LOAD ESTIMATION CONCEPTS
ESD-01
COURSE OBJECTIVES
• Introduction to HVAC - Basic Concepts
• Understand the Heat Transfer Principles
• Calculation of U-values
• Cooling Load Estimation Methods
• Defining Indoor & Outdoor Design Conditions
• Dividing Building into Zones
• An overview of Carrier Block Load Program
• Entering Zone data and Zone Load
Components
• Entering System Data
• Generate System Design Reports
5
Manufacturing Office
Manufacturing Office
Conference
Room
Engineering
Interior
Interior
Office
Office
Asst.
Manager’s
Chief Engineer General Manager’s
Manufacturing Office
Manufacturing Office
Defining Spaces
Solar
Lights
HEAT
Equipment People Ambient
Section 2 – Comfort
Air Absorbs Heat and Humidity
Solar
55° F
Cool Air
HEAT
75° F
50%
Ambient
95° F
Section 3 – System Types
Cooling Coil
Solar
Coils
55° F
Cool Air
HEAT
80° F
95° F
55° F
Section 3 – System Types
All-Air Systems
Solar
Supply Duct
Coils
Cool Air
HEAT
Supply Fan
95° F
All systems have many common components.
Let’s describe the process with the most common
All-Air Systems
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Supply Duct
Solar
Supply Duct
Coils
Cool Air
HEAT
Supply
Fan
95° F
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Supply Air Distribution Device
Solar
Supply Duct
Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
Supply
Fan
95° F
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Return Air Grille
RA Solar
Grille
Supply Duct
Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
Supply
Fan
95° F
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Return Air Duct
RA Solar
Grille
Return Duct
Supply Duct
Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
Supply Fan
95° F
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Return Air Fan
RA Solar
Return Fan Grille
Return Duct
RTN
Supply Duct
Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
Supply Fan
95° F
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Air Filters
RA Solar
Return Fan Grille
Return Duct
RTN
Supply Duct
Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
Filter Supply
Fan
AHU
95° F
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Outdoor Air
RA Solar
Return Fan Grille
Return Duct
RTN
Supply Duct
Return
Damper Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
OA
Outdoor Air Filter Supply
Damper Fan
AHU
95° F
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Exhaust Air
Exhaust RA Solar
Damper Return Fan Grille
Return Duct
EA
EA RTN
Supply Duct
Return
Damper Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
OA
Outdoor Air Filter Supply
Damper Fan
AHU
95° F
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Chiller
Exhaust RA Solar
Damper Return Fan Grille
Return Duct
EA
EA RTN
Supply Duct
Return
Damper Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
OA
Outdoor Air Filter Supply
Damper Fan
AHU
95° F
Chiller
Chilled Water Pump
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Heat Rejection
Exhaust RA Solar
Damper Return Fan Grille
Return Duct
EA
EA RTN
Supply Duct
Return
Damper Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
OA
Outdoor Air Filter Supply
Damper Fan
AHU
95° F
Cooling Tower
Chiller
Condenser
Chilled Water Pump Water Pump
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Air-Cooled Heat Rejection
Exhaust RA Solar
Damper Return Fan Grille
Return Duct
EA
EA RTN
Supply Duct
Return
Damper Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
OA
Outdoor Air Filter Supply
Damper Fan
AHU
95° F
Condenser
Compressor
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
Air System Heating
Exhaust RA Solar
Damper Return Fan Grille
Return Duct
EA RTN
Supply Duct
Return
Damper Coils S A Diffuser
Cool Air
HEAT
OA
Outdoor Air Filter Supply
Damper Fan
AHU
95° F
Cooling Tower
Boiler
Chiller
Hot Water Pump
Condenser
Chilled Water Pump Water Pump
Section 3 – System Types: All-Air Systems
HVAC Equipment Sizing
• To condition the space(s), HVAC Equipment
of proper capacity must be installed
• The equipment shall be sized to meet the peak
load requirements
• The unit shall be controlled throughout the
year to operate at partial loads
• To determine the capacity of HVAC equipment
cooling load is estimated for the space(s) to be
air conditioned
5
Cooling Load Calculation
Cooling Load calculation is a difficult and challenging task because it involves:
- The three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and
radiation.
- Many heat sources whose heat contribution vary with time and
are usually not in phase with each other.
- Storage and discharge of heat from massive building elements
such as walls, roof and floor. This results in transient rather
than steady state heat transfer processes.
- Heat transfer processes are inter related.
Key Terms
Heat Gain
Heat Gain is the total quantity
of Heat entering a room from
a specific heat source via
LIGHTS
different conduction, PEOPLE
AMBIENT
convection and radiation HEAT
modes of heat transfer.
EQUIPMENT
Heat Gain Sources
External Sources
• Solar radiation
• Temperature Gradient across
walls and roofs…
LIGHTS
PEOPLE
AMBIENT
HEAT
Internal Sources
• People
EQUIPMENT
• Lighting
• Heat generating Equipment…
Cooling Load and Heat Extraction
Cooling Load
Cooling Load is the heat transferred to room air which must be
removed by the air conditioning equipment if the zone is maintained at
a constant air temperature.
Heat Extraction
Heat extraction is the quantity of heat actually removed by the
equipment as the zone temperature varies.
Heat Flow Process in a Building
Most or all of the original heat gain becomes a cooling load but the complete
conversion of the heat to cooling load takes time.
CONVECTION COOLING HEAT
HEAT GAIN
LOAD EXTRACTION
RADIATION
CONVECTION
(WITH TIME DELAY)
FURNISHINGS,
STRUCTURE
VARIABLE HEAT
STORAGE
* CONDUCTION
TIME SERIES ± SWING
ORIGIN OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAGNITUDE OF
INSTANTANEOUS HEAT GAIN AND INSTANTANEOUS COOLING LOAD
SOLAR COOLING LOAD
• Instantaneous heat gain
passes thru glass
• Strikes interior surface
• Stored as energy
• Becomes delayed cooling
load in space
• Discuss this in more
detail
Solar Gain and Heat Storage
Sun passes through glass and Heat from 1st slice of surface
strikes interior wall, floor, etc. is higher in temp than room
or 2nd slice of surface.
Surface absorbs heat (150)
Heat flows further into material
Surface temperature rises & into room.
Solar Gain and Heat Storage
Time passes
More energy strikes surface
Temp of slice 1 increases more
Earlier energy moves into 3rd
layer of material (30 Btuh)
New energy moves into 2nd
layer and room
3rd amount of energy enters 1st slice of
material
Of 450 Btuh that struck wall, only
20 + 30 = 50 Btuh is an AC load
400 Btuh is stored in material
Actual load is lower than
instant solar & occurs later
Result !!!
Impact of Building Mass
16 Hours of Operation
Morning Pull Down
Load Estimating Methods
Over the years HVAC industry has developed many
Load estimation methods as listed below
• Instantaneous Heat Gain
• Carrier E-20 (Manual Method)
• ASHRAE CLTD/CLF
• Heat Balance
• ASHRAE Transfer Function
• ASHRAE Radiant Time Series
OBJECTIVES
• Our objectives is to find a load calculation method
– That accounts for all processes involved with
building heat flow
– that is fast
– that’s easy to use, and
– that provides accurate, reliable results
INSTANTANEOUS METHOD
• Assumes heat gains are instantaneously converted to
Cooling Load
• Simple
• Unreliable
• Ignores heat storage
• Ignores radiation transfer
Carrier E-20: Manual Method
In 1960s Carrier introduced
E20-II method which accounts
for the heat storage by different
elements in the space
• USES:
– Equivalent temp
differences (ETD)
– Storage load factors (SLF)
– Based on tables
Solar Heat Gain Through Ordinary Glass
BOX - YEARLY MAXIMUM BOLD - MONTHLY MAXIMUM
164 125
July
East
8 AM
Jan
North
west
3 PM
Correction Factors
E-20 STORAGE FACTORS
• Given: Bare Glass, East, 100 lb/sqft building weight
• Sun Shining Into Glass at 8 AM is peak instantaneous
• SF = 0.34 @ 6 AM; 0.58 @ 9 AM; 0.51 @ 11 AM
• Peak Load @ 9 AM (Delayed & Smaller)
100Lb/SqFt
East
SUN GAIN CALCULATION
STORED LOAD/ SQFT OF GLASS
Table 6
Solar Gain
Correction
Factors
Sun Gain
Sun Gain = Solar Gain x Correction Factors
ACTUAL SOLAR LOAD
• Less than instantaneous
• Occurs later in time
Load (Btuh) = Area x Sun Gain x Overall Glass Factor
ASHRAE CLTD/CLF
• Similar to Carrier E-20
• Table-based manual calculations
• Added some complexity
Manual Methods
• Both E20 & ASHRAE CLTD USES:
– Tables which deal with a fixed set of basic conditions (such
as envelope loads for July 40 north latitude) and then
attempts to handle other conditions via correction factors.
– Ultimately this approach introduced error and reduced
accuracy when compared with more complex methods.
HEAT BALANCE
• Evaluates each conductive, convective, radiative and heat
storage process in the building
• Equation for each surface and mass element for each
process
• Simultaneous solution of all equations
• Very complex
• Requires powerful computer
• Does not quantify individual load components
Transfer Functions
• ASHRAE Fundamentals
• Load As a Function of Heat Gains and Time
• Convective, Conductive, and Radiative Components
Transient Load Behavior
• Compute Loads From Any Hourly Sequence of Heat Gains
• Simplifies heat balance
• Faster calculation times
• Good compromise between complexity and accuracy
Response Factor Principle
Transfer Function Method is based on the response factor
principle.
It states that for a specific room thermal response pattern
(i.e, how a heat gain is converted to load over a period of
time) for each specific type of heat gain will always be the
same.
Total room load is equal to the sum of loads calculated
separately for each heat gain component.
Response Factor Principle
The Response Factor Principle is in turn based on three additional
principles.
• The Principle of Superposition: The total room load is equal to
the sum of loads calculated separately for each heat gain component.
• The Principle of Linearity: The magnitude of the thermal
response to a heat gain varies linearly with the size of the heat gain.
• The Principle of Invariability: Two heat gains of equal size
occurring at different times will produce the same thermal response
in the room.
Room Transfer Function Equation
Q0 = v0 q0 + v1 q1 + v2 q2 – w1 Q1 – w2Q2
Q represents a load, subscript 0 is the current hour, 1
is the previous hour and 2 is two hours previous.
‘q represents a heat gain. The subscripts have the
same meanings as for loads
‘v0, v1, v2, w1 and w2 are transfer function
coefficients. Value of these coefficients vary for each
type of heat gain and room
Room Transfer Function Equation
• ASHRAE has published tables of Transfer Function
Coefficients for different heat gain components, room
types and building weights.
• Heat Gains are computed for a series of hours for
each component
• These heat gains are used in Room Transfer
Equations to compute the resulting loads
• The load is a function of Heat Gain and Time
(Storage Effect)
Lighting Gain vs. Lighting Load
People Heat Gains vs. Loads
Conduction Transfer Function Equation
Additional Equations are required for wall and roof transmission loads
q0/A = b0teo+b1te1+b2te2+b3te3+b4te4+b5te5+b6te6
– d1q1 – d2q2 – d3q3 – d4q4 – d5q5 – d6q6 – trccn
“q” represents a heat gain.
“te” represents the sol-air temperature for the exterior surface of the wall.
“b,d and cn” are conduction transfer coefficients.
“trc” is the indoor air temperature.
“A” is the exterior wall surface area.
East Wall Solar Heat Gain Vs. Solar Load
Transfer Function Method
To calculate component loads , two step procedure is used
he component heat gains are computed for a series of hours
1. T
2. Heat gains are used in room transfer equations to compute the resulting loads
Radiant Time Series
• ASHRAE Fundamentals 2005
• Derived from Heat Balance method
• Each Heat Gain has a convective, and Radiative Component
• Convective portion becomes load immediately
• Radiative portion is absorbed by zone mass and becomes a load
after some time delay
• Faster calculation time compared with Transfer Function
• Developed for design load calculation
• Not appropriate for use in full-year energy analysis
Radiant Time series Equation
Q0 = r0 q0 + r1 q1 + r2 q2 + ---- + r23q23
Q0 represents the cooling load for the current hour
from radiant component of heat gain
‘qn represents the radiant component of a heat
gain for the current hour and twenty three
previous hours
‘rn are radiant time series coefficients which are
applied to a radiant component of heat gain for
current hour and twenty three previous hours
Radiant / Convective Splits
Load Estimating Methods
ASHRAE Heat
Balance Method
ASHRAE Transfer
A Functions
C ASHRAE Radiant
C Time Series Method
U
R
A ASHRAE CLTD/CLF
C Carrier E20 Method
Y
Instantaneous Q=U A TD
INCREASING COMPLEXITY
Summary
• Transfer Function Method Considers Complex
Aspects of Heat Flow to Produce Accurate Results
– Easy to use
– Accurate
• Carrier HAP (Hourly Analysis Program) and Block
Load Programs are based on Transfer Function
Method
BLOCK LOAD V4.10
ASHRAE WEATHER DATA
ASHRAE WEATHER DATA
ASHRAE WEATHER DATA
ASHRAE WEATHER DATA
LATITUDE ELEVATION
• Impacts the intensity of solar • Impacts psychrometric properties
radiation reaching the of air
building • Related to sea level
SUMMER DRY BULB
• ASHRAE .4% used
• Temperature exceeded only
.4% of hours during the year
SUMMER WET BULB DAILY RANGE
• Average wet-bulb • (MAX minus MIN)
temperature coincident temperatures on design
with summer design dry cooling day
bulb temperature
• Used in creating
temperature profiles for
a design day
WINTER DRY ATMOSPHERIC
BULB CLEARNESS
• ASHRAE 99.6% • 1.15 - Very Clear
• Colder only .4% of hours • 1.0 - Typical
during the year • 0.85 - Hazy
• Impacts solar radiation intensity
• Used for heat loads
INDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS
• ASHRAE Testing used
• 7 parameters considered:
• Surrounding Dry-bulb Temperature
• Surrounding Relative Humidity
• Surrounding Mean Radiant Temperature
• Surrounding Air Velocity
• Type of Activity (Metabolic rate)
• Clothing Type
• Psychological - Mean Vote by Tested Group
COMFORT LIMITS
From 1997 ASHRAE Handbook Of Fundamentals
ASHRAE INDOOR DESIGN
3.2 Table 1 General Design Criteria (Taken From ASHRAE 1999 Applications Handbook)
Inside Design Energy Load
Conditions 3
General Specific Air Circulate Min. Noise Filter Budget,10 Profile
Category Category Winter Summer Move. Air Ch/Hr O.A. EfficiencyBtu/ft2-yr. Peak
Dining and Restaurants 70 to 74F 74 to 78F 25 to 8 to 12 5 cfm/P NC 35 35% or 50 to 500 1 to 2 PM
Entertainment 20 to 30% rh 55 to 60% rh 30 fpm to 40 better
Centers
Bars 70 to 74F 74 to 78F 30fpm@ 15 to 20 100% or NC 35 35% 50 to 400 5 to 7 PM
20 to 30% rh 50 to 60% rh 6 ft above 10cfm/P to 50 prefilters
floor
Night Clubs 70 to 74F 74 to 78F <25fpm@ 20 to 30 25 cfm/P NC 35 35% 20 to 250 After 8PM
20 to 30% rh 50 to 60% rh 5ft above to 45 prefilters Often
floor 2 to 4AM
Kitchens 70 to 74F 85 to 88F 30 to 50 12 to 15 100% NC 40 10 to 15%100 to 400
fpm to 50 or better
Office buildings 70 to 74F 74 to 78F 25-45fpm 4 to 10 .05to .25 NC30 35 to 60%25 to 300 at 4PM
20 to 30% rh 50 to 60% rh .75 to 2 cfm/ft2 or to 45 or better
cfm/ft2 5 cfm/P
ALL LOADS FALL INTO WHAT TWO CATEGORIES ?
• Sensible Loads Outdoor Air - CFM
– Temperature Difference C
O
• Latent Loads I
L
– Moisture Difference
• Load Sources:
• Building Skin Loads
• Internal Loads
• Distribution Loads Conditioned
Exhaust Space
• Outdoor Air Loads CFM
WHAT IS A BLOCK LOAD ?
• Peak cooling load for a building
• Occurs once during the year
• Made up of:
– Sum of all sensible loads
– Sum of all latent loads
BLOCK - LARGEST LOAD
• Used to size sources of cooling & heating:
– Refrigeration & heating equipment
Fig 2
COMMERCIAL BUILDING LOAD PATTERN
WEST LOAD FOLLOWS THE SUN EAST
SUN
THE PROBLEM
• How to distribute cooling to follow the moving loads
THE ANSWER
• Distribute cooling to building zones
• Zone cfm = rsh/ (1.1 x t)
– Where
• Cfm = cubic feet per minute of air
• Rsh = room (zone) sensible heat
• t = (troom-toutlet)
• How do we establish zones?
REVIEW FLOOR PLAN
• Floor plan is either:
Permanent internal partitions (owner-occupied)
Partitions set zone boundaries
Open floor plan (rental)
Modules determine zone boundaries
PERMANENT FLOOR PLAN
PARTITIONS ESTABLISH ROOM SIZES
PERMANENT PARTITIONS
• Floor already divided into rooms
• Rooms or groups of rooms become zones
• No need to break down any further
OPEN FLOOR PLAN
BREAK FLOOR INTO MODULES
MODULE = SMALLEST STANDARDIZED LIKE AREA OF FLOOR
MODULE = A UNIQUE LOAD PATTERN
MODULE CHOICE DEPENDS ON FLOOR PLAN
DIVIDE INTO MODULES
15 FT
PERIMETER - 15 FT WIDE
INTERIOR - THE REST
Choose modules consistent with natural barriers:
doors, columns, windows, etc.
TYPICAL MODULES
• 9 unique modules - bottom
• Each has unique load pattern
• Each has a floor load
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
TYPICAL MODULES
• 9 unique modules - middle
• No floor or roof loads
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
TYPICAL MODULES
• 9 unique modules - top (roof)
• All have a roof load
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
TYPICAL OPEN FLOOR
• 9 unique modules - bottom
• 9 unique modules - middle
• 9 unique modules - top
• 27 unique modules for a multi-story building
HOW DO WE CONTROL THE ROOM ?
• Thermostat controlling an air terminal
• Does each room have a thermostat ?
– Not usually
– One thermostat/ control zone
– Multiple modules/ control zone
HOW TO ESTABLISH CONTROL ZONES ?
• Look at module/room load patterns
• Combine modules/rooms of similar load
patterns
• Separate perimeter from interior spaces
HOW DOES LOAD VARY ?
• By usage
• By solar impact
• By time of day
• By time of year
USAGE & SOLAR IMPACT
SOLAR AND LIGHTS ARE LARGE VARIABLE LOADS
ROOM SENSIBLE LOADS
WALL TRAN 7.8%
GLASS TRAN 7.6%
SOLAR 24.3%
EQUIP 5.0%
LIGHTS 46.4%
PEOPLE 8.9%
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0%
IMPACT ON ROOM TEMP
• If the people leave a room and the lights are
turned off, what % of the room load has
gone?
– 55.3 %
• What will be the impact on room temp.?
– Will drop
USAGE BY TIME
• Following slides show for each exposure:
– Time of day variance
– Time of month variance
TYPICAL ZONES
• UNIQUE ZONES
NW N NE
INT-W INT-E
W E
SW S SE
INTERNAL MODULE
0.7
0.6 NO CHANGE
0.5 JUN
TONS
0.4
JUL
0.3
0.2 AUG
0.1 TIME OF
0 MONTH
VARIANCE
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
TIME OF DAY
PEOPLE + LIGHTS + EQUIPMENT: CONSTANT LOAD
NORTH MODULE
N
0.6
0.5
0.4 JUN
TONS
0.3 JUL
0.2 AUG
0.1
0
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
TIME OF DAY
EAST MODULE
E
0.8
0.6 JUN
TONS
0.4 JUL
IN SUN IN SHADOW
0.2 AUG
0
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
TIME OF DAY
SOUTH MODULE
0.8
0.7
0.6 S
0.5 AUG
TONS
0.4 OCT
0.3 SUN IS LOW IN SKY IN SEP
0.2 THE FALL.
0.1
0
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
TIME OF DAY
WEST MODULE
1
W
0.8
0.6 JUN
TONS
JUL
0.4 AUG
IN SHADOW IN SUN
0.2
0
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
TIME OF DAY
NORTHEAST CORNER MODULE
N
1
E
0.8
JUN
TONS
0.6
JUL
0.4SUN IN EAST
AUG
0.2
0
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
TIME OF DAY
NORTHWEST CORNER MODULE
N
1.2 W
1
0.8 JUN
TONS
0.6 JUL
0.4 SUN IN WEST AUG
0.2
0
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
TIME OF DAY
SOUTHEAST CORNER MODULE
E
1.2 S
1
0.8 JUL
TONS
0.6 AUG
0.4 ONE PEAK FOR EACH SEP
0.2 EXPOSURE
0
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
TIME OF DAY
SOUTHWEST CORNER MODULE
W
1.2
1 S
0.8 JUL
TONS
0.6 AUG
0.4 SEP
0.2 LOAD BUILDS ALL DAY
0
8 10 12 2 4
TIME OF DAY
END OF SESSION
