Algebraic Structures The algebraic structures like semigroup, monoid, group, ring and field have wide applications in many disciplines and in particular to binary coding. 5.1 BINARY OPERATIONS Definition 5.1 collection of objects with operations defined on them and the accompanying properties form a Mathematical Structure or System. For example, the collection of sets with the operations of union, intersection, and complement and their accompanying properties is a discrete mathematical structure. We denote this structure by [sets, U, 0, Similarly, the collection of 3x3 matrices with the operations of addition, multiplication and transpose and their accompanying properties is a mathematical structure, We denote this structure by [3x3 matrices, +, +, 7]. Definition 5.2 A structure is said to be closed with respect to an operation if that operation always produces another member (element) of the collection of objects. For example, let 4 be the set of even integers, Then the structure [4, +] is closed with respect to addition operation because the sum of two even integers is always even. On the other hand, the structure [4, +], where A is the set of odd integers, is not closed with "spect to addition because the sum of two odd integers is an even integer. Definition 5.3 Letd be a non-empty set. Then a function: A> from A into A is called a unary operation, For example, f: Z—>Z defined by S()=I|n| ‘Saunary operation on Z, Similarly, taking complement of a set 4 is a unary operation of the power set P (S) of a set S. Definition 5.4 ee bea non-empty set. Then a mapping /: Ax ~4 is called a binary operation, Thus, a binary ‘tion isa rule that assigns to each ordered pair (a, b) ¢ AX an element of A. For the sake of simplicity, we write a # b in place of f(a, b). Sante 5.1 A, ee operat the Set of integers. Then f: ZX» defined by f(a, b)=a * b=a+h, a, b & Z.is a binary 8 on Z. because the sum of two integers a and b is again an integer. S, addition of integers is a binary operation. a ‘Scanned with CamScannerC7 oN 186m Discrete Mathematics EXARPLE 5.22 $$ xN-N defined by f(a, 6)=a —b is not integers need not be positive integer. For exam Let N be the set of positive integers. Then /: binary operation because difference of two posit 2-5 is not a positive integer. EXAMPLE 5.3 For the set N of pos operation. For example, integers, let f: NxN—JN be defined by /(a, b)= 4. Then, fis not a binary =2, b=7, then =4 is not a positive integer. EXAMPLE 5.4 Let Z be the set of all integers. Then f: ZxZ—>Z defined by f(a, b)}=max (a, b) is a binary operation. For example, ‘S(2,4)=2 « 4=max (2,4)=4€ Z. EXAMPLE 5.5 Let A={a, b, c}. Define « by xey=x, x, ped. Then the table given below defines the operation + * a b c a a a b b b c c c @ Further, if we define “*” by xy=y, x, ye d, then the table given below defines the operation, a b c a a b c b a b © c a b c Bini 6 I If A= {0, 1}. Then the binary operations a and v are defined by the following tables: ‘Scanned with CamScannerAlgebraic Structures mm 187 and o 1 5.2 PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATION Definition 5.5 Abinary operation « on a set 4 is said to be commutative if axb=bea forany elements a and b in A. For example, consider the set Z, of integers. Since, atb=b+a and a+b=b+a, fora, b € Z, the addition and multiplication operations on Z are commutative. But, on the other hand, subtraction in Z is not commutative since, for example, 2-343-2. EXAMPLE 5.7 v Fill in the following table so that the binary operation « is commutative, Solution, We note that b ¥ a=c, therefore, for commutativity we must have a + b=c, Also, ¢ « a=a, hence a * c should also be a. Further, for commutativity we should have c«b=b«*c=a, Thus ¢ # b should be a. Note that for c¢ ai ommutativity of +, the entries in the table are symmetric with respect to the main liagonal, Definition 5.6 “binary operation + on a set A is said to be associative if for any elements a, b,c in A, we have as (b4c)=(axb) ee. For example, addition and multiplication of integers are associative. But subtraction of integers Snot associative, For example, (2-4)-5= but 2-(4-5)=3. bess le: ‘Scanned with CamScanner188 Mm Discrete Mathematics Theorem 5.1 Let « be an associative binary operation on a set A. Then, any product a, a, .. parenthesis, that is, all possible products are equal. Proof. We shall prove this result by induction on 1. Since + i and 3. Suppose [a, a, ... a,] denote any product and 4, TeqUites 55 sociative the theorem hold orn) (a4, ...a,)= + (a, 4.) Ay ---)ae Itis sufficient then to show that {a, a, ....a,)=(a, a, ...a,)- Since [a, a, ... a,] denote arbitrary product, there is an m under the operat composition of functions. We know that composition of functions is associative, i.., fol(geh)=(feg)oh, fig he F(S)- Hence F (S) is a semigroup. EXAMPLE 5.11 The set P (S), where Sis a set, together with the operation of union is a commutative semigroup, EXAMPLE 5.12 The integers modulo m, denoted by Z,, refer to the set Z,={0, 1,2, ...4m=1) The addition in Z,, is defined as atb=r, where r is the remainder when a+b is divided by m. The multiplication in Z,, is defined by ab=r, where r is the remainder when a « b is divided by m. For example, consider Z,={0,1,2,3}- The addition table is We note that (J42)4+3=34+3=2 and 14(243)=1+1=2. Hence, (142)43=14(2+3). In general, (a+b)+e=a+(b+e), a,b, c€ Ly Hence Z, is a semigroup, ‘Scanned with CamScannerAlgebraic Structures 191 Definition 5.13 A non-empty set Sis sad to be a monoid if in S there is defined a binary operation + satisfying the following properties @ Ifa,b,ce S, then a*(b*c)=(axb)*c (associative law). (ii) There exists an element e € S such that e+ a=a¥e=aforallae S (existence of identity element). ‘Thus, an algebraic system (S, *) is said to be a monoid if (i) + isa binary operation on non-empty set S (i) _ + is an associative binary operation on S (iii) There exists an identity element ¢ in It therefore, follows that ‘A monoid is a semigroup (S, +) that has an identity element. EXAMPLE 5.13. In Example 5.10 above, identity function is an identity element for F (5). Hence, F (S) is a monoid. BXAMPLE 5.14 Let M be the set of all nxn matrices and let the binary operation + of M be taken as addition of matrices. Then (M, +) is a monoid. In fact, (i) The sum of two nxn matrices is again a matrix of order nxn. Thus, the operation of matrix addition is a binary operation. (ii) If A,B, Ce M, then A+(B+O)=(A+B)+C (associative law). (iii) “The zero matrix acts as additive identity of this monoid because A+0=0+A=4 for Ae M. Definition 5.14 Let A be a non-empty set. A word won 4 isa finite sequence of its elements. For example, w=ab ab bb=ab ab* isa word on A= {a, b}. Definition 5.15, ‘The number of elements in a word w is called its le th and is denoted by / (wv). For example, length of w in the above example is /()=6. Definition 5.16 Let w and v be two words on a set A. Then the word obtained by writing down the elements of w followed by the elements of v is called the concatenation of the words 1 and v on A. For example, if A={a, b,c), w=ab a bbband v=ae baby ‘Scanned with CamScanner192 Ml Discrete Mathematics then w=ab abbb ac bab=abab\achab is the concatenation of w and v. Let (A) denote the collection of all words on 4 under the operation of concatenation, We a that (uv) w=u (vw) fortum we F(A). Hence, F (4) isa semigroup known as free semigroup on 4. The elements ot, are called the generator of F (4). Also, we note that if u, v are two words, then Tw )=1(w)+1(). Further, the empty sequence, denoted by 2, is also considered as a word on A. However, we do nit sSsuine that 2 belongs tothe free semigroup =F (4), The set of all words on 4 including 2is usualy denoted by 4*. Thus, 4+ is a monoid under concatenation. It is called the free monoid ond, Definition 5.17 Let (S, +) bea semigroup and Tbe a subset of S. If Tis closed under the operation « that is,a« be T whenever a, b € T, then (T, +) is called a sub-semigroup of (S, x). Definition 5.18 Let (S, +) be a monoid with identity e, and let T'be a non-empty subset of S. If Tis closed under he operation + and e T, then (7, +) is called a submonoid of (S, «). Clearly, the associative property holds in any subset of a semigroup and so a sub-semigrovp (Z, ») of a semigroup (5, +) is itself a semigroup. Similarly, a submonoid of a monoid is itself a monoid, EXAMPLE 5.15 Let d be the set of even positive integers. Then (4, ), where “” denotes sub-semigroup of (N, -) since A is closed under multiplication, Similarly, the set B of odd positive integers form a subsemigroup (B, -) of (W, -). Also (4,+) is a sub-semigroup of (N, +). But (B, +) is not a subsemigroup of (WN, +) because Bis not closed under addition. For example, 1+3=4 which is not odd. EXAMPLE 5.16 Let (S, +) bea semigroup anda ¢ S.1f7={a! :i€ N}, then (7, ») isa sub-semigroup of (S, #)- EXAMPLE 5.17 Let F (A) be a free semigroup on the set A= (a, b}. Let G consists of all even words, that is, wor’ with even length. The concatenation of two such words is also even, Thus, G is a gub-semist0i? of F(A). ordinary multiplication is2 Theorem 5.2 The inverse of every element in a semigroup with identity ¢ is unique. Proof, We shall use associativity of the binary operation « to prove the uniqueness of the ae clement. So, suppose that b and ¢ are two inverses of an element a in a monoid (S, +). There! we have ‘Scanned with CamScannerAlgebraic Structures ml 193 as b=b «a=, @ aecaceaze, co) We note that be(axc)=bee, by (ii) = b, because ¢ is identity Gii) and (ba)*c=exc, by(i) = c, because ¢ is identity. (iv) But associativity of binary operation * implies bx (a*c)=(b a) *c. Hence, from and (iv) it follows that b=c, proving that the inverse, if exists, of every element in amonoid is unique. 5.4 HOMOMORPHISM OF SEMIGROUPS We discuss now a method for comparing the algebraic structures of the two semigroups. Detinition 5.19 Lat (S, «) and (T, #’) be two semigroups. A function f: S—> Tis called a semigroup homomorphism if . Slax b)=f(a@) *S) forall a, be S. If, in addition, fis also onto, we say that Tis a homomorphic image of S. Definition 5.20 Let (S, +) and (7, +”) be two semigroups. Iff: S>'is both one-one and onto in addition to being @ homomorphism, then fis called an isomorphism from (S, *) onto (7, +’). Definition 5.21 A homomorphism f from (S, +) to (7, «’) is called a monomorphism if fas a map is injective (one-one), Definition 5.22 A homomorphism f from (S, +) to (7, #’) is called an epimorph Thus, we may define isomorophism between two semigroups m if fas a map is surjective (onto). (S, #) and (T, +’) in the following way. Definition 5.23 Let (S, «) and (7, +”) be two semigroups. Then a hom homorphism if it is both monomorphism and epimorphism. ‘Thus, we have, jomorphism f: (S, +)—>(T, +’) is called an Definition 5.24 LeX(S, «) and (7, «’) be two semigroups. Then a mapping, (flaw by=f(a) «f f(b) for all a, be S(semigro (ii)_fas a map is bijective. $—>Tis called an isomorphism if p homomorphism) ‘Scanned with CamScanner194 Discrete Mathematics Definition 5.25 Let (S, *) and (7, «’) be two semigroups. Iff: S—> in isomorphis! n the semigroups (5, «), (T, #) are called isomorphic. In such (7, ¥’/is called isomorphic image of and EXAMPLE 5.18, Let F (4) be the free addition. Let and let Z be the semigroup of integers unde, ‘mit roup of a set A fiEMOL be defined by we F(A). SOW)=L( We note that, if'u, ve F (A), then flw)=1 (w= (+1 =f) 4S) Hence fis a homomorphism, Here, the operation in F (A) is written multiplicatively, whereas the operation in Z is addition. EXAMPLE 5.19 Let Z be the set of integers and Tbe the set of all even integers. Then (Z,-+) and (7, +) are semigroups. Let for be defined by Sla=2a, ae Z. We note that @) Sla+b)=2(a+b)=2a42=/(@+f/(b). Thus, fis a homomorphism. Gi), f(@)=f(b)=92a=2b =a=b, Hence fis one-one, that is, fis monomorphism. (iii) Let } be an even integer. Then a= $-¢ Zand Thus to every b € 7, there is an a € Z such that f(a)=b. Therefore, fis onto, Le, fis epimorphis™ Hence fis an isomorphism. Let A={0, 1} and let F (A) be the free semigroup on A, Let thg binary operation +on d be d the table ‘Scanned with CamScannerAlgebraic Structures mt 195 pefine S:F(A)A Fu) 1 ifw has an odd number of I's 0 ifw has an even number of I's Then, ifu, v € F(A), we have Llu V=f( +I. ‘Thus, fis a homomorphism. Further, we note that £(0)=0 and f(1)=1, that is, to each element a of A, there is an element w in F (A) such that f (u)=a. Hence, f is onto. But the condition / (1) = (v) => u=v is not satisfied showing that fis not one-one. Hence fis epimorphism. EXAMPLE 5.21 LetZ, and Z,, denote, respectively, the integers modulo 4 under addition and integer modulo 10 under multiplication. Their addition and multiplication tables are then + Oo 1 2 3 13 7 9 0 o 1 2 35 11 3 7 9 1 1 2 3 0 303 9 1 7 ys 7 7 19 3 3.3. 0 1 2 9 9 7 3 21 @) (S,-)inZ, where $= {1, 3,7, 9}. Let fi Zs be defined by SO=LSM=3,f2Q)=9FB)=7. Then for any a, b Z,, we have S(arb)=f(a) -F(b). For example, let a=1, b=3, then fla+b)=f(143)=fO=1=3 -7inZ,.=f()-LB)- Also fis bijective, Hence Z, is isomorphic to S. Theorem 5.3 1s, *) and (T, #’) be monoids with identities e and e’, respectively. Let f: ST be a homomor- 'm from (S +) onto (7, *’). Then f(e)=e"- ‘Scanned with CamScanner196 Discrete Mathematics Proof. Let bbe any element of 7. Since fis surjective, there is an element a © S such thay, Since e is identity of S, we have (asp ase=a=ce%a fy and so b=f(@=f(a +e), by (i) =f (a) *’ f(e), because fis homomorphism =b+'f(e). Also, b=f(@)=fle +a) =f) * f@=fe) * b. Hence, b’ f(e)=f (0) + b=b and so f(e) is identity for 7. Thus, f(e)=e". Theorem 5.4 If fis a homomorphism from a commutative semigroup (5, +) onto a semigroup (7, +’), then (7, «is also commutative, that is, homomorphic image of an abelian (commutative) semigroup is abelian Proof. Let t,t, € T. Since fis onto, there exist s,,.s, € S such that | S(s)=t, and f(s,)=t,. | Then, (s) *S5) =f(s,* 5,), since fis homomorphism (5,* 5,), since S is abelian =S(s,) + f(s), since fis homomorphism *' ty. Hence (7, »’) is abelian. Remark 5.1 The converse of the above theorem is not true. Theorem 5.5 Let f: (S, »)-9(T, +’) be semigroup homomorphism. If’ is a sub-semigroup of (S, +), then the im of S* under fis a subsemigroup of (7, +’). Proof. Let(S") be the image of 5” under fand lt, be in f(S"), Then there ae s, ands, in 5” ssh 1,5/6,) and 4=f(s;) % . ef We claim that /(S’) is closed under the binary operation #’, It is sufficient to show that 4*€/° We have, in this direction, 1 L=S(s) # f(s) =/(s,* 5,), because fis homomorphism. ‘Scanned with CamScannerAlgebraic Structures mi 197 Now since $” isa semigroup and s,,s, € 5”, we have ses, € 8" pence /(5,* 8.) € F(S’). It follows, therefore, that 1 in it also holds in f(S’). Hence f(s” (due to closeness of the operation +). “he sf (S"). Further, since the associativity hold ) isa sub-semigroup of (7, « , Theorem 5.6 The intersection of two sub-semigroups of a semigroup (S, #) is subsemigroup of (S, #) Proof, Let (S,, *) and (S, » *) be two sub-semigroups of the semi ace pe $, 0S) Then, igroups of the semigroup (S, «). Leta ¢ S, 7S, and aeS, OS,=a6 S,andae S,, bes, AS,be Siandbe 8. Since S, is a sub-semigroup, therefore, a, b € S, implies a * be 5,. Similarly, since S, is a sub- semigroup, a, b € S, implies a * be S,, Hence, aebeSaS,, Hence, S, © S, is closed under the operation x. Further associativity in S, and S, implies the associativity of 5, AS, since S, mS, & S, and S, 9 S, cS, Hence, 5, 0 S, is a sub-semigroup of (S, *). Corollary 5.1 Intersection of two submonoids of a monoid (S, +) is a semimonoid of (S, #). (Proof follows the same line as that in Theorem 5.6). Remark 5.2 Union of two sub-semigroups of a semigroup (S, *) need not be a sub-semigroup of (S, #). For example, (Sp )=(0,42,44,46, 4, ...} and (S,, #)={0,43,46,49, 4, ...} ‘are sub-semigroups of the semigroup (Z, +) of integers. But, $,US,={0,42,£3,44,46,4...} ‘snot a sub-semigroup of (Z, +), because 2€ $,US3€S,US bu, 243=5 ¢ § US, showing that 5, US, is not closed under addition, 1 US,s 55 QuoTiENT structURES | Definition 5.26 ae , ‘An equivalence relation Ron a semigroup (S, +) is called a congruence relation ifa R af and b Rb | MPly (aw by R (a « B’). i ‘Scanned with CamScanner198 Discrete Mathematies EXAMPLE 5.22: - ; Let (Z, +) be the semigroup of integers. Consider the relation R defined on Z by aR b ifand only if a=b (mod m). We know that a=b (mod m) if m divides a—b, We note that (i) For any integer a, we have a=a (mod m), ic. a Ra. / (ii) Ifa Rb, then a=b (mod m) =m | (a-b) =#m | (b-a) and so b=a (mod m) which meee bRa. (iii) IfaR band bRe, then a=b (mod m) and b=c (mod m) => m|(a—b) and m | (b-c) = m[(a-b)+(b-0)] = m|(a-c) = ac (mod m), which means that a Rc. Thus R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive and so is an equivalence relation, Further, if a=c (mod m) and b=d (mod m), then m| (a-c) and m | (6-d) = m|[(a-0)+(b-d)] = m|((a+b)-(c+d)] = (a+b)=(c+d) (mod m) => (a+b) R (c+d). Hence R is a congruence relation, EXAMPLE 5.23 Consider the semigroup (Z, « ), where + denotes ordinary multiplication. Let us again consider th relation R on Z defined by @R b ifand only if a=b (mod m). This relation is an equivalence relation. Further, if a=c (mod m) and b=d (mod m), then m|(a-c) and_m|(b=d) = m|b(a-c) and m|c(b-d) =1|(ab—be) and m | (be-cd) = m|[(ab-be+be~ed)] = m | (ab-ed) = abzcd (mod m). Hence the relation is a congruence relation on (Z, +) EXAMPLE 5.24 ; Let F (A) be the free semigroup on a set A. Define w R vif v and v have the same length. We no! that (i) wR uw because w has same length as uw. (ii) fw R v, then w and v have same length=> v and u have same length=>v Ru. a. _ad ‘Scanned with CamScannerAlgebraic Structures EE 199 [fw Rvand v Rw, th , then wand v ha so wand w have sa dy heve ame feneth and ale seme length tha is Re so v and w have same length and (iii) ence Ris an equivalence relation. Further, let v R v and w Rv, Thi , va u’ Rv’. Then, 1 (u)=1(v) and I (w)=1("). ‘Then T(wi’)=1(w)=m-+n, that is I(ua’)=1(v") => uu! Rw’ ence, R is a congruence relation on F=F (A). EXAMPLE 5.25 Lat (Z, +) be the semigroup of integers and let f=" aR bifand only iff@=fO). quivalence relation, Further we note f _ 2, Let R be a relation defined on Zby that Itcan be shown that Ris ane (2)=0 and so-1 R2, (3)=4 and so-2R3. But f-3)=10 and f(5)=18, and so -3 RS. Hence R is not a congruence relation- 5.6 EQUIVALENCE CLASSES it will partition S into equivalence classes. Let R denote the set of all equivalence classes, IfR is an equivalence relation {a} be the equivalence class containiné ait suhere R is congruence relation. ivalence clas We define an operation # 0M the equi [a] [6] =[4 «b), ‘on the semigroup (Ss in Sand let si ses SIR by abeS fined by that, 2: SIR SIR SIR is de (a). (= jo [bla + Ph Then we have the following theore™ +). Then a SIRXSIR SIR defined by roup (Ss y.a,beS ayo (o)=tae semigrouP> ‘Scanned with CamScanner Theorem 5.7 Let be a congruence relation on 1° semigi e((a), (ODE mand (SIR, a) is is , binary operation on S/200m Discrete Mathematics Proof, Suppose that ({a}, (6])=(Ca'}, (6')). Then a Ra’ and RB’, Since R is congruence rg this implies a « b Ra’ + bt. Thus. [a « 6]=[a’ « B', that is, % is a well-defined function. Heneg binary operation on S/R. lati Bis, Further, we note that [a] % ({b] ® [c]) =[a] # [b « c] (by definition of ®) =[a + (b «c)] (by definition of ®) [(a + b) « ¢] (associativity of + in S) = [a + b] % [c] (by definition of %) = ({a] # [b]) & [c] (by definition of #). Hence % is an associative operation. This implies that (S/R, %) is a semigroup. The operation % is called quotient binary relation on S/R constructed from the given binary relation + on S by the congruence relation R. ‘The semigroup (S/R, ®) is called Quotient Semigroup or Factor Semigroup or the Quotient ef Sby R. | Theorem 5.8 Let R be the congruence relation on the monoid (S, ), then (S/R, %) is a monoid. Proof. We have shown above that (S/R, ) is a semigroup. Further, if e is an identity clement a (S, «), then [e] is the identity in (S/R, #8). Thus, (S/R, %) is semigroup having identity element [] ai so is a monoid. EXAMPLE 5.26 Let (Z, +) be semigroup of integers. We have already shown that the relation R defined on Z by aR b if and only if a= (mod m) is a congruence relation. Let us take, for example, m=5. Then we note that -5, 0, 5, 10, 15, ..}= are the equivalence classes that form the quotient set Z/=(mod 5).. : We denote the quotient set Z/ = (mod m) by Z,, or by Z/mZ. Also, by the above theo Z/=(mod m) or Z,, is a monoid under operation ® with identity [0]. We note that for addition operation ®, we have {a} ®[]=[a+5]=[1, is the remainder when a+b is divided by m. ‘Thus, for example, in Z,, we have whet [0] @[1]=[041) MO 2]=[142 HOB)=[1+3 ‘Scanned with CamScannerAlgebraic Structures 207 (@[4]=[1+4]=[5]=[0], [2]©[3]=[2+3]=[5]=[0], (21 [4]=[2+4]=[6]=[1] ‘Thus, the addition table for the semigroup Z, with operation ® becomes Remark 5.3 It is clear that Z,, has m equivalence classes (0), (1), (2), «.-, fw]. Further, Z/mZ, is represented by ZimZ={n-+mZ, ne Z} = { 0+mZ, 1+mZ,2+m2Z, ... (m=1)+mZ }. Ithas m elements which correspond to ([0], [1], ---» [™-1]). ‘Thus, it follows that there is no essential difference between Z,, and Z/mZ, and so, they can be used interchangeably. ‘The next theorem shows that to each element a in a semigroup, we can assign its equivalence cass (a). Theorem 5.9 LetR be a congruence relation on a semigroup (S, +) and let (S/R, ®) be the corresponding quotient semigroup. Then the mapping 6: S—»S/R (called the natural mapping) defined by (a)=[4] is an ‘onto homomorphism, known as Natural homomorphism. Proof. According to definition of 6, to each [a] in S/R, there is @ € S such that 6 (a)= surjective. Now let a, b € S. Then, 6 (a « b)=[a # b]=[a] ® [b]=9 (a) #6 (6). ]. Hence 6 is Hence @ is homomorphism onto. Teorem 5.10 (Fundamental Theorem of Semigroup Hornomorphism) Lt: $47 be a homomorphism of the semigroup (S, +) onto th telation on S defined by migroup (7, *’). Let R be the aR biff(a)=f(d) fora, be S. Then, () Risa congruence relation on S, liegt (8 21s isomorphic to (7, «. Tis not onto, then (ii) shall be “S/R is isomorphic 10 f(S ho ‘Scanned with CamScanner202m __ Discrete Mathematics Proof. First we show that R is an equivalence relation. We note that (i) Since f(a)=/(a), we have a Ra. (ii), a Rb, then f(a)=f(d) or f()=f(a) and hence b Ra. (iii) aR band b Re, then f(a)=f(b) and f(b)=f() and hence L@=fO and so a Rc. Thus, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive and so an equivalence rela. Suppose now that aRa’ and BRO. Then, S(a=f(a’) and f()=f(0). Since fis homomorphism, Slax b)=f(@) ¥ FO=LA) ¥ fO)=Sa' * 6). Hence, (a#b)R(a’ #b’) and so R is a congruence relation. Define y: SIR->T by y ({a])=f (a). We claim that y is well defined. Suppose [a]=[6). ™ mapping y will be well defined if f (a)=f (b). Now [a]=[b] implies a R b, that is, f (a)=f (6). He y is a function (well defined). Further, if [a], [5] € S/R, then y ((a] # [5)=y (a+ b)),a,be S =f(a* b)=f(@) *’ f(b), because fis homomorphism = vla] +’ y{b)- So y is semigroup homomorphism. Also, v(lal=v ()>f@=f(b) =aRb = [a]=[6] and so y is one-one. Thus, yas a map, is bijective and homomorphism. Hence y is an isomorphism and SR * Remark 5.4 We have proved that the mapping $: S—>S/R is natural homomorphism. Also. 88 P°™ that the mapping y: S/R — Tis an isomorphism. Thus, di m of the situation becomes: se g oe ‘Scanned with CamScannerAlgebraic Structures mi 203 Also. WE note that (YOM @=¥(a)=v (a)=F(a) forall ac $ Hence, Wog=f 57 DIRECT PRODUCT OF SEMIGROUPS Let(S, +) and (7, +’) be two semigroups. Consider the Cartesian product Sx. Define a binary opera- tion #” on SXT by (Si) *” (Sy Q)=(5,4 55 ty"). Inwhat follows, we prove that (Sx 7, *”) is a semigroup, Theorem 5.11 Lat(S, #) and (T, +’) be semigroups. Then (Sx, +”) is a semigroup under the binary operation +” defined by (55 t)) #” By Q)=(5¥ Sy tye" 1) Proof, If(s,,t,), (Sy, ty) and (sy, t,) € SX, then UUs. t,) #” (Sf) 1 4" (Sy =e Sy tye) #” (5y 4) = ((5,#5,) # 5y (G41) #4) 5, (sy 5st)” (tye) = (5,5) #” (64 5y tye") = (54) #" [Sy 4) #” Sy) Hence +” is associative and so (Sx, *”) is a semigroup. Corollary 5.2 I(S, «) and (7, «’) are monoids, then (Sx T, *”) is also a monoid. Proof. We have proved above that (SX, *”) is a semigroup. We further note that if ¢, is identity of (S,»)and e, is identity of (7, +’), then for (s,, t,) € 5x7, we have (ep) # y= 4 8p er" W=Er 1D ‘nd (5.6) #” Cp CD=Oy* Ev he eda h)- Thus, | (51) #7 ep =p #” Gy MCA) | Sowing tha ; ~ 4) that is, (ST, +”) is a semigroup with identity | tee Bit Ce ¢,) is idemtty element of (S%7, that i and hence is a monoid. & ‘Scanned with CamScanner