ROCKS

Engineering definitions of rock differ from those used in geology; engineers consider
rock to be a hard, durable material. From an excavation point of view, rock is any
material that cannot be excavated without blasting. Another definition of rock indicates
that it is earth material that does not slake when soaked in water.

Rocks are divided into three main types depending on their origin: igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic.

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Came from the Latin word “ignis” means “fire”. Igneous rocks form when magma
(molten rock) cools and crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the surface of the Earth or
while the melted rock is still inside the crust. All magma develops underground, in the
lower crust or upper mantle, because of the intense heat there. Igneous rocks can have
many different compositions, depending on the magma they cool from. They can also
look different based on their cooling conditions

CLASSIFICATION.

Igneous rocks are classified according to texture, mode of occurrence and mineral
composition.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 1

FORMATION.

Types of Igneous Rocks:

1. Intrusive Igneous Rock

2. Extrusive Igneous Rock

PROPERTIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

When fresh and unweathered, all intrusive rocks are characteristics by high crushing
and shearing strengths, and unless too minutely fractured, they are usually satisfactory
for all types of engineering construction and operations. They are often good sources of
concrete aggregates and other types of construction materials. In foundations for
engineering structures such as dams, bridges and underground installations, weathered
igneous rock or any other weathered rock is to be avoided. Extrusive rocks exhibit
considerable variation in physical properties and usually require extended examination
before their engineering characteristics can be evaluated.

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS– are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within
the crust of the earth. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks are diabase, diorite, gabbro,
granite, pegmatite, and peridotite.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 2

Diabase can also be cut for use as ornamental stone for countertops, facing stone on
buildings, and paving. A form of dolerite, known as bluestone, is one of the materials
used in the construction of Stonehenge.

Diorite is used as a base material in the construction of roads, buildings, and parking

areas. It is also used as a drainage stone and for erosion control. In the dimension stone
industry, diorite is often cut into facing stone, tile, ashlars, blocking, pavers, curbing, and
a variety of dimension stone products.

Gabbro is another intrusive igneous rock which contains profitable amounts of gold and
silver.

Granite is used in countertops, statues and tombstones because of its durability.

Pegmatite is often mined for industrial minerals. Large sheets of mica are mined from
pegmatite. These are used to make components for electronic devices, retardation
plates, circuit boards, optical filters, detector windows, paints and cosmetics products.

Peridotites are economically important rocks because they often contain chromite - the
only ore of chromium; they can be source rocks for diamonds; and, they have the
potential to be used as a material for sequestering carbon dioxide. Much of Earth's
mantle is believed to be composed of peridotite.

EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS – are formed on the surface of the Earth from lava,
which is magma that has emerged from underground. These rocks include andesite,
basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 3

Andesite is fairly durable, which allows it to be used in road and railway construction,
and as fill gravel.

Basalt is used for a wide variety of purposes. It is most commonly crushed for use as an
aggregate in construction projects. Crushed basalt is used for road base, concrete
aggregate, asphalt pavement aggregate, railroad ballast, filter stone in drain fields, and
may other purposes.

Dacite is sometimes used to produce crushed stone. It performs well as fill and as a
loose aggregate in a wide variety of construction projects. It does not perform well as a
concrete aggregate because its high silica content reacts with the cement.

Obsidian was used to make knives, arrowheads, spear points, scrapers, and many other
weapons and tools. Once these discoveries were made, obsidian quickly became the
raw material of preference for producing almost any sharp object.

Pumice is a very light weight, porous and abrasive material and it has been used for
centuries in the construction and beauty industry as well as in early medicine. It is also
used as an abrasive, especially in polishes, pencil erasers, and the production of
stone-washed jeans.

Rhyolite is sometimes used to produce crushed stone. People have also used rhyolite to
manufacture stone tools, particularly scrapers, blades, and projectile points.

Scoria has several useful characteristics that influence how it is used. It is somewhat
porous, has a high surface area and strength for its weight, and often has striking
colours. Consequently, it is often used in landscaping and drainage works.

Tuff is a relatively soft rock, so it has been used for construction since ancient times.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 4

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are one of three main types of rocks, along with igneous and
metamorphic. They are formed on or near the Earth’s surface from the compression of
ocean sediments or other processes.

Sedimentary rocks are formed on or near the Earth’s surface, in contrast to

metamorphic and igneous rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth. The most
important geological processes that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are
erosion, weathering, dissolution, precipitation, and lithification.

Erosion and weathering include the effects of wind and rain, which slowly break down
large rocks into smaller ones. Erosion and weathering transform boulders and even
mountains into sediments, such as sand or mud. Dissolution is a form of
weathering—chemical weathering. With this process, water that is slightly acidic slowly
wears away stone. These three processes create the raw materials for new, sedimentary
rocks. Precipitation and lithification are processes that build new rocks or minerals.
Precipitation is the formation of rocks and minerals from chemicals that precipitate from
water.

SEDIMENTS VERSUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

A distinction must be made between sediments and sedimentary rocks. Sediments

are a product of mechanical and chemical weathering. They are pieces of loose debris
that have not been lithified, that is, have not been hardened into a rock material. In the
engineering sense such sediments are considered to be soil consisting of a combination
of gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Sediments are found in stream bottoms, deltas and wide
floodplains where deposition by flowing water has occurred. Sedimentary rocks are held
together by various types of cementing agents, such as calcite, quartz, or iron oxide.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 5

Two major types of sedimentary rocks:

1.) CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCK – form from chemical reactions, chiefly in the
ocean.

2.) CLASTIC/MECHANICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCK – are rocks that are made of bits of
other rocks that have been weathered, eroded, and deposited

CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 6

 Chemical sedimentary rocks can be found in many places, from the ocean to deserts
to caves. For instance, most limestone forms at the bottom of the ocean from the
precipitation of calcium carbonate and the remains of marine animals with shells. If
limestone is found on land, it can be assumed that the area used to be under water.
Cave formations are also sedimentary rocks, but they are produced very differently.
Stalagmites and stalactites form when water passes through bedrock and picks up
calcium and carbonate ions. When the chemical-rich water makes its way into a cave,
the water evaporates and leaves behind calcium carbonate on the ceiling, forming a
stalactite, or on the floor of the cave, creating a stalagmite.

Limestone - is a rock that is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. It can form

organically from the accumulation of shell, coral, algal, and fecal debris. It can also form
chemically from the precipitation of calcium carbonate from lake or ocean water.
Limestone is used in many ways. Some of the most common are: production of cement,
crushed stone, and acid neutralization.

Dolomite – consists of the mixed calcium magnesium carbonates. It may originate

through deposition of the mixed carbonates or through the alteration of limestone by
magnesium-charged waters. It is a non-metallic material used in manufacturing bricks,
mortar, cement, concrete, plastics, paving materials, and other construction materials.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 7

Diatomite – is a sedimentary rock with many uses. It is made up of the siliceous skeletal
remains of diatoms, which are tiny single-celled algae. Diatomite is crushed into a
powder known as "diatomaceous earth". It is lightweight, porous, relatively inert, and has
a small particle size along with a large surface area. These properties make
diatomaceous earth useful as a filtration media, a lightweight aggregate, a lightweight
filler, an effective absorbent, and more.

Chert and Flint – is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock material

composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2). They are very hard substances and are thus difficult
to drill. Flint is a hard, tough, chemical or biochemical sedimentary rock that breaks with
a conchoidal fracture. It is a form of microcrystalline quartz that is typically called “chert”
by geologists. It often forms as nodules in sedimentary rocks such as chalk and marine
limestones.

Peat, Lignite and Coal – Peat is a deposit of dead plant material, the precursor to coal
Lignite is the lowest grade coal with the least concentration of carbon. Coal is an organic
sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation and preservation of plant materials,
usually in a swamp environment.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 8

Rock Salt – the most abundant saline occurring in nature is sodium chloride. It is
probable that salt deposits originated from evaporation of sea water.

Chalk – is a variety of limestone composed mainly of calcium carbonate derived from the
shells of tiny marine animals known as foraminifera and from the calcareous remains of
marine algae known as coccoliths. Chalk is usually white or light gray in color. It is
extremely porous, permeable, soft and friable.

Gypsum and Anhydrite – pure calcium sulfate is known as anhydrite whereas the
hydrated compound is known as gypsum. They are believed to result from precipitation
from ocean water, and usually associated with beds of other marine sediments.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 9

CLASTIC OR MECHANICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified by the shape of their grains. Grains can be
very angular, angular, rounded, or well rounded. The shape of the grains gives rocks
their texture. The texture may feel like sandpaper, or it may feel smooth and greasy.
When mineral grains are carried by wind, water, or ice, they bump into each other. When
they do, the corners of the grains get broken off and smoothed. The more bumping that
happens, the smaller and smoother the grains become. Clasts are the fragments of rocks
and minerals.

Breccia and Conglomerate

Breccia is a term most often used for clastic sedimentary rocks that are composed of
large angular fragments (over two millimeters in diameter). Breccia comes in many colors
and compositions. Breccia is mainly used to make decorative architectural elements. It
may be polished to make decorative features or gemstones.

Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater than two
millimeters in diameter) rounded clasts. Conglomerate can be crushed to make a fine
aggregate that can be used where a low-performance material is suitable. Many
conglomerates are colorful and attractive rocks, but they are only rarely used as an
ornamental stone for interior use.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 10

Sandstone – Sandstone is one of the most common types of sedimentary rock and is
found in sedimentary basins throughout the world. It is often mined for use as a
construction material or as a raw material used in manufacturing. In the subsurface,
sandstone often serves as an aquifer for groundwater or as a reservoir for oil and natural
gas. Sandstones are rocks composed primarily of sand-size grains.

Siltstone – Siltstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt-sized particles. It

forms where water, wind, or ice deposit silt, and the silt is then compacted and cemented
into a rock. Siltstone is much less common than sandstone and shale. Siltstone has very
few uses. It is rarely the target of mining for use as a construction material or
manufacturing feedstock.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 11

Shale, Mudstone and Claystone

Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that forms from the compaction of silt and
clay-size mineral particles that we commonly call "mud." This composition places shale
in a category of sedimentary rocks known as "mudstones." Shale is distinguished from
other mudstones because it is fissile and laminated. "Laminated" means that the rock is
made up of many thin layers. "Fissile" means that the rock readily splits into thin pieces
along the laminations. Shale has many commercial uses. It is a source material in the
ceramics industry to make brick, tile, and pottery. Shale used to make pottery and
building materials requires little processing besides crushing and mixing with water.

Mudstone is a fine-grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or

muds, contains a mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles (at least 1/3 of each). Mudstone
is distinguished from shale by its lack of fissility. The term mudstone is also used to
describe carbonate rocks that are composed predominantly of carbonate mud. Mudstone
uses in construction industry include Cement manufacture, Construction aggregate, for
road aggregate, making natural cement and a raw material for the manufacture of mortar.

Claystone is a lithified and non-cleavable mudrock. In order for a rock to be considered a

claystone, it must consist of at least fifty percent clay (phyllosilicates), whose particle
measures less than 1/256 of a millimeter in size. Claystone uses in construction industry
include as a sintering agent in steel industry to process iron ore.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

The term “metamorphosis” is most often used in reference to the process of a

caterpillar changing into a butterfly. However, the word “metamorphosis” is a broad term
that indicates a change from one thing to another. Even rocks, a seemingly constant
substance, can change into a new type of rock. Rocks that undergo a change to form a
new rock are referred to as metamorphic rocks. A metamorphic rock, began as a
rock—either a sedimentary, igneous, or even a different sort of metamorphic rock. Then,

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 12

due to various conditions within the Earth, the existing rock was changed into a new kind
of metamorphic rock.

Although metamorphic rocks typically form deep in the planet’s crust, they are often
exposed on the surface of the Earth. This happens due to geologic uplift and the erosion
of the rock and soil above them. At the surface, metamorphic rocks will be exposed to
weathering processes and may break down into sediment. These sediments could then
be compressed to form sedimentary rocks, which would start the entire cycle anew.

Metamorphism comes from the Greek: meta = after, morph = form, so

metamorphism means the after form and it is a process of mineral assemblage and
texture variation that results from the physical-chemical changes of solid rocks, caused
by factors such as crust movement, magma activity, or thermal fluid change in the earth.
The metamorphism comprises recrystallization, metamorphic crystallization, deformation,
fragmentation, and alternation. The product of the existing rock (igneous and
sedimentary rocks) suffering metamorphism is called metamorphic rock (Winkler, 1975)
whose chemical composition is related not only to original rock, but also to
metamorphism. During the process of metamorphism, whether the deformation of
original rock or re-composition of material is mostly finished under solid state is not
known; thus the metamorphic rock can keep some aspects of the original rock or layer.
The metamorphic rocks resulting from metamorphism are often characterized by unique
mineral composition, particular texture, and structure to differentiate them from igneous
and sedimentary rocks.

TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 13

 The texture of metamorphic rocks is usually coarsely to finely crystalline and in many
instances is platy. The chief importance of platy texture is that it imparts a highly
anisotropic character to the rock, of which cleavage is an outstanding example.

Types of metamorphism:

1. Contact metamorphism – occurs when magma comes in contact with an already

existing body of rock. When this happens the existing rocks temperature rises and
also becomes infiltrated with fluid from the magma. The area affected by the contact
of magma is usually small, from 1 to 10 kilometers. Contact metamorphism produces
non-foliated (rocks without any cleavage) rocks such as marble, hornfels and
quartzite.
2. Dynamic metamorphism – or cataclasis, results mainly from mechanical
deformation with little long-term temperature change. These huge forces of heat and
pressure cause the rocks to be bent, folded, crushed, flattened, and sheared.

3. Regional metamorphism – occurs over a much larger area. This metamorphism

produces rocks such as gneiss and schist. Regional metamorphism is caused by
large geologic processes such as mountain-building. These rocks when exposed to
the surface show the unbelievable pressure that cause the rocks to be bent and
broken by the mountain building process.

Two basic types of metamorphic rocks:

1. FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS such as gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate have
a layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and directed
pressure. Foliates are composed of large amounts of micas and chlorites, Foliate
comes from the Latin word that means sheets, as in the sheets of paper in a book.
2. NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS such as hornfels, marble and quartzite do
not have a layered or banded appearance.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Gneiss – is a foliated metamorphic rock identified by its bands and lenses of varying
composition, while other bands contain granular minerals with an interlocking texture. It
is a high-grade metamorphic rock in which mineral grains recrystallized under intense
heat and pressure. Gneiss can form in several different ways. The most common path
begins with shale, which is a sedimentary rock. Regional metamorphism can transform
shale into slate, then phyllite, then schist, and finally into gneiss. Gneiss has many uses
as a building material such as flooring, ornamental stones, gravestones, facing stones on
buildings and stair treads.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 14

Phyllite – is a foliated metamorphic rock that has been subjected to low levels of heat,
pressure and chemical activity. It is composed mainly of flake-shaped mica minerals in
parallel alignment. The strong parallel alignment of the mica grains allows the rock to be
easily split into sheets or slabs. The alignment of the mica grains gives phyllite a
reflective sheen that distinguishes it from slate. Phyllite is usually gray, black, or greenish
in color and often weathers to a tan or brown. Its reflective sheen often gives it a silvery,
nonmetallic appearance. It is often used as a decorative stone in countertops, may be
used as decorative aggregates, floor tiles and other interior home decorations or used as
exterior building of facing stone.

Schist – is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of plate-shaped mineral grains that are
large enough to see with an unaided eye. It usually forms on a continental side of a
convergent plate boundary where sedimentary rocks, such as shales and mudstones,
have been subjected to compressive forces, heat, and chemical activity. To become
schist, a shale must be metamorphosed in steps through slate and then through phyllite.
If the schist is metamorphosed further, it might become a granular rock known as gneiss.
It can be used for garden decoration, paving and sometimes sculpture.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 15

Slate – is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock that is created by the alteration of
shale or mudstone by low-grade regional metamorphism. It is popular for a wide variety
of uses such as roofing, flooring, and flagging because of its durability and attractive
appearance.

Slate has many uses such as snooker tables, roofing, flooring, and garden decorations.
Slate is composed mainly of clay minerals or micas, depending upon the degree of
metamorphism to which it has been subjected.

Marble – is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestone or dolomite is subjected to

the heat and pressure of metamorphism. It is composed primarily of the mineral calcite
(CaCO3) and usually contains other minerals, such as clay minerals, micas, quartz,
pyrite, iron oxides, and graphite.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 16

Marble occurs in large deposits that can be hundreds of feet thick and geographically
extensive. This allows it to be economically mined on a large scale, with some mines and
quarries producing millions of tons per year. Most marble is made into either crushed
stone or dimension stone. It is one of the most effective acid neutralization materials,
marble is easy to carve, and that makes it useful for producing sculptures and
ornamental objects.

Quartzites – Is a non-foliated metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of quartz. It

forms when a quartz-rich sandstone is altered by the heat, pressure, and chemical
activity of metamorphism. Quartzite is one of the most physically durable and chemically
resistant rocks found at Earth's surface.

Hornfels – is a fine-grained metamorphic rock that was subjected to the heat of contact
metamorphism at a shallow depth. It was "baked" by heat conducted from a nearby
magma chamber or lava flow. Hornfels is not a rock that is "deposited". Instead it is a
rock type that forms when an existing rock is metamorphosed. The original rock that was
metamorphosed is usually referred to as the "parent rock" or "protolith". Common
protoliths of hornfels include sedimentary rocks such as shale, siltstone, sandstone,
limestone and dolomite; igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, rhyolite, granite, andesite
and diabase; or, metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss.

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 17

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Karl Hendrix G. Lontoc 18