ

and the velocity components, vr and vθ, can be related to the

stream function, ψ(r, θ), through the equations
1 ∂ψ ∂ψ
vr = , vθ = −
r ∂θ ∂r

Navier-Stokes Equations

Differential form of momentum equation can be derived by

applying control volume form to elemental control volume

The differential equation of linear momentum: elemental

fluid volume approach

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d
∑ F = dt ∫ ρVd ∀ + ∫ V ρV ⋅ dA 1-D flow approximation
CV CS

r s = ∑(m i Vi )out − ∑ ( m
 i Vi )in
 = ρAV = ρdydzu x-face
where m
mass flux
d
r = (ρV )dxdydz
dt

⎡∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
s = ⎢ (ρu V ) + (ρv V ) + (ρw V )⎥ dxdydz
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
x-face y-face z-face
combining and making use of the continuity equation yields
DV DV ∂ V
∑F = ρ dxdydz = + V ⋅∇ V
Dt Dt ∂t
where ∑ F = ∑ F body + ∑ Fsurface
Body forces are due to external fields such as gravity or
magnetics. Here we only consider a gravitational field; that
is,

∑ F body = d F grav = ρgdxdydz

and g = −gk̂ for g↓ z↑

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i.e., f body = −ρgk̂

Surface forces are due to the stresses that act on the sides of
the control surfaces
symmetric (σij = σji)
σij = - pδij + τij 2nd order tensor
δij = 1 i=j
normal pressure viscous stress δij = 0 i≠j

= -p+τxx τxy τxz

τyx -p+τyy τyz
τzx τzy -p+τzz

As shown before for p alone it is not the stresses

themselves that cause a net force but their gradients.

⎡∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
dFx,surf = ⎢ (σ xx ) + (σ xy ) + (σ xz )⎥ dxdydz
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦

⎡ ∂p ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
= ⎢− + (τ xx ) + (τ xy ) + (τ xz )⎥ dxdydz
⎣ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
This can be put in a more compact form by defining
τ x = τ xx î + τ xy ĵ + τ xz k̂ vector stress on x-face
and noting that
⎡ ∂p ⎤
dFx,surf = ⎢− + ∇ ⋅ τ x ⎥ dxdydz
⎣ ∂x ⎦

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 14
∂p
fx,surf = − + ∇ ⋅ τx per unit volume
∂x

similarly for y and z

∂p
fy,surf = − + ∇ ⋅ τ y τ y = τ yx î + τ yy ĵ + τ yz k̂
∂y

∂p
fz,surf = − + ∇ ⋅ τz τ z = τ zx î + τ zy ĵ + τ zz k̂
∂z

finally if we define
τ ij = τ x î + τ y ĵ + τ z k̂ then

f surf = −∇p + ∇ ⋅ τ ij = ∇ ⋅ σ ij σ ij = − pδ ij + τ ij

Putting together the above results

DV
∑ f = f body + f surf = ρ
Dt
f body = −ρgk̂
f surface = −∇p + ∇ ⋅ τ ij
DV ∂ V
a= = + V ⋅∇ V
Dt ∂t
ρ a = − ρ gkˆ − ∇p + ∇ ⋅τ ij
inertia body
force force surface surface force
due to force due due to viscous
gravity to p shear and normal
stresses

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 15

For Newtonian fluid the shear stress is proportional to the

rate of strain, which for incompressible flow can be written

τ ij = µε ij µ = coefficient of viscosity

εij = rate of strain tensor

∂u ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂w ∂u ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟ ⎜ + ⎟
∂x ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ∂v ⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂ y ∂z ⎠
⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞ ⎛ ∂v ∂w ⎞ ∂w
⎜ + ⎟ ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂y ⎠ ∂z

du
τ=µ 1-D flow
dy
rate of strain
ρa = −ρgk̂ − ∇p + ∇ ⋅ (µε ij )

∂
µ (εij ) = µ∇ 2 V
∂x i

ρa = −ρgk̂ − ∇p + µ∇ 2 V

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 16

ρa = −∇(p + γz ) + µ∇ 2 V Navier-Stokes Equation

∇⋅V = 0 Continuity Equation

Four equations in four unknowns: V and p

Difficult to solve since 2nd order nonlinear PDE

⎡ ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ⎤ ∂p ⎡∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎤
x: ρ ⎢ + u + v + w ⎥ = − + µ ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎥
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂x ⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦

⎡ ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎤ ∂p ⎡∂2v ∂2v ∂2v⎤

y: ρ ⎢ + u + v + w ⎥ = − + µ ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎥
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂y ⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦

⎡ ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ⎤ ∂p ⎡∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ⎤
z: ρ ⎢ +u +v +w ⎥ = − ∂z + µ ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎥
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦

∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z

Navier-Stokes equations can also be written in other

coordinate systems such as cylindrical, spherical, etc.

There are about 80 exact solutions for simple geometries.

For practical geometries, the equations are reduced to
algebraic form using finite differences and solved using
computers.

Exact solution for laminar flow in a pipe

(neglect g for now)

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 17

use cylindrical coordinates: vx = u

vr = v
u = u(r) only vθ = w = 0

∂
Continuity: (rv ) = 0 ⇒ rv = constant = c
∂r
v = c/r
v(r = 0) = 0 ⇒ c = 0
i.e., v = 0

Momentum:

Du ∂p ⎡ ∂ 2 u 1 ∂ 2 u 1 ∂u ∂ 2 u ⎤
ρ = − + µ⎢ 2 + 2 2 + + 2⎥
Dt ∂x ⎣ ∂x r ∂θ r ∂r ∂r ⎦

⎛ ∂u ∂u ∂u w ∂u ⎞ ∂p ⎡ 1 ∂u ∂ 2 u ⎤
ρ⎜ + u + v + ⎟ = − +µ⎢ + 2⎥
⎝ ∂t ∂z ∂r ∂r ∂θ ⎠ ∂x ⎣ r ∂r ∂r ⎦

1 ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ 1 ∂p
⎜r ⎟ = =λ
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ µ ∂x

∂u λ 2
r = r +A
∂r 2

λ 2
u (r ) = r + A ln r + B
4

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 18

u(r = 0) ≠ ∞ ⇒ A = 0
u(r = ro) = 0 ⇒ u (r ) =
4
(
λ 2 2
r − ro )

i.e. u (r ) =
1 ∂p 2 2
4µ ∂x
(
r − ro ) parabolic velocity profile

Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

We now discuss a couple of exact solutions to the Navier-

Stokes equations. Although all known exact solutions
(about 80) are for highly simplified geometries and flow
conditions, they are very valuable as an aid to our
understanding of the character of the NS equations and
their solutions. Actually the examples to be discussed are
for internal flow (Chapter 8) and open channel flow
(Chapter 10), but they serve to underscore and display
viscous flow. Finally, the derivations to follow utilize
differential analysis. See the text for derivations using CV
analysis.

Couette Flow

boundary conditions

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 19
First, consider flow due to the relative motion of two
parallel plates

∂u
Continuity =0 u = u(y)
∂x
v=o
∂p ∂p
d 2u = =0
Momentum 0=µ 2 ∂x ∂y
dy
or by CV continuity and momentum equations:
ρu 1∆y = ρu 2 ∆y
u1 = u2

∑ Fx = ∑ uρV ⋅ d A = ρQ(u 2 − u1 ) = 0
⎛ dp ⎞ ⎛ dτ ⎞
= p∆y − ⎜ p + ∆x ⎟∆y − τ∆x + ⎜ τ + dy ⎟∆x = 0
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dy ⎠

dτ
=0
dy
d ⎛ du ⎞
i.e. ⎜µ ⎟ = 0
dy ⎝ dy ⎠
d 2u
µ 2 =0
dy

from momentum equation

du
µ =C
dy

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 20
C
u= y+D
µ
u(0) = 0 ⇒ D = 0
U
u(t) = U ⇒ C = µ
t
U
u= y
t
du µU
τ=µ = = constant
dy t
Generalization for inclined flow with a constant pressure
gradient

∂u
Continutity =0 u = u(y)
∂x v=o
∂p
∂ d 2u =0
Momentum 0 = − (p + γz ) + µ 2 ∂y
∂x dy

d 2u dh
i.e., µ 2 =γ h = p/γ +z = constant
dy dx

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 21
dz
plates horizontal =0
dx
dz
plates vertical =-1
dx
which can be integrated twice to yield

du dh
µ = γ y+A
dy dx

dh y 2
µu = γ + Ay + B
dx 2
now apply boundary conditions to determine A and B
u(y = 0) = 0 ⇒ B = 0
u(y = t) = U

dh t 2 µU dh t
µU = γ + At ⇒ A = −γ
dx 2 t dx 2

γ dh y 2 1 ⎡ µU dh t ⎤
u ( y) = + ⎢ −γ
µ dx 2 µ ⎣ t dx 2 ⎥⎦
=−
γ dh
2µ dx
( U
ty − y 2 + y
t
)
This equation can be put in non-dimensional form:
u γt 2 dh ⎛ y ⎞ y y
=− ⎜1 − ⎟ +
U 2µU dx ⎝ t ⎠ t t

define: P = non-dimensional pressure gradient

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γt 2 dh p
=− h= +z
2µU dx γ
γz 2 ⎡ 1 dp dz ⎤
Y = y/t =− +
2µU ⎢⎣ γ dx dx ⎥⎦
u
⇒ = P ⋅ Y (1 − Y) + Y
U
parabolic velocity profile

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u Py Py 2 y
= − 2 +
U t t t
t
q = ∫ udy
0
t
∫ U[ ]dy
q 0
u= =
t t

tu t ⎡P P y⎤
= ∫ ⎢ y − 2 y 2 + ⎥ dy
U 0⎣ t t t⎦
Pt Pt t
= − +
2 3 2

u P 1 t 2 ⎛ dh ⎞ U
= + ⇒u= ⎜− γ ⎟ +
U 6 2 12µ ⎝ dx ⎠ 2

ut
For laminar flow < 1000 Recrit ∼ 1000
ν

The maximum velocity occurs at the value of y for which:

du d ⎛u⎞ P 2P 1
=0 ⎜ ⎟=0= − 2 y+
dy dy ⎝ U ⎠ t t t

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t
⇒y= (P + 1) = t + t @ umax for U = 0, y = t/2
2P 2 2P

UP U U
∴ u max = u ( y max ) = + +
4 2 4P

u P P 2
note: if U = 0: = =
u max 6 4 3

The shape of the velocity profile u(y) depends on P:

dh
1. If P > 0, i.e., < 0 the pressure decreases in the
dx
direction of flow (favorable pressure gradient) and the
velocity is positive over the entire width

dh d ⎛ p ⎞ dp
γ = γ ⎜ + z⎟ = − γ sin θ
dx dx ⎝ γ ⎠ dx

dp
a) <0
dx

dp
b) < γ sin θ
dx

dh
1. If P < 0, i.e., > 0 the pressure increases in the
dx
direction of flow (adverse pressure gradient) and the
velocity over a portion of the width can become
negative (backflow) near the stationary wall. In this

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 25
case the dragging action of the faster layers exerted on
the fluid particles near the stationary wall is insufficient
to over come the influence of the adverse pressure
gradient

dp
− γ sin θ > 0
dx

dp dp
> γ sin θ or γ sin θ <
dx dx
dh
2. If P = 0, i.e., = 0 the velocity profile is linear
dx
U
u= y
t

dp Note: we derived
a) = 0 and θ = 0 this special case
dx
dp
b) = γ sin θ
dx

u
For U = 0 the form = PY(1 − Y ) + Y is not appropriate
U

u = UPY(1-Y)+UY

γt 2 dh
=− Y(1 − Y ) + UY
2µ dx
γt 2 dh
Now let U = 0: u=− Y(1 − Y )
2µ dx

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3. Shear stress distribution
Non-dimensional velocity distribution
u
u* = = P ⋅ Y (1 − Y ) + Y
U
u
where u* ≡ is the non-dimensional velocity,
U
γ t 2 dh
P≡−
2µU dx
is the non-dimensional pressure gradient
y
Y≡ is the non-dimensional coordinate.
t
Shear stress
du
τ =µ
dy
In order to see the effect of pressure gradient on shear
stress using the non-dimensional velocity distribution, we
define the non-dimensional shear stress:
τ
τ* =
1
ρU 2
2
Then
1 Ud ( u U ) 2µ du *
τ =
*
µ =
ρU 2 td ( y t ) ρUt dY
1
2
2µ
= ( −2 PY + P + 1)
ρUt
2µ
= ( −2 PY + P + 1)
ρUt
= A ( −2 PY + P + 1)
2µ
where A≡ >0 is a positive constant.
ρUt
So the shear stress always varies linearly with Y across any
section.

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 27

At the lower wall (Y = 0 ) :

τ lw* = A (1 + P )
At the upper wall (Y = 1) :
τ uw
*
= A (1 − P )

For favorable pressure gradient, the lower wall shear stress

is always positive:
1. For small favorable pressure gradient ( 0 < P < 1) :
τ lw* > 0 and τ uw
*
>0
2. For large favorable pressure gradient ( P > 1) :
τ lw* > 0 and τ uw < 0
*

τ τ

( 0 < P < 1) ( P > 1)

For adverse pressure gradient, the upper wall shear stress is

always positive:
1. For small adverse pressure gradient ( −1 < P < 0 ) :
τ lw* > 0 and τ uw
*
>0
2. For large adverse pressure gradient ( P < −1) :
τ lw* < 0 and τ uw
*
>0

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 28

τ τ

( −1 < P < 0 ) ( P < −1)

For U = 0 , i.e., channel flow, the above non-dimensional

form of velocity profile is not appropriate. Let’s use
dimensional form:
γ t 2 dh γ dh
u=− Y (1 − Y ) = − y (t − y )
2µ dx 2µ dx
Thus the fluid always flows in the direction of decreasing
piezometric pressure or piezometric head because
γ dh
> 0, y > 0 and t − y > 0 . So if is negative, u is
2µ dx
dh
positive; if dx is positive, u is negative.

Shear stress:
du γ dh ⎛ 1 ⎞
τ =µ =− ⎜t − y⎟
dy 2 dx ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ 1 ⎞
Since ⎜t − y⎟ > 0 , the sign of shear stress τ is always
⎝ 2 ⎠
dh
opposite to the sign of piezometric pressure gradient dx
,
and the magnitude of τ is always maximum at both walls
and zero at centerline of the channel.

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 29

< 0, τ > 0
dh
For favorable pressure gradient, dx
>0, τ < 0
dh
For adverse pressure gradient, dx

τ τ

dh dh
<0 >0
dx dx

Flow down an inclined plane

uniform flow ⇒ velocity and depth do not

change in x-direction

du
Continuity =0
dx

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 30

∂ d 2u
x-momentum 0 = − (p + γz ) + µ 2
∂x dy
∂
y-momentum 0 = − (p + γz ) ⇒ hydrostatic pressure variation
∂y
dp
⇒ =0
dx

d 2u
µ 2 = − γ sin θ
dy

du γ
= − sin θy + c
dy µ

γ y2
u = − sin θ + Cy + D
µ 2

du γ γ
= 0 = − sin θd + c ⇒ c = + sin θd
dy y=d µ µ

u(0) = 0 ⇒ D = 0

γ y2 γ
u = − sin θ + sin θ dy
µ 2 µ

γ
= sin θ y(2d − y )
2µ

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 31
g sin θ
u(y) = y(2d − y )
2ν
d
d γ ⎡ 2 y3 ⎤ discharge per
q = ∫ udy = sin θ⎢dy − ⎥
0 2µ ⎣ 3 ⎦0 unit width

1γ 3
= d sin θ
3µ

q 1γ 2 gd 2
V avg = = d sin θ = sin θ
d 3µ 3ν

in terms of the slope So = tan θ ∼ sin θ

gd 2So
V=
3ν

Exp. show Recrit ∼ 500, i.e., for Re > 500 the flow will
become turbulent

∂p Vd
= − γ cos θ Re crit = ∼ 500
∂y ν

p = − γ cos θ y + C

p(d ) = p o = − γ cos θ d + C

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 32
i.e., p = γ cos θ (d − y ) + p o

* p(d) > po

* if θ = 0 p = γ(d − y) + po
entire weight of fluid imposed

if θ = π/2 p = po
no pressure change through the fluid

32